Bending Stresses in Beams

CE 1812 Mechanics of Materials

February 2020
Lecture by: Mr.P.Vishnu

1 Bending Stresses in Beam

1.1 Introduction

Bending moments and shear forces are developed in a beam when it is subjected to transverse
loading. Transverse loading is also referred to as flexural loads due to the action of bending
resulting from it.

When a beam is subjected to bending hogging moment, material within the top portion of
the beam will stretch causing tension, and bottom portion will compress causing compression
in that portion.

There is a surface between these two regions (of tension and compression) where the material
will not undergo any deformation. The surface formed by these unstressed fibres is called
the neutral surface. The line of intersection formed by the neutral surface with any cross
section of the beam is called the neutral axis of that section.
1.2 Simple theory of bending

1.2.1 Introduction

Simple theory of bending is applicable to:

1. beams subjected to pure bending

2. beams bending about principal axis

1.2.2 Assumptions

1. Material is homogeneous and linear elastic and it has the same modulus of
elasticity in compression and tension.

2. Transverse sections of the beam (originally plane) remain plane and normal to
the longitudinal axis of the beam.

Note 1. This is strictly true under pure bending only. Presence of shear
forces will violate this. However under typical sections and loading on
beams the effect of shear can be neglected.

3. Any deformation of the cross-section within its own plane is negligible.

Note 2. In reality this condition is violated due to the poisson effect. For
materials with low poisson ratios (e.g. steel, concrete) the effects shall be
neglected.

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1.2.3 Derivation of simple theory of bending

Bending stress (σ)

Consider a small element of length δx in a beam subjected to a hogging bending moment

of M .

Let R be the radius of curvature of the neutral surface, along the segment of length δx. R
can vary along the beam, but can be taken as constant for any small length.
Measuring y upward from the neutral surface (in the direction of the displacement due to
hogging moment) longitudinal strain in fibre EF at a distance y from neutral axis (N A) is
given by:

E 0 F 0 − EF
strain =  =
EF
(R + y)δθ − Rδθ (1)
=
Rδθ
y
=
R

Note 3. The above is the longitudinal strain (x ) and it varies linearly with
distance from neutral axis.

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Considering linear elastic material behaviour;

longitudinal stress = σ = E (2)

from Eq. (1) and Eq. (2);

σ E
= (A)
y R

Note 4. If the algebraic value of y is used the stress and strain vary linearly from
compression on one side through zero at the neutral surface, to tension on the
other side.

Note 5. For hogging bending moment, tensile stresses are developed at the top
surface and compressive stresses at the bottom; while for sagging bending mo-
ment tensile stresses at the bottom and compressive stresses at the top.

Note 6. For any strip of area at a given cross-section which is parallel to the
neutral axis (e.g. PQ), the longitudinal stain and the corresponding longitudi-
nal stress at every point on the strip is constant.

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Neutral axis and the centroid of the section

Consider an elemental area δA at a distance y from neutral axis O − z

E
stresses on area δA = σ = y (3)
R
E
force on area δA = σδA = yδA (4)
R
Z
Resultant normal force over A = σdA
ZA
E
= ydA
A ZR (5)
E
= ydA
R A
E
= Aȳ
R

R
Note that A ydA = Aȳ is the definition of the centroid, where ȳ is the distance to the
centroid from the neutral axis (∵ y is measured from the neutral axis).

By considering the horizontal equilibrium, net longitudinal force due to the bending stresses
is zero (i.e. the member is not subjected to any axial loading).

E
Aȳ = 0 ⇒ ȳ = 0 (6)
R
∴ The neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross-sectional area at
every section.

Note 7. The neutral axis is also referred to as axis of bending; i.e. the axis about
which the section is going to bend.

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Resultant internal moment

Although the resultant force at the section is zero, there is a resultant internal moment at
the section. It is resisted by longitudinal stresses setup in the beam.

Consider an elemental area δA at a distance y from neutral axis O − z

moment of forces on element about NA = (σδA)y (7)

Z
resultant moment of section about NA = σydA
ZA
Ey
= ydA
A ZR (8)
E
= y 2 dA
R A
E
= Izz
R

R
Note that A y 2 dA = Izz is the definition of the second moment of area, where z − z axis is
along the neutral axis.

Since the resultant moment calculated above should be equal to the bending moment at the
section;
E
M = Izz (9)
R
reordering;
M E
= (B)
I R

from Eq. (A) and Eq. (B);

M σ E
= = (C)
I y R

This is the simple bending formula.

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Axis of bending and principal axis

Let us consider the resultant moment from longitudinal bending stresses about the O − y
axis.

moment of forces on element about O − y = (σδA)z (10)

Z
resultant moment of section about O − y = σzdA
ZA
Ey
= zdA (11)
A ZR
E E
= yzdA = Izy
R A R

Since there is no internal bending moment about y axis;

E
Izy = 0 (12)
R
since E, 1/R 6= 0;
⇒ Izy = 0 (13)

∴ O − y and O − z are principal axes

i.e. axis of bending (neutral axis) is a principal axis

Note 8. The simple bending formula can be applied only when applied moment
is about a centroidal principal axis.

in Summary

M σ E
= = (C)
I y R
!
1
⇒ M = EI (C’)
R

M = the resisting moment developed by the beam at a section

1/R = the curvature of the neutral surface of the deflected beam at that section
EI = flexural rigidity or bending stiffness of the section

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Note 9. In general bending moment is not constant and shear force is not equal
to zero. However, experimental data indicates that the simple bending formula
can be used with negligible error.

Note 10. Axis of bending moment is the axis about which the bending moment
is applied to the section. This axis passes thorough the centroid of the section.

Note 11. When the axis of bending moment is a principal axis then the axis of
bending moment become the neutral axis (or axis of bending).

Note 12. When the axis of bending moment is a non-principal axis then the
neutral axis (or axis of bending) is inclined to the axis of bending moment.

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1.3 Use of bending formula in design

1.3.1 Method 1: Elastic section modulus requirement

The distance from the centroid to the extreme fibres (c1 and c2 ) are properties of the section.
σallowable,tension and σallowable,compression are properties of the material (i.e. allowable stresses
of the material in tension and compression).

M σmax,tension I M
= ⇒ =
I c1 c1 σmax,tension
M
⇒ z1 = (14)
σmax,tension
M
⇒ σmax,tension =
Z1
Z1 is called elastic section modulus, and is a property of the section.

For the material at the section not to be over-stressed;

σmax,tension ≤ σallowable,tension
M (15)
⇒ ≤ σallowable,tension
Z1

M
∴ Z1 ≥ (D)
σallowable,tension

similarly;
I M
= Z2 ≥ (D’)
c2 σallowable,compression

This method is widely used in design of steel sections. Once the bending moment at the
critical section of the beam is calculated, the R.H.S. of eq. D is known. Then the designer
can look for a section with an elastic section modulus (Z1 ) satisfying eq. D (and D’).

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1.3.2 Method 2: Moment of resistance (MOR)

Moment of resistance (MOR) is the maximum moment a section could withstand without
its fibres being overstressed (i.e. without exceeding the maximum allowable stress). It is a
property of both the material and section of the beam, and does not depend on the external
loading system.

This method is used for composite sections (i.e. sections with more than one material - e.g.
reinforced concrete).

M
σ= y
I
force on element = σdA = σ(bdy)
Z c1
⇒ total tensile force T = σbdy (16)
0
and
Z 0
total compressive force C = σbdy
−c2

However, T = C for longitudinal equilibrium

∴ T and C form a couple, with a lever-arm of length ρ
Z c1
∴ MOR = σbydy = T ρ (E)
−c2

1.3.3 Method 3: Allowable stress method

This method is generally used for simple sections (e.g. rectangular) of single material (e.g.
timber). Here, σmax,developed is calculated and checked against the following criteria.

σmax,developed ≤ σallowable (F)

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1.4 Common structural sections

Maximum tensile or compressive stresses in a beam under bending is proportional to the

distance of the most remote fibres from the neutral axis. Hence, if the material has the
same strength in tension and compression, it is logical to choose shapes of cross-sections in
which centroid is at the mid-point of the depth of the beam. This is the underlying idea
in the choice of sections symmetrical with respect to the neutral axis, for materials such as
structural steel.

For materials of low strength in tension and high strength in compression (e.g. cast iron,
concrete) the best section is a non-symmetrical section with respect to the neutral axis such
that the distances c1 and c2 are in the same proportion as the strength of the material in
tension and compression.

For the above sections, if tension is at top;

M
σmax,tension = c1
I
and (17)
M
σmax,compression = c2
I

For the most economical section, both top and bottom should be stressed to their limit - i.e.
the section must be proportioned that the relationship in Eq. (18) is very nearly satisfied.

σallowable,tension c1
= (18)
σallowable,compression c2

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1.5 Equivalent section concept

In material (1), element at distance y1 from the neutral axis;

E1 y1 E1 y1
σ1 = ⇒∴ δF1 = bdy (19)
R R
In material (2), element at distance y2 from the neutral axis;

E2 y2 E2 y2
σ2 = ⇒∴ δF2 = bdy
R R (20)
E1 y2 E2
= bdy
R E1

In order to transform the composite beam to a beam made out of a single material, force
in each element of original beam should be equal to the corresponding element in the trans-
formed section. Then the moment of resistance of the composite beam is equal to the moment
of resistance of transformed section (equivalent section). I.e. we can transform a compos-
ite section to an equivalent section in material (1) by modifying the width of the section
belonging to material (2) by (E2 /E1 ). Similarly transformed section in material (2) can be
obtained by modifying the width of the material (1) by (E1 /E2 ).

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Once the beam has been transformed into one having a single material, bending formula
can be applied in the usual manner to determine the stress distribution of the transformed
section. It should be noted that stress in transformed beam is equivalent to the stress in the
same material of the original beam. However, stress formed on the transformed section has to
be multiplied by the transformation factor ‘n’ (= E2 /E1 ), since the area of the transformed
material is ‘n’ times the area of the original material.

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