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ASSIGNMENT 01

Question 01

1. The urinary system consists of the following:

Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra.
o Kidneys- The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped delicate organs. They are
situated one on each side of the mid-dorsal line of the abdominal cavity, just
below the level of the stomach.
o Ureters- They are two tubes about 30 cm long, emerging from each kidney
with the pelvis of which they are continuous. The ureters run downwards and
inwards and open into the urinary bladder.
o Urinary bladder- It serves as a reservoir for the urine. It is a hollow
muscular organ lined by stratified epithelium. Its average capacity for storage
is about 500 mm. It is situated in the cavity of the pelvis just behind the pubic
syphilis.
o Urethra-The urethra in two sexes differ. The male urethra is about 20 cm in
length.
The female urethra is a short duct of about 4 cm long and its extends from the urinary
bladder to the external urethra orifice which is in the vestibule just above and anterior
to the vaginal orifice.
2. Excretory organ, sweat glands excrete sweat containing salts, lactic acid, amino acid etc.
Sebaceous glands secrete sebum to keep skin water proof and hair greasy, but it contains
some excretory products like waxes, sterols, fatty acids and some hydrocarbons.
3. (1) The male reproductive system of human Bering consists of a pair of testis, accessory
glands and a system of ducts.
(2) Testis are male reproductive organs and produces spermatozoa or sperms and also
secretes male sex hormone Testosterone.
(3) Inside each testis several lobules are present. Each lobule has several tubules
called seminiferous tubules.
(4) Germinal epithelial cells in the seminiferous tubules undergo meiotic division to
produce spores.
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(5) The accessory glands include one prostate gland and two Cowper gland. Secretion
of these gland produce semen.
(6) The duct system consists of vasefferentia. They collect spermatozoa from
seminiferous tubules.
(7) Vasefferentia continue as epididymis where sperms are stored temporarily.
(8) From epididymis sperms moved into tubule called vasdeferens and then into
urethra.
4. Ovaries
 Two almond-shaped ovaries are located in the lower abdomen.
 Gamete-producing organs of the female reproductive system; Produce eggs
and sex hormones
 Eggs mature near the surface of the ovaries
Oviducts
 An oviduct is the tube that leads from an ovary to the uterus
 Oviducts also called fallopian tube or uterine tube
 Transports eggs to the uterus
 The finger-like projections (fimbriae) at the end of the tube help move the
oocyte into the oviduct i.e., action of fimbriae and the beating of cilia, with
these two combine action, egg is usually swept into the oviduct.
Uterus (womb)
 The uterus is single (also called womb) and the site of fetal development;
located in the female pelvis
 Opens into vagina through a narrow cervix
 Supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.
 It is a hollow, thick-walled, inverted pear shaped muscular organ
 Receives, retains, and nourishes the fertilized egg.
 Houses developing fetus before it is born
Cervix
 The narrow passage at the opening of a woman’s womb; base of the uterus
which projects into vagina
 The opening in the cervix allows the sperm to enter the uterus, and fetus to
exit during labor.
Vagina
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 This Hollow muscular female organ leads from the uterus to the vestibule
 Functions as an organ of sexual intercourse; receives penis during sexual
intercourse
 Serves as birth canal
 Serves as an exit for menstrual flow
Clitoris
 A small organ, clitoris is partly enclosed by the labia minor; an erectile
structure
 Highly sensitive to stimulation; Like penis contains erectile tissue, as it
becomes engorged with blood during sexual stimulation
 Important in the female sexual response

Question 02

1. Osteogenic cells are hanging around waiting to deal with traumas or problems with
the bone where they will have to produce new bone or strengthen the bone after a
fracture or other trauma.
Osteoblasts are mainly responsible for bone generation and maintaining the strength
of the bones, their decreasing presence is one reason for problems with bones in
elderly folks.
Osteocytes maintain healthy bone tissue.
Osteoclasts are cells that actually help to break down bone tissue as the bone changes
during its lifetime. They are essential to healthy bones.
2. The bones of the human body can be divided into two broad groups, the axial skeleton
and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton comprises the bones found along
the central axis traveling down the center of the body. The appendicular skeleton
comprises the bones appended to the central axis.
Illustration shows the difference between the axial skeleton and the appendicular
skeleton.
The bones of the axial skeleton make up the central axis of the body including the
skull, hyoid, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, sacrum, and coccyx. The bones of the
appendicular skeleton include those of the appendages and the joints with those
appendages including the shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapula) and the hip joint (so
coaxes or hip bones).
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The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, the bones of the inner ear (known
as ossicles), the hyoid bone in the throat, and the bones of the vertebral column,
including the sacrum and coccyx bones in the center of the pelvic girdle.
The appendicular skeleton is made up by the bones attached or appended to the axial
skeleton. These are the bones of the limbs, hands, and feet, the bones of the pectoral
(shoulder) girdles, and the coxal (hip) bones of the pelvic girdle.
3. All activities that involve movement depend on muscles• 650 muscles in the human
body
• Various purposes for muscles :
• Locomotion
• Upright posture
• Balancing on two legs
• Support of internal organs
• Controlling valves and body openings
• Production of heat
• Movement of materials along internal tubes
• Three types of muscles in the human body
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth

ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

•Skeletal muscles are muscles which are

Attached to the skeleton.
•40% of human body mass
•Skeletal muscles are mainly locomotion, and voluntary relaxation.
Responsible for contraction and
ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
•Muscle (whole organ)
•Fascicle (portion of muscle)
•Muscle Fiber (single muscle cell)
•Myofibril (muscle cell organelle)
•Sarcomere (portion of myofibril)
•My filament (part of sarcomere)
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4.
 Skeletal muscle – the specialized tissue that is attached to bones and allows
movement.
 Smooth muscle – located in various internal structures including the digestive
tract, uterus and blood vessels such as arteries.
 Cardiac muscle – the muscle specific to the heart.

ASSIGNMENT 02

Question 01

1. Although terminology seems to indicate otherwise, there is really only one nervous
system in the body. Although each subdivision of the system is also called a "nervous
system," all of these smaller systems belong to the single, highly integrated nervous
system. Each subdivision has structural and functional characteristics that distinguish
it from the others. The nervous system as a whole is divided into two subdivisions: the
central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
2.
 Heart
Sympathetic nervous system-Release the hormones to accelerate the heart
rate.
Para sympathetic nervous system-Releases the hormone acetylcholine to
slow the heart rate.
 Lungs
Sympathetic nervous system-stimulate Broncho dilation.
Para sympathetic nervous system-bronchoconstriction.
 Digestive system
Sympathetic nervous system-inhibition of gastrointestinal secretion and
motor activity, contraction of gastrointestinal sphincters and blood vessels.
Para sympathetic nervous system-typically stimulate of gastrointestinal
secretion and motor activity, contraction of gastrointestinal sphincters and
blood vessels.
 Blood Vessels
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Sympathetic nervous system-increases vascular resistance and decreases

distal blood flow.
Para sympathetic nervous system-blood vessels normally dilate, increasing
blood flow but lowering pressure.
 Urinary bladder
Sympathetic nervous system-regulates the process of urine storage in the
bladder.
Para sympathetic nervous system-controls bladder contractions and the
passage of urine.
 Eyes
Sympathetic nervous system-stimulates the dilution of the pupil of the eye.
Para sympathetic nervous system-constricts the pupil of the eye by
controlling the circular muscles in the eye.
 Salivary gland
Sympathetic nervous system-stimulates the mucous cells of the salivary
glands, resulting in relatively thick, sticky mucus.
Para sympathetic nervous system-stimulates their serous cells, resulting in a
relatively thin saliva richer in enzymes.
 Sweat glands
Sympathetic nervous system-normally controls facial sweating.
Para sympathetic nervous system-make functional connections with sweat
glands.
 Sex organ
Sympathetic nervous system- component tends to inhibit erections

Para sympathetic nervous system- one of several excitatory pathways.

 Metabolism
Sympathetic nervous system-increases energy, expenditure, particularly
resting energy expenditure.
Para sympathetic nervous system-reduces the body’s metabolic rate.
3. The places where neurons connect and communicate with each other are called
synapses. Each neuron has anywhere between a few to hundreds of thousands of
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synaptic connections, and these connections can be with itself, neighboring neurons,
or neurons in other regions of the brain.
4. Synaptic transmission is the process at synapses by which a chemical signal (a
transmitter) is released from one neuron and diffuses to other neurons or target cells
where it generates a signal which excites, inhibits or modulates cellular activity.
When nerve impulse reaches the pre-synaptic knob, it depolarized the presynaptic
membrane and causes the opening of voltage gated calcium channel.
Diffusion of Ca++ ion in the presynaptic knob causes movement of synaptic vesicle to
the surface of the knob. Synaptic vesicle carries the neurotransmitter.
Synaptic vesicles then fused with the presynaptic membrane and get rupture to
discharge its content i.e. Neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) into synaptic cleft.
Synaptic vesicles then return to the cytoplasm of pre-synaptic knob for refilling.

Some of the released neurotransmitter binds with the protein receptor present on the
post synaptic membrane of another neuron and change the membrane potential.
Other unbound neurotransmitter immediately get lost from the synaptic cleft.
The depolarization of the post synaptic membrane opens the Sodium channel causing
influx of Na+ ion. Thus causing depolarization and generate action potential. In this
way, the impulse get transmitted to next neuron along the synapse.
5. here are several factors affecting the rate and speed of an action potential:
 Myelin sheath - This covers some of the nodes and acts as an electrical
insulator where the action potential travels from one node of Ranvier to the
next by salutatory conduction.
 Diameter of the axon - the larger the diameter of an axon increases the rate
and speed of conductance as there is less leakage of ions.
 Temperature - The higher the temperature the faster the conductance. This
is because enzymes work faster at a high temperature which control the
sodium-potassium pump needed to create action potentials.

Question 02

1.
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
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 Luteinizing hormone (LH)

 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Prolactin (PRL)
 Growth hormone (GH)
 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
2.
 ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) which targets Adrenals, which produce
the hormone Cortisol.
 TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone/Thyrotrophic) which targets the Thyroid
and is called Thyroxin.
 LH/FSH (LH being in males, and FSH being in females) which affects the
reproductive functioning. With LH it helps regulate Testosterone. With FSH it
produces Estrogen.
 PRL (Prolactin) stimulates the breasts to produce milk. Yet is present in both
men and women at all times.
 GH (Growth Hormone) this deals with every cell in the body. It helps growth
and repair.
 MSH (Melanocyte-Stimulating hormone) action is unknown
3. The adrenal gland is composed of two distinct tissues: the outer cortex and the inner
medulla. The adrenal cortex tends to be fattier and thus has a more yellow hue. The
adrenal medulla is more of a reddish-brown color. A thick capsule consisting of
connective tissue surrounds the entire adrenal gland.
4. Pancreas is a mixed gland that have both function as exocrine and endocrine. exocrine
function- its serous gland releases some enzymes that help in digestion and endocrine
function- its islets of Langerhans that having different type of cell that releases some
important hormone such as insulin, glucagon that help in glucose metabolism as well
as growth of the cell.