LSCI 1002

Introduction to Biological Sciences

生物科學入門

Faye Suk-Ying TSANG (曾淑瑩), PhD

School of Life Sciences
CUHK
Faye Suk-Ying TSANG (曾淑瑩), PhD
Address: Rm 607, Mong Man Wai Building,
School of Life Sciences, CUHK
Email: fayetsang@cuhk.edu.hk
Tel: 3943-1020
Textbook Book
 Some Problems Faced by
Multicellular Organisms
 Cell division & the production of cell with
specialized functions (differentiation)
 Coordinating cells to work together
 Interactions with the environment
 Reproduction
 Others [e.g. transport of required materials
(energy & food); movement of cells & of
the whole organism]
Cell Division
The Key Roles of Cell Division

 To allow the organisms to produce more of

their own kind
 To continue life
 In multicellular eukaryotes, cell division is
for
– development (from a fertilized egg)
– growth
– repair

Growth & development Tissue renewal

 Cell division is an integral part of the cell

cycle, the life of a cell from formation to its
own division
 Cell Division

 Most cell division results in two

daughter cells with identical genetic
information, DNA
 The exception is meiosis, a special type of
division that can produce sperm & egg
cells
Cellular Organization of the Genetic
Material

 Allthe DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s

genome
 A genome can consist of a single DNA
molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or
a number of DNA molecules (common in
eukaryotic cells)
 DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes
 Eukaryotic
chromosomes consist of
chromatin, a complex of DNA & protein
that condenses during cell division

Fig 16.22 from Campbell

 Every eukaryotic species has a
characteristic number of chromosomes in
each cell nucleus
 Somatic cells: two sets of chromosomes
 Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm &
eggs): half as many chromosomes as
somatic cells
 How do dividing cells distribute
chromosomes to daughter cells?

Fig 12.1 from Campbell

 Distribution of Chromosomes
During Eukaryotic Cell Division

 In preparation for cell division, DNA is

replicated & the chromosomes condense
 Each duplicated chromosome has two
sister chromatids (joined copies of the
original chromosome)

Fig 12.4 from Campbell

 During cell division, the two sister
chromatids of each duplicated
chromosome separate & move into two
nuclei
 Once separate, the chromatids are called
chromosomes
1 Chromosomes Chromosomal
DNA molecules
Centromere

Chromosome
arm
Chromosome duplication

Sister
chromatids
Separation of sister
chromatids
3

Fig 12.5 from Campbell

 Eukaryotic cell division consists of
– mitosis, the division of the genetic
material in the nucleus
– cytokinesis, the division of the
cytoplasm
 Gametes are produced by a variation of
cell division called meiosis
 Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells
that have half as many chromosomes as
the parent cell
 Phases of the Cell Cycle

 The cell cycle consists of

– mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
– interphase (cell growth & copying of
chromosomes in preparation for cell division)
 The mitotic phase alternates with
interphase in the cell cycle
 Interphase can be divided into three
phases:
– G1 phase (1st gap)
– S phase (synthesis)
– G2 phase (2nd gap)

 The cell grows during all three phases, but

chromosomes are duplicated only during
the S phase
Fig 12.6 from Campbell
 Mitosis is broken down into five stages:
– prophase
– prometaphase
– metaphase
– anaphase
– telophase
 10 µm
G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase
Centrosomes Chromosomes Early mitotic Fragments
Aster Nonkinetochore
(with centriole (duplicated, spindle of nuclear microtubules
pairs) uncondensed) Centromere envelope

Plasma
Nucleolus Two sister chromatids Kinetochore Kinetochore
Nuclear membrane
of one chromosome microtubules
envelope
Fig 12.7 from Campbell
 10 µm
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis
Metaphase Cleavage Nucleolus
plate furrow forming

Daughter
chromosomes
Spindle Nuclear
Centrosome at envelope
one spindle pole forming
Fig 12.7 from Campbell
 Cytokinesis

 In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a

process known as cleavage, forming a
cleavage furrow
 In plant cells, a cell plate forms during
cytokinesis
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell
(TEM)

Cleavage furrow 100 µm

Vesicles Wall of parent cell 1 µm
forming New cell
cell plate Cell plate wall

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments
Daughter cells
Fig 12.10 from Campbell
 BioFlix Animation: Mitosis

From: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SEJuGFsNeBI
 The eukaryotic cell cycle is
regulated by a molecular control
system
 The frequency of cell division varies with
the type of cell
 These differences result from regulation at
the molecular level
 Cancer cells manage to escape the usual
controls on the cell cycle
 Cell Cycle Control System
 Sequential events of the cell cycle are directed
by a distinct cell cycle control system
 The cell cycle control system is regulated by
both internal & external controls
 There are specific checkpoints where the cell
cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received

Figs 12.15 & 12.17 from Campbell

Cyclins & Cyclin-Dependent Kinases

 Two types of regulatory proteins are

involved in cell cycle control: cyclins &
cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks)
 The activity of a Cdk rises & falls with
changes in concentration of its cyclin
partner
 MPF (maturation-promoting factor) is a
cyclin-Cdk complex that triggers a cell’s
passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M
phase
 M G1 S G2 M G1 S G2 M G1
Cdk
MPF Cyclin
activity concentration
Degraded
cyclin Cdk
Cyclin is
degraded
MPF Cyclin
Time G2
checkpoint
(a) Fluctuation of MPF activity and cyclin (b) Molecular mechanisms that help
concentration during the cell cycle regulate the cell cycle

Fig 12.16 from Campbell

 Stop & Go Signs: Internal &
External Signals at the Checkpoints
 Many signals registered at checkpoints
come from cellular surveillance
mechanisms within the cell
 Checkpoints also register signals from
outside the cell
 Three important checkpoints are those in
the G1, G2, and M phases
 For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems
to be the most important
 If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the
G1 checkpoint, it will usually complete the
S, G2, & M phases & divide
 If the cell does not receive the go-ahead
signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a
nondividing state called the G0 phase
 G1 checkpoint

G0

G1 G1
Without go-ahead signal, cell With go-ahead signal, cell
G1 enters G0. continues cell cycle.
S
(a) G1 checkpoint
M G2
G1 G1

M G2 M G2

M checkpoint

G2
Anaphase checkpoint

Prometaphase
Without full chromosome attachment,
stop signal is received.
(b) M checkpoint
Metaphase
With full chromosome
attachment, go-ahead signal is
received.
Fig 12.17 from Campbell
 An example of an internal signal is that
cells will not begin anaphase until all
chromosomes are properly attached to the
spindle at the metaphase plate
 This mechanism ensures that daughter
cells have the correct number of
chromosomes
 External factors that influence cell division
include specific growth factors
 Growth factors are released by certain
cells & stimulate other cells to divide
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
is made by blood cell fragments called
platelets.

Fig 12.18 from Campbell

 In density-dependent inhibition,
crowded cells will stop dividing
 Most cells also exhibit anchorage
dependence—to divide, they must be
attached to a substratum
 Density-dependent inhibition & anchorage
dependence check the growth of cells at
an optimal density
 Cancer cells exhibit neither type of
regulation of their division (Cancer – loss
of cell cycle controls)
 Anchorage dependence: cells
require a surface for division

Density-dependent inhibition:
cells form a single layer

Density-dependent inhibition:
cells divide to fill a gap and
then stop

20 µm 20 µm

(a) Normal mammalian cells (b) Cancer cells

Fig 12.19 from Campbell

~ THE END ~