141

THE EVIL EYE AS WITCHCRAFT TECHNIQUE

IN THE HEBREW BIBLE
ZAK KOTZÉ

Abstract

The evil eye is a most neglected topic in research on the ancient Israelite
language and religion. Despite the ubiquity of this belief in the ancient
Near East, some scholars still deny its existence in the Hebrew Bible.
This essay attempts to demonstrate that the malevolent eye is attested in
the language of the ancient Israelites. A cognitive linguistic analysis of
several figurative expressions in the wisdom literature reveals that these
were motivated by the conviction that the eye of certain people served as
a magical instrument of harm. Especially noteworthy is the fact that the
evil eye is ascribed to the black magician.

INTRODUCTION

The theory that the inhabitants of ancient Mesopotamia were much more
superstitious than the ancient Israelites is still widely held today (cf. Naveh &
Shaked 1993:20). Not surprisingly, the belief that certain people have the power
to cause harm to others by a mere look has received scant attention from
scholars of the Hebrew Bible. Several works are available on the nature of the
belief in the New Testament and the topic is well-known from post-biblical
literature (cf. Einszler 1889; Brav 1908; Jaussen 1924; Cadoux 1941-42; Smith
1941-42; Percy 1942-43; Cadbury 1954; Derrett 1995). The little that is known
about the malevolent eye in the Hebrew Bible, however, is summarized in
works by cultural anthropologists (cf. Seligmann 1910, 1922; Dundes 1981). It
may well be that there were editorial attempts to rid the Hebrew Bible of the
stigma of this belief (cf. Budge 1930:212). In the few instances where direct
reference is made to , its description does not fit the traditional

ISSN 1013-8471 Journal for Semitics 16/1 (2007) pp. 141-149

142 Zak Kotzé

definition.1 Its presence in the Hebrew Bible also seems to be limited to

references to amulets that were in common use in the ancient world.2
This article will argue that the belief, although not always explicitly
mentioned, is clearly present in the Hebrew Bible. With reference to a selection
of figurative expressions in the Psalms, Proverbs and Job it will be
demonstrated that the evil eye belief served as the basis for several linguistic
expressions in Classical Hebrew.3 A cognitive linguistic analysis4 of these
idioms will reveal that the ancient Israelites feared the eye as a magical organ of
destruction. In Wisdom the evil eye is usually associated with the warlock as
enemy.

THE EVIL EYE IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST AND

THE HEBREW BIBLE

The belief system of the evil eye is thought to have originated in the ancient
Near East (Murdock 1980:58). The earliest historical references date from the
third or fourth millennium BCE in Sumer (Dundes 1981:39). In these early texts
the evil eye is depicted as a roving independent entity that goes through the land
and causes destruction (cf. Ebeling 1949:203-209). Fear of the baleful eye
played a defining role in the origin and development of witchcraft in the ancient
Near East (Budge 1930:354). By the second millennium BCE the phenomenon

1
Cf. Deut 7:16, 15:9, 28:54, 56; Pr 23:6, 28:22.
2
The was worn by women (Is 3:18), kings (Jdg 8:26) and tied to the neck of
camels (Jdg 8:21) as protection against the evil eye (Budge 1930:213). Canticles 4:9
makes reference to a necklace ( ) that has a bewitching effect. It may also
have served as a protective device. The of Pr 17:8 may also have had
prophylactic qualities (cf. Yamauchi 1983:196).
3
Cf. Kotzé (2006) for an analysis of a conceptual metaphor for the evil eye in
Genesis.
4
For a cognitive linguistic methodology for the study of metaphor, see Kotzé (2005).
 The evil eye as witchcraft technique in the Hebrew Bible 143

was closely associated with the mage and an elaborate system of protective
magic was already in use. Priests made use of incantations and ritual to help
protect the innocent against ophthalmic attacks (cf. Ebeling 1949). These spells
demonstrate remarkable similarities with the psalms of lament in the Hebrew
Bible where the protection of YHWH is often invoked (cf. Dhorme 1949:267-
269).
It is commonly believed that the aspect of envy and jealousy is the most
important factor in the functioning of the evil eye belief in all cultures (cf.
Spooner 1976; Stein 1976). In the wisdom literature of the Hebrew Bible,
however, the evil eye is brought into direct relation with the practice of magic.
Budge (1930:358) lists Psalm 141:4 as a reference to the evil eye. The relation
with witchcraft is evident:

Do not incline my heart to any evil word

To do harm with the wizard,
With men that work vice.

The sorcerer, to whom the evil eye is mostly ascribed in the wisdom literature,
is commonly referred to with the designations and , both used in
the text quoted above (cf. Mowinckel 1919:2-4). In several instances figurative
expressions for the evil eye are listed together with other gestures that were
employed by the magi of the ancient world.

THE EVIL EYE AND WITCHCRAFT IN WISDOM

In the wisdom literature of the Hebrew Bible the evil eye is commonly referred
to by means of idiomatic expressions that can best be regarded as references to
144 Zak Kotzé

the act of glaring. Notable in this regard is the combination that

occurs in texts influenced by the Mesopotamian omen tradition (cf. Bryce
1975). The meaning of the obscure has stimulated much debate. Mostly it
is argued that the root refers to the act of pinching on the basis that it is used
with clay as object in Job 33:6.5 When used in combination with the eye the root
is taken to denote winking. This has misled interpreters into believing that the
idiom refers to some hidden sign between conspirators (Frankenberg 1898:47;
McKane 1970:325; Whybray 1972:39; Beaucamp 1976:159; Ringgren,
Zimmerli & Kaiser 1981:47; Hossfeld & Zenger 1993:222; Clifford 1999:114).
Fox (2000:220) has argued, however, that the combination rather denotes
the act of squinting. This finds support in the fact that the Akkadian
etymological counterpart of originally also referred to glaring.6 In the
ancient world it was believed that the eye was a source of power from which
emanated some substance that settled on the object seen (Gravel 1995:5). This
matter, projected by some people, had the potential to cause harm to other
persons or objects. It may be that the squeezing or narrowing of the eye in the
act of glaring was thought to have a stinging effect. Gershenson (1996:192-200)
has demonstrated that the noun of the root means “stinging insect.” The
related verb in Arabic also refers to the sting of an insect. This sense provides
the key for an understanding of the combination in Proverbs 10:10:

Scowling causes a wound

And the lips of the enchanter bring to a fall.

There can be no doubt that the above dictum refers to the baleful eye. The

5
Cf. Brown, Driver & Briggs (1906:902); Holladay (1971:326); Harman (1997:994).
6
Cf. CAD 16. 96, 8. 355, 209-210.
7
According to Mowinckel (1919:2) can be regarded as a synonym for
as reference to the black magician in ancient Israel.
 The evil eye as witchcraft technique in the Hebrew Bible 145

second part of the saying brings the act of squinting into direct relation with the
warlock who also causes destruction with his lips. In a parallel maxim in
Proverbs 6:13 the locution also stands in the context of gesticulations
employed by the magician (8 ) to add force to his evil spells. These
actions have been interpreted as sign language between schemers (Frankenberg
1898:47; Whybray 1972:39; Garrett 1993:97; Tuinstra 1996:161; Perdue
2000:126). Bryce (1975:31-32) interprets the stamping of feet and pointing with
the finger as nonverbal expressions of aggression. Mowinckel (1919:24)
suggests that they served as magical gestures accompanying the chants that
were used to fabricate evil:

A magus is the man of destruction, who walks with a crooked

mouth
He glares, stamps with his feet and makes signs with his fingers
With perversity in his heart he always fabricates evil

The expression in Proverbs 16:30 also seems to refer to the act of

squinting in the context of the evil eye as witchcraft technique. The Arabic
equivalent of the root , which occurs only here, refers to the wrinkling of
9
the eyelids. Bryce (1975:27) argues that the original word was “to close,
make firm.” The Septuagint, however, renders the phrase “he who fixes his
eyes.”10 This interpretation is supported by the parallel use of this verb with
in the second stichos, where it is used with the lips as subject. These acts
are ascribed to the violent man11 and clearly functions as acts of black magic:

8
Cf. Mowinckel (1919:4).
9
KBL s.v. .
10
Cf. Turner (1978:31-32).
11
(v. 29). This designation forms part of Mowinckel’s (1919:2) list of
Classical Hebrew synonyms for the mage.
146 Zak Kotzé

He fixes his eyes to devise evil,

Pursing his lips he brings about suffering.

The significance of the familiar idiom in Psalm 35:19 has gone

unrecognized by most interpreters. Admitting ignorance with regard to its exact
sense, most commentators support the prevailing view that it designates some
gesture used between machinators (Gunkel 1926:149; Van Uchelen 1971:236;
Van der Ploeg 1973:228). As in the Proverbs texts quoted above, however, the
combination refers to the evil eye of some enemy:

Those who hate me without cause cast their evil eye on me.

The hapax verb in Job 15:12 has been brought into relation with the root
(cf. Welte 1949:158; Kissane 1939:91). In this chapter Eliphaz argues that
Job brought evil on himself by becoming a villain. In a rhetorical question
loaded with implication, he asks why Job scowls. Predictably, commentators
have interpreted this gesture as an expression of rage (Clines 1989:342),
arrogance (Horst 1968:225) or even loss of perceptiveness (Pope 1965:116). As
a parallel for the more common , however, the expression has its basis
in the ancient Israelite belief in the evil eye:

Why do you have the baleful eye?

In his response in chapter 16:9, Job insists that he is the victim of the
malevolent eye of his enemies rather than the perpetrator. Those who hate him
sharpen ( ) their eyes against him. This idiom is commonly interpreted as a
reference to the innate expression of anger in the face (Hartley 1988:260; Clines
1989:382; Kruger 2000:190). However, it stands next to another gesture
commonly employed by black magicians, namely the gnashing of teeth. It
 The evil eye as witchcraft technique in the Hebrew Bible 147

therefore seems to function as an allusion to the feared malefic eye of Job’s

enemy:

Those who hate me gnash their teeth against me,

My enemy sharpens his eyes.

In all the texts quoted above the malevolent eye is presented as a witchcraft
technique. The aspect of envy hardly seems to figure and the fiendish character
of the possessor seems to be the point of focus. This is highlighted by the fact
that the victim of the evil eye can be the poor.12

CONCLUSION

The evil eye seems to be a common theme in the wisdom literature of the
Hebrew Bible. Figurative expressions for the act of glaring present the eye as a
magical organ with the power to do harm. In the Hebrew Bible the evil eye is
most commonly encountered as a witchcraft technique that was used in
combination with other magical gestures. The act is usually condemned and the
corrupt nature of the possessor accentuated.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beaucamp, E. (1976) Le Psautier. Ps 1-72. Paris: Librairie Lecoffre. (SBi).
Brav, A. (1908) The evil eye among the Hebrews. Ophthalmology 5:427-453.
Brown, F., Driver, S. & Briggs, C. (1906) The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and
English Lexicon: With an appendix containing the biblical Aramaic (1996
reprint). Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson.
Bryce, G.E. (1975) Omen-Wisdom in ancient Israel. JBL 94:19-37.

12
Cf. Deut 15:9.
148 Zak Kotzé

Budge, E.A.W. (1930) Amulets and superstitions. New York: Dover.

Cadbury, H.J. (1954) The single eye. HThR 47:69-74.
Cadoux, C.J. (1941-42) The evil eye. ET 53:354-355.
Clifford, R.J. (1999) Proverbs. A commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox.
(OTL).
Derrett, J.D.M. (1995) The evil eye in the New Testament, in Esler (ed) 1995:65-72.
Dhorme, E 1949. Les Religions de Babylonie et d’Assyrie. Paris: Presses Universitaires
de France. (ARO 2).
Dundes, A (ed) 1981. The evil eye: a folklore casebook. New York: Garland. (Garland
Folklore Casebooks 2).
Ebeling, E 1949. Beschwörungen gegen den Feind und den bösen Blick aus dem
Zweistromlande. ArOr 17/1, 172-211.
Einszler, L 1889. Das böse Auge. ZDPV 12, 200-222.
Esler, P.F. (ed) (1995) Modelling early Christianity. London: Routledge.
Fox, M.V. (2000) Proverbs 1-9. New York: Doubleday. (AncB).
Frankenberg, W. (1898) Die Sprüche. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. (HK).
Garrett, D.A. (1993) Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs. Nashville: Broadman. (The
New American Commentary 14).
Gershenson, D.E. (1996) A Greek myth in Jeremiah. ZAW 108:192-200.
Gravel, P.B. (1995) The malevolent eye: an essay on the evil eye, fertility and the
concept of Mana. New York: Peter Lang. (AmUSt Ser. 11, Anthropology and
Sociology, Vol. 64).
Gunkel, H. (1926) Die Psalmen. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. (HK).
Harman, A.M. (1997) , in VanGemeren, W A (ed), New International Dictionary
of Old Testament theology and exegesis 3, 994.
Hartley, J.E. (1988) The Book of Job. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm B Eerdmans.
(NIC).
Horst, F. (1968) Hiob (3. Auflage 1974). Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag. (BK
16/1).
Hossfeld, F-L., & Zenger, E. (1993) Die Psalmen I. Psalm 1-50. Würzburg: Echter
Verlag. (NEB).
Jaussen, J-A. (1924) Le Mauvais Oeil. RB 33:396-407.
Kissane, E.J. (1939) The Book of Job. Dublin: Browne and Nolan.
Köhler, L., & Baumgartner, W. (1958) Lexicon in veteris testamenti libros. Leiden: E. J.
Brill.
Kotzé, Z. (2005) A cognitive linguistic methodology for the study of metaphor in the
Hebrew Bible. JNSL 31/2:107-117.
Kotzé, Z. (2006) Laban’s evil eye: a cognitive linguistic interpretation of
in Gn 31:35. OTE 19/3:1215-1224.
Kruger, P.A. (2000) A cognitive interpretation of the emotion of anger in the Hebrew
Bible. JNWSL 26/1:181-193.
McKane, W. (1970) Proverbs. A new approach. London: SCM Press. (OTL).
Mowinckel, S. (1919) Psalmstudien. Buch I-II. Amsterdam: P. Schippers.
Murdock, G.P. (1980) Theories of illness. A world survey. Pittsburgh: University of
 The evil eye as witchcraft technique in the Hebrew Bible 149

Pittsburgh Press.
Naveh, J., & Shaked, S. (1993) Magic spells and formulae: Aramaic incantations of
Late Antiquity. Jerusalem: Magnes.
Percy, J.D. (1942-43). An evil eye. ET 54:26-27.
Perdue, L.G. (2000) Proverbs. Louisville: John Knox. (Interpretation. A Bible
Commentary for Teaching and Preaching).
Pope, M.H. (1965) Job. Introduction, translation, and notes (3rd ed. 1985). New York:
Doubleday. (AncB).
Ringgren, H., Zimmerli, W. & Kaiser, O. (1981) Sprüche, Prediger, Das Hohe Lied,
Klagelieder, Das Buch Esther. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. (ATD
16).
Seligmann, S. (1910) Der böse Blick und Verwandtes: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des
Aberglaubens aller Zeiten und Völker. Berlin: Barsdorf.
Seligmann, S. (1922) Die Zauberkraft des Auges und das Berufen : ein Kapitel aus der
Geschichte des Aberglaubens. Hamburg: Friederichsen.
Smith, C.R. (1941-42) “An evil eye” (Mk 7:22). ET 53:181-182.
Spooner, B. (1976) The evil eye in the Middle East, in Maloney 1976:76-84.
Stein, H.F. (1976) Envy and the evil eye: an essay in the psychological ontogeny of
belief and ritual, in Maloney 1976:193-222.
Tuinstra, E.W. (1996) Spreuken. Deel 1. Baarn: G F Callenbach. (De Prediking van het
Oude Testament).
Turner, P.D.M. (1978) Two Septuagintalisms with STHRIZEIN. VT 28/4:31-32.
Van der Ploeg, J.P.M. (1973) Psamlen. Deel 1. Roermond: J J Romen & Zonen. (BOT).
Van Uchelen, N.A. (1971) Psalmen. Deel 1. Nijkerk: G F Callenbach. (De Prediking
van het Oude Testament).
Welte, B. (1849) Das Buch Job. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder’sche Verlagshandlung.
Whybray, R.N. (1972) The Book of Proverbs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(CNEB).
Yamauchi, E.M. (1983) Magic in the biblical world. TynB 34:169-200.

Dr. Zak Kotze

Kontrakwerk
Departement van Ou Testament en Ou Nabye Oosterse Studies
Universiteit van Suid-Afrika
P.O. Box 2099
Faerie Glen
0043
E-mail: kotzez@unisa.ac.za