Professional Documents
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Benha University
Research Article
in fulfillment of the requirements of
Department Surveying Engineering Department
Division
Academic Year Second Year Surveying
Course name Highway, Railway and Tunnels
Course code SUR221
Approved by:
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Benha University
Faculty of Engineering - Shoubra
Academic year 2019-2020
Table of Contents
Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
2. Highway Design Elements and Considerations ....................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Vehicle design and characteristics ................................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Design speed ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3. Topography and Nature of Terrain ................................................................................................................. 7
2.4. Economic Considerations ................................................................................................................................. 7
2.5. Traffic capacity .................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.6. Traffic Data........................................................................................................................................................ 7
2.7. Safety .................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.8. Environmental and Human factors ................................................................................................................. 7
2.9. Aesthetics ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
2.1. Vehicle Design and Characteristics ................................................................................................................. 7
2.2. Design speed ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.3. Topography and Nature of Terrain ................................................................................................................. 8
2.4. Economic Considerations ................................................................................................................................. 8
2.5. Traffic Capacity................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.5.1. Basic Capacity ........................................................................................................................................... 9
2.5.2. Possible Capacity ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.5.3. Practical Capacity..................................................................................................................................... 9
Design Capacity .......................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.6. Traffic Data...................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.6.1. Traffic Volume ........................................................................................................................................ 10
2.6.2. Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) ................................................................................................ 10
2.6.3. Design Hourly Volume (DHV) ............................................................................................................... 10
2.6.4. Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)......................................................................................... 10
2.6.5. Average Weekday Traffic (AWT) ......................................................................................................... 10
Passenger Car Unit (PCU) ....................................................................................................................................... 10
2.7. Safety ................................................................................................................................................................ 11
2.8. Environmental and Human factors ............................................................................................................... 11
2.9. Aesthetics ......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Traffic Volume Forecasting ......................................................................................................................................... 11
3. Traffic Engineering .................................................................................................................................................. 12
3.1. Level of Service (LOS) .................................................................................................................................... 12
3.2. Traffic Characteristics .................................................................................................................................... 12
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Benha University
Faculty of Engineering - Shoubra
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Benha University
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List of Figures
Figure ID. Description Page
3-1 Pavement Markings 14
3-2 Traffic Signs 14
3-3 Traffic Signals 14
3-4 Traffic Markers 14
4-1 Basic & Dual-Purpose Weaving section 15
4-2 Single & Double Lane Width 15
4-3 Highway Cross-Section Elements 16
4-4 Car Maintenance at Shoulder 16
4-5 Median 16
4-6 Types of Camber 17
4-7 Types of Curbs 17
4-8 Curb and Gutter 17
4-9 Side Walks 18
4-10 Side Slope 18
4-11 Parallel Parking Lane 18
4-12 Reaction and Brake Distances of SSD 19
4-13 Passing Sight Distance 20
4-14 Simple, Compound, Broken Back and Reversed Curves 21
4-15 Simple Horizontal Curve 21
4-16 Degree of Curve 21
4-17 Transition Curve 22
4-18 Superelevation 23
4-19 Extra Widening of Horizontal Curve 23
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Benha University
Faculty of Engineering - Shoubra
Academic year 2019-2020
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Benha University
Faculty of Engineering - Shoubra
Academic year 2019-2020
Abstract
This research article mainly talks about highway geometric design, which includes pre-
design operations such as determining the number of lanes, determining road width,
horizontal alignments, vertical alignments, radius of curvature, intersections ... etc.
article also covers transportation engineering and some of its factors, the design
elements such as the speed of design, the nature of the terrain on which the highway is
located, and safety factors, and some other factors that achieve the highest levels of
service and safety for the user experience
1. Introduction
The Geometrical design of the highways deals with the nature of the visible dimensions
and the setting of the visible features of the highway. The focus of geometric design is
to meet the requirements of the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency,
smooth-flowing, and crash-free facility…etc. The features generally considered are
elements of cross-section, sight distance, horizontal and vertical alignments, gradients,
intersections, bicycle, and pedestrian lanes. The design of these features depends greatly
on driver behavior, the characteristics of the vehicle, and traffic characteristics such as
speed and size. The right geometric design will help reduce the severity of accidents.
Hence, the goal of the geometric design is to ensure and provide optimum efficiency in
the operation of traffic and maximum safety at an economic cost. We mean here to
reduce costs and improve the quality and function of the highway. The main components
to be discussed are:
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Benha University
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TABLE 2-1: DESIGN VEHICLE DIMENSIONS (Egyptian Code of Practice for Roads)
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Benha University
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Design Capacity
The practical value of capacity of geometric design
𝑽
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑺
where :
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2.7. Safety
With an increasing number of accidents every year, attention should be paid to road
safety, which has been a very neglected area of design. it is the designer's responsibility
to ensure that the road environment is as safe as possible.
2.9. Aesthetics
highway design aesthetics is the art of locating and integrating roads into the
environment for people to use and enjoy. it is a combination of function and beauty.
The product is necessary to match the visual appearance of existing facilities, so that the
aesthetics of the region are not affected.
where:
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3. Traffic Engineering
3.1. Level of Service (LOS)
a concept to associate traffic quality
with a certain rate of flow.
• Traffic restrictions
• Freedom to maneuver
Table 3-1
Vehicle weight is Important for the determination of pavement depth and max grades.
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A width of 3.65 m for smooth flow is considered ideal. The capacity will be reduced to
25% by smaller widths than this.
• Lateral Clearance
Lateral Obstructions such as road signs, parked cars and light poles works as abutments,
but if they are located nearer than 1.83 meters from the edge of a traffic lane, capacity
decreases.
• Shoulders
• Horizontal Alignment
Sharp curves and restrictive sight distances also reduce the lane efficiency.
• Gradient
Gradients affect vehicles' speed, specially trucks, and have a negative effect on capacity.
• Traffic Composition
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Multilane, two-direction roads Two-direction roads with a center Two-lane, two-direction roads
turn lane with some passing
Stay on your own side of the double
yellow line that's down the center You can cross a solid yellow line on When the solid yellow line is on
of the road. If you need to pass your side of the road to get into the your side of the road, you can’t
another vehicle, do so using lanes center left-turn lane. cross it to pass. On the other side,
on your own side of the yellow. you can if it’s safe to do so.
Figure 3-1
50
Figure 3-2
Traffic Markers
Figure 3-3
Figure 3-4
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4. Geometric Design
Geometric Design of Highways is the design of the visible layout of Highway features
as horizontal and vertical alignment, cross-sections, intersections, bike and pedestrian
lanes. The main purpose of geometric design is to produce a road that operates safely,
effectively and economically while preserving its aesthetics and environment.
Uses of Shoulders:
• parking area.
• Suitable space for fixing signs.
• Reducing accident.
Usage of Medians:
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4.2.4. Camber
Camber is the gradient provided to raise center of the road surface in the width direction
to drain the rainwater from the road. the Too steep slope will erode the surface, so it is
unwanted. The common types of camber are parabolic, straight, or combination of them.
Usage of Camber:
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𝑑1 = 0.278 × 𝑉 × 𝑇
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Figure 4-12: Reaction and Brake Distances of SSD
V= vehicle Speed.
Speed(v) 50 65 80 100
T= reaction time. Reaction Time (T) 3 2.75 2.5 2
Table 4-2: Vehicle Speed and Reaction Time of SSD
𝑉2
𝑑2 =
254 × 𝑓
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𝑉2
∴ 𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 0.278 × 𝑉 × 𝑇 +
254 × (𝑓 ± 𝑔)
• Reaction time distance and during initial acceleration to the passing lane.
𝑑3 = 0.278 𝑉 × 𝑡
∴ 𝑃𝑆𝐷 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑆𝐷 = 3 × 𝑃𝑆𝐷
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑆𝐷 = 5 × 𝑃𝑆𝐷
Figure 4-13: Passing Sight Distance
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2𝜋𝑅 30 1720
= ∴𝑅=
360 𝐷 𝐷
where
𝐷: Degree of Curve
𝑅: Radius of Curve
Figure 4-16: Degree of Curve
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• Super-elevation ratio.
• Design speed.
• Stopping sight distance.
• Distance between curves.
• Pavement friction coefficient.
• Centrifugal ratio.
𝟕𝟑
𝑪 =
𝑽 + 𝟔𝟒
𝑽𝟑
𝑳𝒔 =
𝟒𝟔. 𝟓 𝑪𝑹
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑳𝒔 : Spiral length
Figure 4-17: Transition Curve
𝑪: Centrifugal acceleration ratio
𝑽: Vehicle speed (km/hr.)
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4.4.3. Superelevation
centrifugal force (the outward pull) of curves which may cause vehicle turning.
Superelevation and side friction are making the vehicle stable on the curve.
Superelvation is the Elevation on the surface of the road when moving from the inside
of the road to the outside.
𝑽𝟐
𝒆+𝒇 =
𝟏𝟐𝟕 × 𝑹
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝒇: friction force factor (neglected).
𝑽:Vehicle speed.
𝑹: Curve Radius.
𝑛𝐿2 𝑉
𝑊𝑒 = +
2𝑅 9.5√𝑅
Where
𝑛= number of lanes.
V= design speed.
Figure 4-19: Extra Widening of Horizontal Curve
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Figure 4-21: Sag or Valley Curve Figure 4-22: Crust or Summit Curve
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Symbol Name
PVC Point of vertical curvature
PVT Point of vertical tangency
PVI Point of vertical intersection
L Horizontal length of vertical curve
G1 Tangent grade (location of PVC)
G2 Tangent grade (location of PVT)
G Algebraic difference between G1 and G2
M Mid-point between PVC and PVT
C Mid-point of Vertical Curve
Table 4-3: Elements of Vertical Alignment
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𝑳
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆(𝑨) = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆(𝑽)–
𝟐
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆(𝑩) = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆(𝑨) + 𝑳
𝑳
𝑯𝑨 = 𝑯𝑽 + 𝒈𝟏 ×
𝟐
𝑳
𝑯𝑩 = 𝑯𝑽 − 𝒈𝟐 ×
𝟐
𝑯𝑨 + 𝑯𝑩
𝑯𝑬 =
𝟐
𝑯𝑬 + 𝑯𝑽
𝑯𝑪 =
𝟐
𝑪𝑽 = 𝑯𝑪 − 𝑯𝑽
𝑯𝑻 = 𝑯𝑨 ± 𝒈𝟏 𝑿𝒑
𝑮
𝒉𝒑 = × 𝑿𝒑 𝟐
𝟐𝑳
𝑮𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒎𝒊𝒕 = 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒈𝟏
𝑮𝒔𝒂𝒈 = 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒈𝟏
𝑳𝒈𝟏
𝑿𝒑 =
𝑮
𝒀𝒑 = 𝑯𝑨 ± 𝒈𝟏 𝑿𝒑 ± 𝒉𝒑
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4.6. Intersection
Intersection is an area where two or more highways join or separate, so the vehicles
move to various directions to reach their desired directions. highway intersections are
complex locations. The flow of traffic relies on intersection efficiency. it also influences
the highway's capability. efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity of the
facility depend on Intersections design which are an important part of a highway system.
The three main types of Intersections are:
• at-grade intersections
Same and connected vertical level joining or separating the highway.
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• interchanges.
• Acceleration Lanes
acceleration lanes allow cars entering the main road to speed up to suit the traffic flow.
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• Deceleration lanes
Deceleration lanes allow traffic leaving the main road to slow down to a safer speed to
turn at the intersection without impacting with the main traffic flow.
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References
1. “Civil Engineering - Transportation Engineering I.” NPTEL, National Program on Technology Enhanced
Learning, nptel.ac.in/courses/105101087/ .
Transportation, www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/design/dqab/hdm.
4. AASHTO, 2018. “Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.” 7th ed.
5. “A Guide on Geometric Design of Road.” Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM): JKR.
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