Diesel Engines 3 - K.kuiken - 3rd Ed

DIESEL III
3 rd revised edition
ENGINES
for ship propulsion and power plants
FROM OTO 100,000 kW
Operation and maintenance
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Kees Kuiken
Contents
26 Diesel- engine manufacturers 10 28 Propellers 124
26.1 Introduction 12 28.1 Introduction 126

26.2 Engine categories 13 28.2 Fixed - pitch propellers 128
26.3 Engine manufacturers 15 28.3 Use of controllable - pitch propellers 130
26.4 Number of engine manufacturers worldwide 16 28.4 Fixed - pitch propellers, construction 134
26.5 Diesel engines for ship propulsion and 28.5 Controllable- pitch propellers, construction 135
diesel - power plants 39 28.6 Propeller shaft and coupling flange 139
26.6 Future of the diesel- engine industry 39 28.7 Stern tube 140
26.7 Overview of diesel engines ordered in 2015 44 28.8 Stern - tube seals 141
26.8 Complete list of diesel engine manufacturers, 28.9 Hydraulic bolts 143
March 2016 46 28.10 Material for controllable - pitch propellers 143
26.9 Some examples of new diesel engines with high 28.11 Propeller design 143
load parameters 46 28.12 Cavitation 144
26.10 The development of the modern low -speed 28.13 Calculating the propeller- blade model 146
wo -stroke marine diesel engine 48 28.14 Examples of other propulsion systems with
controllable- pitch propellers 147
27 Ship propulsion 66 28.15 Propeller efficiency 152
27.1 Introduction 68 29 Use of materials for diesel engines 156

27.2 Ship types and hull resistance 69
27.3 Load lines of a ship 69 29.1 General use of materials 158
27.4 Ship dimensions 70 29.2 Cast iron 158
27.5 Hull shape 70 29.3 Steel 159
27.6 Ships resistance R 72 29.4 Cast steel 160
27.7 Screw propulsion 77 29.5 Forged steel 160
27.8 Propeller types 77 29.6 Steel alloys 160
27.9 Flow conditions around the propeller 79 29.7 Aluminium 161
27.10 Propeller dimensions 83 29.8 Ceramic materials 162
27.11 Operating conditions of a propeller 87 29.9 Specific materials for engine parts: engine
27.12 Increasing ship speed 93 classification according to the four categories 162
27.13 Parameters causing heavy running conditions 93 29.10 Special finishes and heat treatments 169
27.14 Manoeuvring speeds 94 29.11 Examples of modern material usage 172
27.15 Direction of propeller rotation: lateral forces 94
27.16 Engine layouts and load diagrams 95 30 Casting, forging and welding engine parts 180
27.17 Propulsion - and engine characteristics 95
27.18 Electronic governors with load limitation 97 30.1 Introduction 182
27.19 Use of diagrams 97 30.2 Cast - iron parts for diesel engines 182
27.20 Summarising the effects of the various types of 30.3 Advantages of cast engine - parts 183
resistance on engine operation 101 30.4 Foundries 183
27.21 Comments 103 30.5 Casting process 183
27.22 Future improvements in propulsion efficiency 30.6 Casting location 187
and reduction of C02 103 30.7 Moulds 187
27.23 March 2017 112 30.8 Filling the casting dies 187
27.24 Some distinctive issues 112 30.9 Mould assembly 188
27.25 Slow steaming of merchant ships 116 30.10 Cleaning the castings 193
27.26 Ship propulsion with gas- and dual- fuel engines 120 30.11 Casting stresses 194
30.12 Checking for air inclusions and damage 194
30.13 Dimensional checks 194
30.14 Operations at the machining factory 195
30.15 Forging crankshafts 201
8
> CONTENTS
30.16 Forging gear parts for two -stroke crosshead 33 Regulations for propulsion engines,
engines 208 classification, repair and damage 414
30.17 Building a two -stroke crosshead engine A-frame 216
30.18 Forging crankshafts, 2009 report 219 33.1 Introduction 416
30.19 Manufacturing pistons 234 33.2 The IMO: International Maritime Organization 416
30.20 Manufacture of inlet and outlet valves 243 33.3 Classification societies 418
30.21 Manufacturing cylinder liners 255 33.4 Periodic inspection of the diesel engine and its
parts 419
31 Reconditioning engines and their parts 266 33.5 Examples: Germanischer Lloyd 422
33.6 Materials for diesel engines 426
31.1 Introduction 268 33.7 Tests and trials 427
31.2 Four -stroke engines 271 33.8 Testing mass - produced engines 430
31.3 Two -stroke engines 308 33.9 Shipboard trials 430
31.4 The Swedish Club: Main Engine Damage 332 33.10 Some important points 431
33.11 Regulations for propulsion engines 433
32 Maintenance and repairs 338 33.12 Engine alignment 442
33.13 The standard measurements and calculations
32.1 Introduction 340 to determine the crankshaft deflection
32.2 Types of maintenance 340 measurement ( rj for four different types of
32.3 Instruction manuals/ Maintenance manuals 340 crankshafts 444
32.4 Engine maintenance 342 33.14 Procedure for reconditioning parts 444
32.5 Maintenance for small engines, category I 346 33.15 New parts 445
32.6 Examples of maintenance for engines, category III 348 33.16 Special cases of wear and damage to engine parts 445
32.7 Some examples of maintenance for large 33.17 Damages to the engine or engine parts 447
two -stroke crosshead engines, category IV 356 33.18 Damage 447
32.8 Excessive wear or scuffing’ of the cylinder liners 33.19 Examples of certificates 449
in a two -stroke crosshead engine 367
32.9 Trouble shooting excessive cylinder liner wear 388
32.10 Damage report Wartsila Vasa 4 R32 392
32.11 Sleeve bearings, theory and damage 398
9
Diesel-engine manufacturers
26.1 Introduction 12
26.2 Engine categories 13
26.3 Engine manufacturers 15
26.4 Number of engine manufacturers worldwide 16
26.5 Diesel engines for ship propulsion and diesel-power plants 39
26.6 Future of the diesel-engine industry 39
26.7 Overview of diesel engines ordered in 2015 44
26.8 Complete list of diesel engine manufacturers, March 2016 46
26.9 Some examples of new diesel engines with high load parameters 46
26.10 The development of the modern low -speed two - stroke marine diesel engine 48
"
jaw
DIESEL E N G I N E S > BOOK III
26.1 Introduction The older engine types that no longer comply with
stricter emission requirements are therefore no
From the nineteenth century when internal longer being manufactured.
combustion engines could be mass - manufactured , Moreover, both the efficiency of these engines as well
progressively more engineering works started as their load numbers are often too low.
business. Along with their core business of
manufacturing machines, they also set up engine - 26.1.2 Number of diesel engines
manufacturing production lines. These companies manufactured on a yearly basis
were already manufacturing steam boilers, steam
engines and , for example, cannons so the facilities The total number of diesel engines manufactured
for engine manufacture were present, such as a annually worldwide lies between 20 and 25 million
foundry and a forge; the roughly manufactured parts ( 2016 ) .
could be finished with simple planing machines, Obviously, the number of small diesel engines
milling machines and / or lathes. manufactured for, amongst others, agricultural
The work was mostly manual labour. These engine machines, excavators, trucks and such, is the largest
factories were often established near navigable segment of this market , in excess of 90%.
waters, so ships could berth in front of the premises The figures lie below ten thousand for large diesel
for repairs. engines in Category II ( 1000 kW ) . For the largest
The larger engines in categories II, III and IV were engines in category II, at the most several thousands
manufactured worldwide. per annum .
Very large engines in categories III and IV used to be In category III , these figures are in the region of
and still are manufactured throughout the world . several thousands per annum and in category IV,
Where ship propulsion is concerned , very large several hundreds per annum.
low-speed crosshead engines are normally In 2007, many more engines were manufactured,
manufactured at the same location as the shipyard . in comparison to ten years earlier when engine
A famous example is Hyundai, the worlds largest manufacturers had to shut down or downsize due
shipyard / engine factory in South Korea. to extreme overcapacity in the market. In 2016, the
market is very slowly recovering after the recession
26.1.1 Data in gas- and dual- fuel engines years of 2008 en 2009.
catalogues
The catalogues found in this chapter provide a

mere ‘freeze frame of the data available at present .
These data are continually being updated due to the
acquisition of companies, the introduction of new
types of engines or the replacement of older types. A chart showing the number of diesel engines
manufactured in the course of a twenty-five year period.
The number of 'large' diesel engines, dark blue in this overview

from Bosch, represents approximately 300,000 pieces.
_ Small Diesel generating sets

Large and heavy two-stroke j Diesel vehicles
crosshead engines are Commercial vehicles < 6 t
usually manufactured at Commercial vehicles > 6 t
Tractors and built-in engines
the yard where the ship is Large- bore Diesel engines
built. Hyundai, South Korea.
Front left: a smaller MAN diesel

engine with an engine frame
cast in one piece. Behind it, a
MAN diesel engine with a

frame made of sheet steel.
In the foreground a crankshaft
bed for a crosshead engine.
1988 1992 1994 1997 2002
12
CH 26 > DIESEL- ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
China South Korea

CNPC Jichai Power Equipment Company Doosan Engine Co., Ltd.
CSSC Marine Power Co., Ltd. Hyundai Heavy Industries Co. Ltd.
CSSC-MES Diesel Co., Ltd. (CMD) STX Heavy Industries Co., Ltd.
Dalian Marine Diesel Co., Ltd STX Engine Co., Ltd.
FHI Fushun Zhongxing Heavy Industry Co., Ltd.
Hefei RongAn Power Machinery Co., Ltd. Croatia
Henan Diesel Engine Industry Co., Ltd. AdriaDiesel d.d.
Hudong Heavy Machinery Co. Ltd. Brodosplit Diesel Engine Factory d.o.o.
Jing Jiang Dakai Heavy Machinery Co., Ltd. Uljanik Strojogradnja d.d.
Qingdao Haixi Marine Diesel Engine Co., Ltd.
Shaanxi Diesel Engine Heavy Industry Co., Ltd. Poland
Shanghai Qiyao Engine Co., Ltd. FSA - Fabryka Silnikuw Agregatowych I
Weichai Heavy Machinery Co., Ltd. Trakcyjnych Spulka z.o.o.
Yichang Marine Diesel Engine Co., Ltd. H. Cegielski - Poznan S.A.
Yuchai Marine Power Co., Ltd.
Spain
Japan Navantia S.A. F brica de Motores Cartagena
Diesel United, Ltd. ^
Hitachi Zosen Corporation
JFE Engineering Corporation USA
Kawasaki Heavy Industries Ltd. Fairbanks Morse Engine
Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding Co., Ltd.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
Mitsui sub -licensee: Makita Corporation
Niigata Power Systems Co., Ltd.
This illustration shows the MAN Diesel licensees. Previously, European manufacturers were well represented in the
licensee family. In recent decades, the emergence of tiger
After a long history of manufacturing activities in Copenhagen, economies has changed the map such that Asia is dominating
MAN Diesel & Turbo stopped building two- stroke engines on a the representation today. Mitsui of Japan has held a licence to
large scale back in the '80 s and concentrated its efforts on build B& W engines since 1926 and is, thus, the oldest of the
research and development . MAN Diesel & Turbo devote their two- stroke licensees. However, Korea's and China's emergence as
efforts to increasing their huge knowledge base and further a global manufacturing power has meant that most of the now
developing the two -stroke engine principle. MAN Diesel & Turbo most active licensees are based there.
cultivate a global network of licensees that build MAN

B&W-branded engines.
26.1.3 Licence holders 26.2.1 Characteristics
Situation in 2016 - World- wide production, Fuel

countries where engines are manufactured Only medium -speed four- stroke and low-speed
Diesel - engine manufacturers in categories III and IV two -stroke diesel engines run on heavy fuel oil, HFO.
issue licences allowing others to build their engines.
For instance, MAN Diesel has 35 licence holders. Operating principle
The majority of diesel engines works on the
Ship propulsion with diesel engines, market share four-stroke cycle principle, and falls in the group
2016 of high -speed engines with over 960 revolutions
South Korea 31% per minute.
Japan 26 % A minority, the larger four-stroke engines with a
Europe 23% cylinder diameter above 200 mm fall in the category,
China 12% medium -speed engines and are suitable for running
Other Asian countries 4% on heavy fuel oil.
USA and Canada 2%
Rest 2% Capacity classification
Source: Douglas - Westwood Ltd , Canterbury, England. A large number of small four-stroke diesel engines
fall in category I, up to 100 kW.
They are often used for propulsion of small ships,
26.2 Engine categories such a motorboats and yachts, drives for pumps,
gensets, anchor winches and building equipment .
The divisions are based on actual experience with
using diesel engines.
13
DIESEL ENGINES > BOOK III
3000
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The four engine categories. 0-100 kW
4-stroke
MDO
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Diesel, Dual-Fuel and Gas Engine Order Trends

12000
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The total number of units lies in the region of 10,000 per year. The
2000
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(2000-2001).
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14
CH 26 > DIES EL - ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
- A majority of the larger high -speed four -stroke General comment:

diesel engines fall in category II , 100 to This classification allows a better insight into engine
10,000 kW. characteristics. Therefore, it is possible that in the
They are widely used. The largest diesel engines overlapping area between two categories there are
in this category have a power output of several other possibilities.
megawatts are commonly used in the propulsion
of fast vessels, catamarans and yachts. The fuel is Example
diesel oil: MDO. Some factories manufacture engines that can achieve
- A smaller number of four-stroke engines fall in 1000 to 1200 revolutions per minute and categorise
category III , medium -speed engines with engine them as medium -speed engines.
speeds of approximately 960 revolutions per
minute and usually operate on HFO.
- The largest diesel engines fall in category IV, 26.3 Engine manufacturers
low-speed two -stroke crosshead engines with a
power output to almost 100,000 kW. They have The two main suppliers MAN Diesel and Wartsila
a maximum engine speed of approximately produce ( defined in shaft power ) the majority of
240 revs / min and operate on HFO. engines in Categories III and IV with Caterpillar,
number 3 in the smaller capacities, categories I and
particularly II.
MECHANICAL DRIVE MARINE PROPULSION ORDERS, January - December 2015
Engine Operating Speed

Fuel Regions/Regional Codes
Ranges (r /min )
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1.01 to 2.00 1802 2386 5 13 336 1448 1557 245 0 464 30 60 651 291 14 0 18 252 6 16
2.01 to 3.50 163 386 11 1 149 2 99 57 9 16 14 2 79 52 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.51 to 5.00 57 209 20 0 16 21 32 25 0 3 0 1 49 0 0 0 0 0 0 4
5.01 to 7.50 59 345 47 0 12 0 1 56 2 4 0 1 54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7.51 to 15.00 737 8295 726 4 4 26 30 724 6 4 1 0 729 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
15.01 to 30.00 232 4472 232 0 0 0 0 225 7 0 0 0 232 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
30.01 to 50.00 42 1571 42 0 0 0 0 42 0 0 0 0 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
50.01 and above 76 4444 76 0 0 0 0 76 0 0 0 0 76 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totals 5675 23 739 1166 18 517 3997 3639 2037 24 975 53 133 2753 868 46 0 19 777 12 39
Mechanical drive marine propulsion orders 2015.
Marine auxiliary generating set orders 2015.
MARINE AUXILIARY GENERATING SET ORDERS, January - December 2015
Engine Operating
Fuel Regions /Regional Codes
Speed Ranges r /min )
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u to .2i 3 °3 S 03 m
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0.50 to 1.00 2897 1321 0 1990 628 538 2080 0 177 17 14 2288 153 28 0 1 209 6 27
1.01 to 2.00 1579 1556 0 938 266 278 906 19 84 33 0 973 44 0 0 0 58 0 12
2.01 to 3.50 567 1165 0 419 49 92 268 108 56 0 0 381 8 0 0 0 22 1 0
3.51 to 5.00 165 273 0 114 0 25 61 28 6 2 0 93 11 2 0 0 0 0 0
5.01 and above 18 111 0 18 0 8 6 6 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Totals 5226 4426 0 3479 943 941 3321 161 323 52 14 3753 216 30 0 1 289 7 39
15
DIESEL-ELECTRIC MARINE PROPULSION ORDERS, January - December 2015
Engine Operating Regions /Regional Codes

Fuel
Speed Ranges ( r /min)
Number
Total Engine
Output for
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1.01 to 2.00 34 53 0 17 14 14
186 9 89 0 0 59 6 0 0 0 42 0 0
2.01 to 3.50 198 461 0 13 183
20 3 4 7 0 0 0 0 0 4 12 0 0
3.51 to 5.00 27 119 0 15 12
4 20 8 8 0 21 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
5.01 to 7.50 41 276 17 24 0
4 22 21 0 0 58 0 0 0 0 4 0 0
7.51 and above 83 1502 77 6 0
77 209 228 69 130 24 4 145 12 1 0 4 65 0 0

Totals 385 2413 94
Diesel- electric marine propulsion orders 2015.
The number of engine manufacturers worldwide 26.4 Number of engine

has dwindled over the last years for various manufacturers worldwide
reasons. Today, there are over sixty diesel - engine
manufacturers worldwide; approximately half are 26.4.1 Diesel engine manufacturers
active in the international market .
There are currently in 2016 more than 60 engine
A number of reasons for reduction in engine - manufacturers operating worldwide. Many will be
manufacturers: local and have a relatively small number of engines
- Due to overcapacity in the past and heavy types. Only a handful of engine manufacturers
competition. operate worldwide such as MAN Diesel, Wartsila ,
- Due to increasingly strict regulations for Caterpillar MaK , Cummins, Hyundai and some
exhaust-gas emissions. This requires large others.
investments to optimise engine designs that can There is an overview posted for the year 2016 at the
meet present and future requirements. end of this chapter for engines above 500 kW shaft
- The customers have stricter requirements. power. This list relates to marine propulsion and
Important focal points are: diesel power plants: The focus of this book!
- capital cost;
- fuel and lubricating - oil consumption ; 26.4.2 Category I: The small high- speed four -
- weight and size in relation to capacity, stroke diesel engines up to 100 kW
the so - called power density; shaft power running on MDO
- fast service and availability of parts worldwide;
- lifetime of parts. The majority of manufacturers produce these

engines. Several dozens for the world market with
.
26.3 1 Mass manufacture for shipping a larger number producing for the local markets.
Large engine manufacturers for categories I and II ,
When designing propulsion installations, the engine such as Caterpillar and Cummins together produce
type and manufacturer are usually determined before hundreds of thousands to millions of engines
starting the design , as a different engine type will not annually.
normally fit the requirements and therefore increases These engines are often used in trucks, buses, earth -
costs. Manufacturing costs are kept to a minimum to moving equipment and cranes ,
compete worldwide among other shipyards.
16
1
Fuel Type: D: Diesel or Heavy Fuel; DF: Dual Fuel; SI: Spark Ingnited. Number of Cylinders & Configuration: L: In-Line; V: V-Type; H: Horizontal; O: Opposed
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Low ( kW ) Low (kW )
Output Range Output Range

High (kW ) High (kW )
Ratings Ratings
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26.4.3 Category II: Larger high- speed MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH

four- stroke diesel engines from Hie German manufacturer of high -speed
100 to 10,000 kW shaft power diesel engines running on MDO is MTU in
running on MDO Friedrichshafen at the Boden Sea. It produces in
categories I and II , highly- loaded diesel engines
There are at present a few dozen manufacturers with, in the larger engines, a mean effective
active in the smaller- capacities market. For engines pressure of 27 to 32.6 bars. This is very high. These
over 1000 kW, the number of manufacturers large V-engines with a shaft power of 8200 kW
decreases significantly and for over 3000 kW there ( series 8000), a mean piston speed of 12.1 m / s and a
are only a few manufacturers serving this market. mean effective pressure of 27 bars have a high load
parameter of 326 bar / m / s This is the highest of all
Caterpillar Inc. Engine Products Division engines in category II. MTU is part of Rolls - Royce.
One of the world’s largest engine manufacturers for
categories I, II and III is the American company Rolls- Royce
Caterpillar. Since their takeover of the German The English producer Rolls - Royce manufactures a
engine manufacturer MaK in Kiel, they have also small number of engine types in category II with
incorporated medium -speed four-stroke diesel a high power output. A maximum power output of
engines running on heavy oil, Category III , in their 8000 kW and a load parameter of 10 x 24.9 =
programme. The production of engines in category II 249 bar/ m / s is respectable. They are built near
is huge; hundreds of thousands of yellow Cats’ find Bergen, Norway.
their way to the customers each year. There are
49 factories active in the USA and 58 in the rest of
the world . An impressive number.
Pistons for Detroit Diesel

category II engines, ready
to be assembled. Notice the
two piston parts. The
piston-ring section ( 1 ) and
section for the absorption
of the lateral forces ( 2).
19
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3 fl> Z
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D C 9.3 ACERT 115 149 9.3 6L 1800 2200 224 298 OH EU Stage 4
D C 9.3 ACERT 115 149 9.3 6L 1800 2200 224 261 OH EPATier 4i
D C 9.3 ACERT 115 149 9.3 6L 1800 2200 224 261 OH EU Stage 3 b
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D C13 ACERT 130 157 12.5 6L 1800 2100 287 388 OH
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D CO.5 67 72 0.5 2L 2800 3600 8.2 10.2 OH
D C 0.5 67 72 0.5 2L 2000 2800 5.7 7.6 OH EPATier 4f
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D C 1.5 84 90 1.5 3L 2200 3000 20.9 30 OH EU Stage 3 a
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D C1.6 77 81 1.5 4L 2800 3000 24.6 26.5 OH EU Stage 3 a
D C 1.7 84 100 1.7 3L 2400 2600 23.6 26.1 OH EU Stage 3 a
D C 2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2200 2800 31 36.4 OH EU Stage 3 a
D C2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2400 3000 31.4 36.4 OH EPATier 4f
D C2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2600 3000 40 45.5 OH EPA Tier 4f
D C 2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2600 3000 40 45.5 OH EU Stage 3 b
D C 3.4 94 120 3.3 4L 2500 2500 47 55 OH EPA Tier 4i
Source: Diesel Publications
The Caterpillar Inc. Engine Products Division diesel-engine

programme, (continued). Categories II and III.
The diesel engine is an ideal

propulsion engine for a
variety of yachts. It is
reliable, economic, and as it
Large luxury motor yachts usually have category II diesel runs on diesel oil, the fire
engines for propulsion, which operate on diesel oil. The risk is minimal.
power output ranges between 1000 and 3000 kW. In
addition, of course, a genset is necessary.
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D 2000 130 150 2 18V 38 72 1500 2350 23.6 720 1310 PG EPATier 2
D 2000 135 156 2.2 8V 90 121 2250 2450 24.6 332 932 M IMOTier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 ON EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 PG EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 R EPATier 4
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D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 ON EPATier 4
D 1600 122 155 1.8 8V 41 48 1500 1600 280 448 PG EPATier 3
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D 1600 122 155 1.8 8V 41 48 1500 1600 280 448 PG IMOTier 2
D 1600 122 155 1.8 8V 41 48 1500 1600 280 448 PG NEA Singapore for ORDE
D 1600 122 155 1.8 8V 41 48 1500 1600 280 448 PG MoEF India
D 1600 122 155 1.8 8V 41 48 1500 1600 280 448 PG CPCB Stage 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 6L 41 48 1500 1600 249 343 PG EPATier 2
D 956 230 230 9.6 12 V 313 325 1500 32.6 3750 6500 PG
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 PG EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 R EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ST-IND EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ON EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 PG EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 R EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ST-IND EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ON EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 PG EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 R EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ST-IND EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ON EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 PG EU Stage 3 b
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 R EU Stage 3 b
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ST-IND EU Stage 3 b
D 1600 122 150 1.8 12V 41 48 1500 1600 448 730 ON EU Stage 3 b
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 PG EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 R EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 ST-IND EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 ON EPATier 2
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 PG EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 R EPATier 4
D 1600 122 150 1.8 10V 41 48 1500 1600 365 610 ST-IND EPATier 4
A Source: Diesel Publications
The MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH diesel-engine programme (continued). Categories I and II.
25
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26.4.4 Category III: The large medium- speed parameter of a popular diesel engine for use in cruise
four-stroke diesel engines of 500 to ships, the V48/60B, a twelve- cylinder V-engine with
30,000 kW shaft power running on a shaft power of 21,600 kW, is 10.3 x 24.8 = 255
HFO bar / m / s. The L58/ 64 in -line engine, with the largest
cylinder diameter, has a cylinder - power output of
Here the number of engine manufacturers is limited 1310 kW.
to a maximum of ten. Roughly fifty percent are active
worldwide. S.E.M.T. Pielstick
The French engine factory builds four-stroke trunk-
Caterpillar Inc. (MaK ) piston engines in categories II and III. The slightly
The American engine manufacturer Caterpillar also lower capacity of the MDO- type is more often used
produces diesel engines in category III since their in naval ships and the largest engines running on
takeover of the German engine manufacturer MaK . HFO are used in diesel - power plants. In 2006 MAN
An engine series with four cylinder- diameters can Diesel AG acquired full ownership of this engine
be delivered by this supplier of mainly medium - manufacturer.
speed diesel engines running on HFO. The largest
engine, the sixteen - cylinder M43 V- engine with Wartsila Corporation
16,000 kW has a load parameter of 10.45 x 27.1 = The Finnish engine manufacturer Wartsila is the
283.2 bar / m / s. This is reasonably high . market leader in category III , the medium -speed
four-stroke engines running on HFO as well as
Daihatsu Diesel Co., Ltd. Dual Fuel engines and Spark Gas engines ( Otto -
The Japanese engine manufacturer Daihatsu builds engines with a large cylinder diameter ). After taking
engines in categories II and III. The largest diesel over numerous European engine factories, a large
engine, the sixteen - cylinder V- engine DK - 32 E has number of engines with a maximum cylinder bore
a shaft power of 6600 kW and a moderate load of 50 cm were built in Finland , Italy, France, Korea
parameter of 9.2 x 23.5 = 216.2 bar / m / s. and China. A desired diesel engine, the latest 46 F,
has a load parameter of 11.6 x 25.9 = 300.4 bar / m / s.
MAN Diesel AG This is a high value for a medium -speed four-stroke
The world’s largest engine manufacturer for engine running on HFO.
category IV engines is unquestionably the German -
Danish combination MAN B&W; it is also one ABC Belgian Corporation
of the principal manufacturers for category III The Belgian engine manufacturer in Ghent produces
engines. Many category III engines are manufactured medium -speed in - line- and v- type diesel engines.
in Augsburg, Germany. Larger numbers are Dual - fuel engines are also available.
manufactured under license in Asia. The load
A feeder container ship,

usually driven by a
medium - speed four- stroke
diesel engine running on
heavy oil, category III.
28
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26.4.5 Category IV: The large
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engines of 1500 to 100,000 kW TO
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Large container ships, shaft power running on HFO MAN B& W 1/3
tankers and bulk carriers The worlds largest producer of two - stroke crosshead =>
TO
are usually propelled by the These are only manufactured by three engine engines with a market share of ± 86%, they 3
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'Cathedrals of the Oceans' manufacturers: MAN Diesel , Wartsila and manufacture a large number of engine types with a o
large two- stroke crosshead Mitsubishi. The ratios are startling: cylinder diameter from 26 to 108 centimetres. Here QJ
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engines, category IV. ± 86.3% MAN B&W; the power output rises from 1080 to an incredible >
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32
consume approximately 300 tons of HFO each Wartsila Corporation

day. The ME-series has electrically controlled fuel The two - stroke crosshead engine’s programme
injection and the MC-series, a traditional fuel of Wartsila Sulzer, RT- Flex, indicates the use of
injection . the common - rail fuel system while RTA indicates
The portfolio is hugh , with many different cylinder engines with the traditional injection systems.
diameters and number of cylinders we need Wartsila manufactures the originally Sulzer two -
10 pages! stroke crosshead engines. Sulzer’s original factory
was situated in Winterthur, Switzerland. The large
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. crosshead engines used to be transported by road
The Japanese producer of two - stroke crosshead and subsequently by ship to their final destination .
engines Mitsubishi builds engines with cylinder Today, all engines are built by license holders
diameters of 33 to 80 centimetres. The worldwide throughout the world, often at the locations where
share of 2 % in the two -stroke crosshead -engine the ships are built. Wartsila manufacture a large
market indicates that many of these engines are number of engines types with a cylinder diameter
bought by the Japanese market for oil tankers, bulk from 35 to 96 centimetres.
carriers and fast container ships. At present , they
are manufacturing two-stroke crosshead engines
together with Wartsila.
r /min
-
(U L p
95 - 127 S 50ME-C [ ] The MAN B& W engine

105 - 123 L60 ME -C ]
programme for the
79 - 105 S 60ME-C [ ]
ME- series, with electrically
79 - 105 S60ME [
91 - 108 L 70ME -C [ ] controlled fuel injection.

68 - 91 S 70ME-C [ ]
89 - 104 K 80ME-C
70 - 93 L80ME The ME-series can also be
57 - 76 S 80ME-C delivered in smaller cylinder
89 - 104 K 90ME-C
diameters.
71 - 94 K 90ME
62 - 83 L90ME-C f
61 - 76 S 90ME-C [
94 - 104 K 98ME-C
84 - 94 K 98ME
90 - 94 K 108ME-C
kW
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000
10, 000 30,000 50,000 70,000 90,000 110,000 130,000 BHP
Power
kW The MAN B&W engine
x 1,000
programme for the ME-series
100
80
60
40
-
-
G95ME- C9
G80 ME- C9
_ S90ME-C9
S90ME-C10
-
S80ME C9
in 2017.
L70ME-C8
S65 ME- C8
20 - S 70ME-C8
S60ME-C8
S50ME-B8
S50ME-C8
G 70ME-C9
10 - S 46ME-B8
S 40ME-B9
8-
6 -
G60ME-C9
G 50ME-B9
G50ME-C9
G 45 ME-C9
W
^
4
ggfiW
-
G40ME-C9
S 35ME- B9
S30ME-B9
2 -
1 -1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1 TT I I I I | I I I | I 1 T rn I : I 1 1 1 1 I 1 l r 1 I 1 1 1 1 I i r l i r I > i i i I Speed
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 r / min
33
A six- cylinder two- stroke

crosshead engine from
Wartsila . Type 6 RT-Flex50.
Power and speed ranges of Sulzer RTA- series engines

The Wartsila Sulzer engine Output Output
bhp kW
programme for the
80 000
RTA- series, with camshaft 100 000
EXA96C 60 000
and traditional fuel 80 000
RTA 841VI HTA84U 50 000
injection . 60 000 \
40 000
RTA84T
40 000 30 000
This program is regularly
changed due to designs for 20 000
JJ-^1 RTA62U
mfm
new types of engines for some 20 000
ships. Engine types also RTA52U
disappear after a certain RTA48 10 000
8 000
period (considerable number 10 000 RTA38
of years). In recent years many 8 000 RTA68T 6 000
new designs have been 6 000 RTA58T 4 000
brought onto the market,
4 000 RTA48T
primarily to reduce fuel
consumption and harmful 2 000
emissions.
2 000
50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160180 200 rev/min

Engine speed
34
CH26 > DIES EL - ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
Power range for Wartsila engines

Wartsila dual- fuel engines Power range for Wartsila
four- stroke diesel engines,
Wartsila 20DF
category III.
Wartsila 34DF
Wartsila 31DF
Wartsila 46DF
Wartsila 50DF
Wartsila diesel engines

Wartsila 20
Wartsila 26
Wartsila 32
Wartsila 31
Wartsila 38
Wartsila 46F
kW 5000 10,000 15,000 20,000
Power range for Wartsila low- speed engines Speed [rpm]

Wartsila dual- fuel engines Power range for Wartsila
Wartsila RT-flex 50DF 99-124 two- stroke crosshead
Wartsila X 52DF 82-105 engines, category IV.
Wartsila X 62DF 80-103
Wartsila Generation X engines

Wartsila X 35-B 118-167
Wartsila X 40- B 104-146
Wartsila X 52 79-105
Wartsila X 62 77-103
Wartsila X 72 66-89
Wartsila X82-B 58-84
Wartsila X 92 70-80
Wartsila RT- flex engines
Wartsila RT-flex48T- D 102-127
Wartsila RT-flex50-D 95-124
Wartsila RT-flex 58T- D/ - E 84/ 90-105
Power [MW ] 3 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
The engine block of

a eigtheen cylinder
Wartsila 46 engine.
35
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
Power range Mitsubishi r /min UEC-LSH

81 -108 UEC 50LSH-Eco- C2 4,925-14,240
two- stroke crosshead
UEC-LSE
engines, category IV. 60-80 UEC80LSE-Eco- B 1 13,325-35,520
60-80 UEC80LSE-Eco- A 2 12,700-33,840
71-95 UEC68LSE-Eco- 1 8.800-23,520
79-105 UEC60LSE-Eco- B 1 7,500-19,920
79-105 UEC60LSE-Eco- B 2 7,500-19,920
79-105 UEC60LSE-Eco- A 2 7,175-19,040
93-124 UEC 50LSE-Eco- B 1 5,250- 15,750
93-124 UEC 50LSE-Eco- A 2 4,975-14,940
96-128 UEC 45 LSE-C1 4,325-11,520
96-128 UEC 45 LSE-Eco-C1 4,325-11,520
96-128 UEC 45 LSE- B 2 4,150- 11,040
96-128 UEC45 LSE-Eco-B2 4,150- 11,040
98-130 UEC45LSE- 1 3,750- 9,960
98-130 UEC45LSE-Eco-1 3,750- 9,960
125-167 UEC35 LSE-Eco-C1 2.800- 7,480
125 -167 UEC35 LSE-Eco-B2 2,600- 6,960
121-167 UEC33 LSE- C2 2,400- 6,640
UEC-LSII
120-160 UEC 43 LSII 3,150- 8,400
140-186 UEC37LSII 2,325 - 6,180
157-215 UEC33 LSII 1,655 - 4,530
157-215 UEC33 LSII-Eco 1,655 - 4,530
kW BHP RPM Rating Emissions

Power range Mitsubishi 1,450 1,944 1,350 HD IM02
four stroke engines, Propulsion 1,600 2,146 1,400 MD IM02
category II. 1,885 2,528 1,500 LD IM02
1,568 2,103 1 , 200 60HZ IM02

Diesel-Electric Propulsion
1,960 2,628 1,500 50HZ IM02
1,568 2,103 1 , 200 60HZ IM02

Auxiliary Generator
1,960 2,628 1,500 50HZ IM02
Mitsubishi four stroke engines

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries ( MHI ) boasts a long Mitsubishi take pride in offering marine engines
tradition in manufacturing engines, tracing back to which are compact in design, providing advantages
the production of Japans first unit for commercial in both installation and maintenance. The engine’s
use in 1917 and spanning both diesel and gasoline cylinder heads are individually divided by cylinder,
types in two - and four-stroke configurations. and large inspection covers are available on the
crankcase and the oil pan . Its original Mitsubishi
To date MHI has supplied more than 120,000 fuel injection pump and turbocharger bring superb
marine diesel engines for both main propulsion combustion matching, and a hydraulic or electronic
and auxiliary applications in ships and boats. The governor is available to provide optimum control
company’s impressive record of engine deliveries is of the engine in your application . This is the perfect
proof of MHI’s close and unbroken relationship with engine for Tugboat , Offshore - and Cargo Vessel.
marine industries.
Product Dimensions & Dry Weight
The S16R 2 - T2MPTAW engine is designed and built L ( mm ): 2,946
in Japan , received the latest IM02 certification, W ( mm ): 1,525
and delivers among the longest stroke and highest H ( mm ): 2,030
displacement available in its class. With a piston Dry Weight ( kg): 7,750
stroke of 220 mm and 79.9 L displacement , it is
a challenging competitor achieving high power 16- cylinder, 4- cycle , Water cooled, Diesel Engine
and fuel efficiency. In fact , its bore, stroke and en - Direct - injection, Turbocharged with Air- cooler
gine speed are the same as Mitsubishi’s longtime
bestseller, the S6R 2. Bore x Stroke ( mm ): 170 x 220
Displacement ( L ): 79.9
36
Engine Type S 6U-MPTK S6U2-MPTK S8U- MPTK S 12U- MPTK S16U- MPTK
stroke cycle, water cooled, diesel engine turbocharged Power range Mitsubishi
Type with air- cooler (inter coolertype)
Direct
four- stroke engines,
Direct Direct Direct Direct
Combustion type injection injection injection injection injection category ll-lll.
Engine speed MPTK MPTK MPTK
Application MPTK MPTK
(rpm)
900 1150 1250 1533 2299 2065
Generator drive, marine auxiliary 1000 1270 1363 1693 2541 3388
use 1200 1343 N/ A 1790 2685 3580
900 1045 1161 1394 2090 2787
Diesel Electric Continuous 1000 1142 1234 1522 2283 3045
1200 1205 N/ A 1608 2412 3215
900 1150 1250 1533 2299 3065
Diesel Electric Intermittent 1000 1270 1363 1693 2541 3388
1200 1343 N/ A 1790 2685 3580
960 1156
Medium Duty 1119 N/ A 1492 2238 2984
Propulsion use 1100
(General) 930 1040
Heavy Duty 1007 N/ A 1343 2014 2686
1060
Propulsion use HarbourTug 1103 N/ A 1470 2205 2940
1150
(HarbourTugboat ) Boat rating
Fuel Oil IS08217, DMX-class
Engine Starting Compressed air starting
Lubrication System Forced lubrication by gear pump
Cylinder Arrangement In-line type In-line type In-line type V-type V-type
Number of Cylinders 6 6 8 12 16
Bore x Stroke 240 x 260 240 x 300 240 x 260 240 x 260 240 x 260
Displacement Itr. 71 81 94 141 188
Compression Ratio 12.7 (13.5) 12.4 (13.4) 12.7 (13.5) 12.7 (13.5) 12.7 ( 13.5)
Fuel Injection Pump Bosch type unit pump, 1 unit per cylinder
Fuel Injection Lines Double walled, equal shaped
Total Lub. Oil Capacity Itr. 370 370 490 450 600
Total Coolant Capacity Itr. 270 270 260 520 700

front down 14° 14° 14° 14° 14°
Max. Inclination angle, 14° 14° 14° 14°
front up 14°
std. Oil Pan
side to side 25° 25° 25° 25° 25°
Dry Weight kg 8400 8600 11,000 16,600 20,500
Specifications other than the standard specifications mentioned above may be available on request.
Rating information: all outputs mentioned in kW, valid up to 45 ° C without derating. Compression ratio related to engine application .
Application
Auxiliary Generator: Continuous duty under variable load conditions; 10% overload is available for max . 1 hr. per every 12 running hours.
Diesel Electric continuous: Continuous duty under variable load conditions; 10% overload is available for max . 25 hrs. per year on emergency basis.
Diesel Electric intermittent: Average load factor is 60 - 80%: operating hours: 3000- 4000hrs per year; 10% overload is available for max. 25 hrs. per year on
emergency basis. Medium Duty : Rating is intended for variable load applications during an unlimited time of annual operating hours such as work boats,
passenger vessels and ferry boats .
Heavy Duty: Rating is intended for 24hrs. running applications without load changing such as cargo vessels and fishing boats having little load cycling. Harbour
Tugboat: Rating is intended for 100% load applications and available 8hrs. out of 24hrs. such as HarbourTugboats.
The MITSUBISHI SU type engines are 4 stroke diesel engines with direct fuel injection and 4 valves per cylinder. The combination of MITSUBISHI'S own designed
turbochargers, highly efficient charge air coolers and high pressure fuel injection system, guarantees a perfect combustion, resulting in a low fuel consumption
and excellent follow up characteristics on load changings. The engine block and the hanger type main bearing supports have a very rigid design, the camshaft lies
high in the engine block . Wide inspection doors make inspection and maintenance of main bearings, crankshaft, camshaft and tappets very easy.
The main propulsion

engine on the mv Empire
of JR Shipping,
the Netherlands.
The author with his eldest son

Christiaan, Maritime Officer
Maersk Line. 2010. Training
course on board.
37
-
tw
_
— ——
. fc r
. Ik
—
-n
>
Wartsila X 72, a seven

cylinder two- stroke
crosshead engine.
Wartsila X 72 Operational features

Designed for Suez- max tankers, Cape-size bulk WinGD’s well proven electronically - controlled
carriers, Panamax and Sub - Panamax container common - rail technology plays a key role in enabling
vessels. ship owners to reduce fuel costs, mainly through
The wide rating field offers optimum propeller speed the flexibility of the fuel injection and exhaust valve
for different applications. operations. This flexibility results in lower fuel
consumption across the entire operating range,
Low fuel consumption thanks to optimal stroke- bore especially at low and part loads. In addition, different
parameters and advanced tuning methods. engine tunings; Standard , Delta, Delta By- Pass and
Fully compliant with IMO Tier II requirements. Low Load , are available in order to meet specific
Fully compliant with IMO Tier III NOx emission customer requirements.
levels when equipped with a SCR catalyst. Intelligent Combustion Control, ICC, system enables
Additional, scrubber solutions to reduce SOx further fuel savings and balanced working of each
emissions are available. cylinder.
Alternatively, an engine internal exhaust gas The engine is fully compliant with IMO Tier III
recirculation ( EGR ) is being developed and available NOx emission levels when equipped with a SCR
depending on requirements. catalyst system. The introduction of the EEDI
Available in 4 - cylinder up to 8 - cylinder index also puts an emphasis on C02 emissions and
configuration, covering a power range from 8,480 to total vessel efficiency.
28,880 kW at 66 to 89 rpm. The W- X72 s internal engine and propulsion
efficiencies, and the possibility to apply various
Wartsila and China State Shipbuilding Corporation , Power Take - Off ( PTO ) arrangements for on - board
CSSC, have established the company Winterthur Gas electricity production, makes it easier for shipyards
& Diesel Ltd. which takes over Wartsilas two -stroke to meet these new requirements. Waste Heat
crosshead engine business. Recovery, WHR , offers further possibilities for
maximizing energy efficiency and for reducing
emissions.
38
r CH 26 > DIESEL- ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
26.5 Diesel engines for ship others continues to increase. After a merger,
propulsion and diesel - power certain types of engines are only maintained if
plants they are economically viable and after several
years the brand name disappears and an
26.5.1 Numbers increasing number of renowned international and
national trade- marks end up in the history books.
Obviously, the number of small engines 9 Fuel used. As a result of increasingly strict
manufactured in particular for categories I and II regulations regarding maximum emission levels
is enormous. Every year, hundreds of thousands for pollutants in exhaust gases and a growing
of engines are manufactured for various vessels realisation that supply of exploitable crude oil is
and other drives by a large number of engine finite, engine manufacturers and consumers are
manufacturers. These total approximately 15 million attempting to find alternative fuels. The diesel
diesel engines per annum. process where small amounts of liquid fuel are
In surveys of engines for shipping and diesel- combined with gaseous fuel, the so - called diesel/
power plants, the number of engines manufactured gas process, is for instance in development. The
annually is counted’ from a certain bottom limit , emissions are often lower in comparison with
that of shaft power ; often 1000 or 2000 kW. those of a regular diesel engine. The usage of
Obviously, when a large two -stroke low -speed bio -fuels, such as olive oil, palm oil, rape oil and
crosshead engine with fourteen cylinders in the other vegetable oils is also being developed. These
largest diameter is ordered, it attracts more attention fuels work C02 neutral , which means that they
in the industry than when a much smaller four- emit the same amount of C02 to the air during
stroke medium -speed diesel engine is ordered. combustion as they absorb from the atmosphere
during their growth.
26.5.2 Striking aspects of engine
manufacturing Also LNG has entered the market.
1 Major engine manufacturers produce a large -

See also our new book Gas -and dual fuel engines for
number of engine types in terms of cylinder ship propulsion, powerplants and cogeneration.
diameters, speed and power output . In this
manner, they endeavour to cover’ their market. Also see chapter 11, New fuel developments.
2 Engines in category I often start with a single
cylinder and move on to a six- cylinder in - line
arrangement. 26.6 Future of the diesel- engine
3 Engines in category II often start with a three - industry
or four-cylinder in -line arrangement and
move to sixteen - , eighteen - or twenty-cylinder Diesel-engine performances have to meet high
V-arrangements. requirements.
4 Engines in category III often start with a four- The legal regulations regarding emission levels for
cylinder in - line arrangement and move on to an pollutants are being applied to more areas in the
eighteen - cylinder V- arrangement. world and will become more stringent in the future.
5 Engines in category IV usually start with a four- Users of diesel engines demand an optimum
cylinder in - line arrangement and at present are service network and a growing number of these
produced with up to fourteen -cylinder in - line consumers operate worldwide. This means that
arrangements. engine manufacturers must maintain an extensive
6 Especially for category III with the limited service organisation . This is only economically viable
number of engine manufacturers, it is noticeable for large manufacturers.
that they often have engine programmes for the The development costs of new engine types are
same cylinder diameter. Other manufacturers extremely high . These costs are made to:
have 200, 250 and 320 mm cylinder diameters. a reduce fuel consumption;
7 The mean effective pressures and the mean piston b reduce lubricating oil consumption;
speeds are increasing due to keen competition c create a higher mean effective pressure;
between the manufacturers. Consequently the d produce a higher mean piston speed;
load parameter also increases! e create a higher load parameter ( c x d )\
8 Very few new engine manufacturers enter the f produce longer life for the engine parts;
market. However, the number of manufacturers g produce lower emissions;
that have closed their businesses or merged with h be suitable for alternative fuels;
39
i a lower specific weight; Alternative methods for energy generation other

j devise simple construction and maintenance than by diesel engines are:
friendly disassembly and assembly methods. - fuel cells;
- gas turbines;
There are numerous other points with which - hydrogen;
an engine manufacturer may stay ahead of the - kite sailing;
competition! - hybrid propulsion for smaller ships.
Due to above - mentioned reasons, many engine

manufacturers are either economically or due These alternatives could become successful and are
to organisational issues, no longer capable of dependent on numerous factors, so very little can be
developing new engines and discontinue certain said about the future developments at this time.
engine series, merge or simply close their business.
Over fifty per cent of the engine manufacturers
discontinued their businesses between 1950 and
2016.
Container ships.
Large, fast ships such as this

container ship from SAF
Marine, now Maersk Line
always have large two-stroke
crosshead engines, speeds of
100-120 revs/min, with a single
5 - or 6-bladed screw for
propulsion, propulsion in the
easiest and most effective
manner. Engine category IV,
cylinder diameter 800 mm and
greater.
40
CH 26 > D I E S E L - ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
The super container ship,

'Emma Maersk '
In 2007, the E-series of the

world's largest shipping
company, Denmark's Maersk,
was the first container ship
with container capacity of over
10,000 TEU, TEU = twenty-foot
equivalent unit, (a standard
container is 20 feet).
These ships were the first
since the use of two - stroke
crosshead engines over
twelve cylinders in-line,
a fourteen-cylinder engine.
In February 2011, the next generation of super container Propulsion efficiency: The lowest possible rpm with the
vessels were ordered by Maersk. largest possible propeller area allow the
Data: Triple E-class. highest propulsion efficiency with
Dimensions: Length : 400 metres lowest fuel consumption.
Height : 73 metres
Beam: 59 metres Each ship will sail 115,000 sea miles yearly, approximately
Draft : 14.5 metres 4.5 times around the world.
Capacity: 18,000 TEU The 10 ships will be launched between 2013 and 2015.
Deadweight: displacement 165,000 metric tonnes.
Max. speed: 23 knots. Triple E stands for: Economy, Energy and Environment.
Transport costs costs are 26% lower than the present 1 Economy, transporting more containers while using less
per container: super container ships that can transport energy. Due to its size, energy consumption compared to the
13,100 TEU. Emma Maersk class is reduced.
C02 emissions: 20% lower per container than the 2 Energy, increased energy efficiency. The ship is designed for
13,100 TEU class. slower speeds and has a heat recovery system.
Propulsion: two ultra -long two- stroke crosshead 3 Environment, reduction of harmful emissions, such as C02
engines each with its own propeller. emissions.
Power output: New Triple E: 65-70 MW. Energy consumption per container is expected to be 50%
Emma Maersk : 80 MW, single engine. lower. The materials used in its construction can also be fully
Revolutions per minute: 80 rpm. and responsibly recycled.
2 main engines: Manufacturer: MAN Diesel.
Type: Man Diesel G series, two engines with a Maersk has chosen for two two-stroke crosshead engines with
total shaft power of 63 MW, ultra-long two large screws, the 'twin skeg' principle. A slower operating
stroke resulting in a lower rpm requiring speed compared to the Emma Maersk class of 23 knots instead of
a larger propeller area , 25 knots translates to a fuel savings of 19%.
Extra: the exhaust gases are partially used to The 'twin skeg' principle allows for an extra 4% fuel savings
generate electricity with an exhaust - gas compared to a single screw.
boiler and a steam-turbine genset.
Screw diameters: New Triple E: 9.8 metres with four blades.
Emma Maersk: 9.6 metres with
six blades.
41
The LNG tanker Maersk Ras Laffan.
Anno 2016, more and more tankers to transport LPG (Liquefied

Petroleum Gas) and LNG (Liquefied Nitrogen Gas) are being built.
They are mostly propelled by four-stroke or two - stroke 'Dual- Fuel'
engines.
Using the cargo gas together with a small amount of liquid fuel as
an ignition source for the engine, these propulsion installations
have very low harmful emissions.
The latter is a very important fact, now in 2017, and in the near
future.
The passenger ship, the 'Zuiderdam' of the Holland America

Line.
These 'floating hotels' with thousands of passengers use a great

deal of energy for their accommodation next to the energy
required for propulsion.
This energy is generated by large medium- speed four- stroke
diesel engines in category III, fuel HFO.
The water and power plant of Aruba, the WEB .
The water and electricity company uses together with the older
steam power plant, four-stroke medium-speed diesel engines,
engine category III .

Besides the existing engines from Wartsila, the Vasaa and
Wartsila 32, four new gensets with Wartsila 12V46 engines are
installed in 2011.
42
The three - masted Athena, one of the largest private sailing

yachts in the world.
Yachts are frequently fitted with propulsion and generator

engines of engine categories I and II, the highspeed four-stroke
diesel engine, fuel MDO, Marine Diesel Oil.
Dual- fuel engines.
A sector that is rapidly developing is that of engines using the

dual-fuel principle. Both the four- stroke medium- speed engines,
category III, as the two -stroke low- speed crosshead engines,
category IV, are used.

Here's a MAN Diesel ME-GI two stroke crosshead engine for an
LNG tanker. They are also increasingly common in diesel -power
plants.
Power plants all over the world.
Transportation of the many engines used in power plants is often

spectacular. Using low-loaders, ships, trains and shown here, a
cantilever system, the engines finally reach their destination.
43
The development of MAK four - stroke diesel engines

between 1950 and 2010.
The continuous development of this principle for a higher

efficiency has been a laborious and expensive process since the
first test of a diesel engine by Rudolf Diesel at MAN in Augsburg,
Germany. Customers demand ever increasing power outputs
from the same stroke volume, therefore the mean effective
pressure must increase and with this the speed.
Occasionally remarkable steps are made, such as, supercharging
with turbochargers driven by the exhaust gases, a better piston
ring packet with lubrication or the antipolishing ring.
Another step that will be taken in 2011 is an even greater
charging pressure, this is achieved by two turbochargers in series
with the four- stroke engine.
Left: the piston of a Krupp-Diesel with a cylinder diameter of

571 mm weighing 300 kg. Cylinder power output, 300 kW.
Material: one-piece forged aluminium alloy.
Right: the piston of a Caterpillar MaK 25 with a cylinder diameter
of 255 mm weighing 46 kg. Cylinder power output, 300 kW.
Material: forged steel alloy piston crown with cast iron skirt.
Two parts.
26.7 Overview of diesel engines

ordered in 2015
Four- Stroke Medium Speed figures: Four- stroke medium speed Propulsion
Overview of medium speed propulsion engines ordered in 2015 in MW
Unknown Wartsila
Propulsion > 0.5 MW Market share 24% 25%
Wartsila 1, 128 24.70%
MAN Diesel & Turbo 1,018 22.30%
Caterpillar MaK 459 10.05%
RRM Bergen 190 4.16%

Other /
8%
Niigata 183 4.01%
Daihatsu 1%
Yanmar 74 1.62% Yanmar 2%
Daihatsu 45 0.99%
Niigata
% J MAN Diesel
M 8 \ jrbo
Other 369 8.08% 4% >
J22%
Unknown 1,100 24.09% Rolls Royce Bergen
4%
Sum total market 4,566 100%
Caterpillar MaK
10%
44
Overview of medium speed auxiliary engines ordered in 2015 in MW Four- stroke medium speed Auxiliary
Auxiliary > 0.5 MW Market share Wartsila 2% Mitsubishi 0%

Cummins 2% | | Other 3%
Himsen 2,124 32.49%
Caterpillar 4% ^w
Daihatsu 1,799 27.52% Yanmar Himsen

9% 32%
Yanmar 604 9.24%
Caterpillar 245 3.75%
Cummins 118 1.80%
1.74% MAN Diesel

Wartsila 114
& Turbo
Mitsubishi 20 0.31% 21% A
Other 165 2.52%
Unknown 0 0.00%

Daihatsu
27%
Overview of medium speed propulsion and auxiliary engines ordered in Four- stroke medium speed Auxiliary
2015 in MW
Unknown 10%
Propulsion + Auxiliary > 0.5 MW Market share MAN Diesel & Turbo
Other
12%
Himsen 2,124 19.13 %
Daihatsu 1,844 16.61%

Caterpillar MaK 4%
Wartsila 1,242 11.19%
Yanmar 678 6.11% Yanmar 6%
Caterpillar MaK 459 4.13% Himsen
Other 1,290 11.62%
Unknown 1,100 9.91%

Wartsila
Sum total market 11,104 100% 21%
Daihatsu
17%
Overview of low speed propulsion engines ordered in 2015 in MW Low speed market share 2015
Propulsion > 0.5 MW Market share Mitsubishi 2% Unknown 3%

MAN Diesel & Turbo 17,865 86.31% Wartsila /WinGD 9%
Wartsila /WinGD 1,865 9.02%
Mitsubishi 471 2.27%
Unknown 498 2.40%
MAN Diesel & Turbo

86%
45
'
DIESEL ENGINES > B O O K III
26.8 Complete list of diesel engine

manufacturers, March 2016
Contents Diesel Publications. John Deere Power Systems ( 305 Diesel Engines )
ABC - Anglo Belgian Corporation N.V. 102 Diesel JSC ZVEZDA ( 7 Diesel Engines)
Engines) KOLHER Engines ( 126 Diesel Engines )
AGCO Power Diesel Engines) Kubota Corporation 117 Diesel Engines)
Akasaka Diesels Ltd. [ 3 Diesel Engines) Liebherr-Components AG ( 37 Diesel Engines)
Briggs 8c Stratton Commercial Power Lister Petter Limited
Burmeister 8c Wain Scandinavian Contractor A /S Lovol Engines
Caterpillar Inc. - Energy 8c Transportation ' 73 Diesel MAN Diesel & Turbo SE ( 354 Diesel Engines )
Engines) MAN Truck 8c Bus AG 107 Diesel Engines )
Caterpillar Inc. - Marine Power Systems MarineDiesel Sweden AB (49 Diesel Engines)
CJSC Transmasholding/ PJSC Kolemensky Zavod Mitsubishi Fuso Truck 8c Bus Corp.
(9 Diesel Engines) Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. Engine Division
Compagnia Tecnica Motori S. p.A. ( 490 Diesel Engines )
CRM s. r.l. Motori Marini ( 8 Diesel Engines ) Mitsui Engineering 8c Shipbuilding Co. Ltd.
Cummins Inc. 9 Diesel Engines ) ( II Diesel Engines)
Cummins Power Generation Mitsui Engineering 8c Shipbuilding Co. Ltd.
Cummins Westport Inc. ( 6 Diesel Engines) (11 Diesel Engines )
Daihatsu Diesel Mfg. Co. Ltd. 22 Diesel Engines ) Moteurs Baudouin 13 Diesel Engines)
DEUTZ AG (260 Diesel Engines) Motorenfabrik Hatz GmbH 8c Co. KG ( 63 Diesel
Diesel United Ltd. 19 Diesel E ngines) Engines )
Doosan Infracore Co. Ltd. Engine 8c Material BG MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH ( 202 Diesel Engines)
( 107 Diesel Engines) Niigata Power Systems Co. Ltd. (43 Diesel Engines)
Fairbanks Morse Engine ( 45 Diesel Engines ) Perkins Engines Company Ltd .
FPT Industrial ( 266 Diesel Engines ) Rolls- Royce ( 73 Diesel Engines )
Greaves Cotton Limited Rumo JSC ( 22 Diesel Engines)
Greaves Farymann Diesel GmbH Scania 14 Diesel Engines )
H. Cegielski - Poznan S.A. 162 Diesel Engines ) Seatek ( 6 Diesel Engines)
Hanshin Diesel Works Ltd . STEYR MOTORS GmbH
Hino Motors Ltd . Tedom ( 29 Diesel Engines)
Hitachi Zosen Corporation Tianjin Lovol Engines Co., Ltd.
Isotta Fraschini Motori S. p.A. ( 25 Diesel Engines ) Volvo Penta of the Americas ( 422 Diesel Engines)
Isuzu Motors America, LLC ( 26 Diesel Engines ) Wartsila Corporation
Isuzu Motors America, LLC ( 26 Diesel Engines) Weifang Huadong Diesel Engine Co. Ltd ( 14 Diesel
JCB Power Products Engines )
JCB Power Systems Ltd. ( 62 Diesel Engines) Yanmar Europe B. V. ( 89 Diesel Engines)
26.9 Some examples of new Load factor CP mean x PmMn f f = 13.6 x 21.8 =
mean ,err
diesel engines with high 296.84 bar / m / s.
load parameters For a ‘ high’ medium speed engine a high load factor.
MAN 175 D - 12 V 175 D, medium duty Wartsila 31

Data: power 2, 220 kW, 900 rev/ min . Stroke 215 mm . Power per cylinder 610 kW.
Weight 8,500 kg. Bore 310 mm , stroke 430 mm .
Mean effective pressure 30.1 bar.
n
—4 x D72z x S„ x —a x Z x pmean eff
7i .
750 rev/ min .
Mean piston speed 10.75 m / s.
3.14 900 1
2.2 = x 0.1752 x 0.215 x x — x 12 x p mean eff
4 60
Load factor = 10.75 x 30.1 = 323.6 bar / m / s.
Pm
r mean
pan ett = 2.18 MPa or 21.8 bar
cP mean = 2 x S x n = 2 x 0.25 x 1900/60 = 13.6 m /s. A very high load factor!
A very high mean piston speed!
46
Preparing to tow near an

oil field off the coast of
Nigeria .
Both the large tow-boat and

the platform are equipped
with large four-stroke medium-
speed diesel engines running
on HFO, category III.
The 'Berlin Express' from

Hapag Lloyd approaches
the container harbour at
Hamburg, Germany.
These ships are equipped with

all the engine categories:
- life -boat engines, category I;
- emergency generator,
category II;
- gensets, category III;
- propulsion engine,
category IV.
A large ship suitable for all

kinds of sea rescues.
Equipped with MAN Diesel

engines, category III.
47
26.10 The development of the The market requirements for a two -stroke marine
modern low - speed two - diesel engine differ profoundly from engines in other
stroke marine diesel engine segments of the marine and automotive industries.
The engine designer is obliged to correctly select
Cimac Congress Helsinki June 6-10, 2016 the power output and the speed of the engine
independently, since the engine is directly
Andreas Kyrtatos, Winterthur Gas & Diesel connected to the propeller without a gearbox. This
Marc Spahni, Winterthur Gas & Diesel attribute of the low speed engine, added to the low
Sebastian Hensel, Winterthur Gas & Diesel production volumes characteristic of the merchant
Reto Ziiger, Winterthur Gas & Diesel shipbuilding market, makes the low - speed engine
Gregory Sudwoj, Winterthur Gas & Diesel a highly customised product , tailor made for each
application.
This paper has been presented and published on the The purpose of this paper is to give an overview
occasion of the 28th CIMAC World Congress 2016 of the development of the modern low-speed
in Helsinki. two -stroke marine diesel engine from the engine
The CIMAC Congress is held every three years, each designer s point of view starting from the market
time in a different member country. requirements for power and speed , with insights that
The Congress programme centres around the are relevant for the whole industry.
presentation of technical papers on engine research
and development , application engineering on the A presentation will be made of:
original equipment side and engine operation and - the basic thermodynamic layout of the engine,
maintenance on the end - user side. - the dimensioning and design criteria determining
The topics of the 2016 event covered product the size and design concept of the powertrain and
development of gas and diesel engines, fuel injection, structure parts,
turbochargers, components 8c tribology, controls - the design concepts for the hot parts and cylinder
8c automation , exhaust gas after treatment , basic lubrication,

research 8c advanced engineering, system integration - the choices the engine designer has to make
8c optimization , fuels 8c lubricants, as well as users’ regarding core ancillary systems such as the fuel
aspects for marine and land based applications. injection and exhaust valve actuation systems,
The copyright of this paper is with CIMAC. - the automation 8c control systems governing the
modern electronic engine.
ABSTRACT Particular focus will be placed on the trade - off

the engine designer (licensor ) is challenged with
The prime mover of merchant ships has been for in terms of reliability, cost, manufacturability and
more than a century the marine diesel engine, which serviceability of the engine, in order to make a
is nowadays predominantly a low-speed, two -stroke, competitive product for his customers, which are
crosshead - type, reversible, uniflow-scavenged , obviously ship owners, but also engine makers
turbocharged, electronic engine. ( licensees) and shipyards.
The low speed engine is, because of its size, the Additionally, the tools and methods that the engine
most efficient thermal machine and, due to its fewer designer of the modern two-stroke marine diesel
cylinders and consequently fewer moving parts, engine has at his disposal will be described in the
particularly reliable. The two - stroke cycle is applied context of the development process.
to maximise the power to weight ratio and minimise
engine size. 26.10.1 Introduction
Due to the low speed required and the finite
maximum piston speed achievable, the marine The prime mover of merchant ships has been for
engine features a very high stroke to bore ratio, more than a century primarily the marine diesel
which in turn is the main reason for the crosshead engine, which is nowadays predominantly a low-
design and the uniflow-scavenging concept. speed, two - stroke, crosshead - type, reversible,
Since the long two -stroke engine needs to be force uniflow-scavenged , turbocharged , electronically
scavenged , the two -stroke marine diesel engine is controlled engine.
invariably also turbocharged. Finally, the demand The low-speed engine is, because of its size, the
for flexible engine tuning, optimised throughout most efficient thermal machine and, due to its fewer
the load range dictates the use of electronic engine cylinders and consequently fewer moving parts,
control. particularly reliable.
48
CH26 > DIESEL - E N G I N E S MANUFACTURERS
Large size means that the lower surface- to - volume ( licensor ) is challenged with in order to make a
ratios in the combustion chamber will result in lower competitive product for his customers, which are
heat transfer losses. obviously ship owners, but also engine makers
The two -stroke cycle is applied to maximise the ( licensees ) and shipyards. Marine two -stroke engines
power to- weight ratio, minimise engine size and for are typically made by engine makers who license
reversibility. the designs from a licensor (engine designer ).
Additionally, the tools and methods that the engine
Due to the low speed required and the finite designer of the modern two stroke engine has at
maximum piston speed achievable, the marine his disposal will be described in the context of the
engine features a very high stroke- to - bore ratio, development process.
which in turn is the main reason for the crosshead
design and the uniflow scavenging concept . Due to 26.10.1.1 Market requirements
the two - stroke concept and the typically long stroke, The most important market requirements for marine
the marine diesel engine is invariably turbocharged. diesel engines, which shape the basic engine design ,
Finally, the demand for flexible engine tuning, are the following:
optimised throughout the load range dictates the use - Engine Power: the fundamental requirement in
of electronic engine control. order to propel a certain vessel at a certain speed
is engine power.
The market requirements for a two -stroke marine - Engine speed: required engine speeds are very
diesel engine differ profoundly from engines in other low compared to other segments in order to
segments of the marine and automotive industries. optimise propulsion efficiency with propellers as
The engine designer is obliged to correctly select large as allowable by the vessel design. To obtain
the power output at the correct speed , since the these low speeds, ranging 1 - 2 Hz, the engine
engine is directly connected to the propeller without designer chooses high stroke - to - bore ratios.
a gearbox. This attribute of the low-speed engine, - Expected lifetime: the expected lifetime of a
added to the low production volumes characteristic marine two-stroke engine is at least an order of
of merchant shipbuilding market , makes the low - magnitude higher than an automotive engine.
speed engine a highly customised product , tailor Typical engine lifetime: auto 6,000 hours, marine
made for each application . 150, 000 hours.
- Engine footprint: the engine footprint refers
The purpose of this paper is to give an overview mainly to the engine base and the Piston
of the development of the modern low -speed Dismantling Height , PDH. Slim engines can be
two -stroke marine diesel engine from the engine installed far back into the vessel hull and lower
designer’s, Winterthur Gas & Diesel, WinGD, point PDH accounts for lower engine room height; both
of view starting from the market requirements for characteristics optimising cargo capacity.
power and speed , with insights and design choices
that are relevant for the whole industry. Equally important requirements shared with other
A presentation will be made of: engine industries include emissions (adhering
- The basic thermodynamic layout of the engine, to regulations), fuel and lube oil consumption ,
- The dimensioning and design criteria reliability, service friendliness and manufacturing
determining the size and design concept of the cost. During the engine development , the engine
powertrain and engine structure parts, designer tries to balance these requirements
- The design concepts for the hot parts and cylinder optimising the trade - offs arising such as reliability vs.
lubrication, manufacturing cost, fuel consumption vs. emissions,
- The choices the engine designer has to make simplicity and service friendliness vs. modern ,
regarding core ancillary systems such as the fuel sophisticated and flexible technology.
injection and exhaust valve actuation systems,
- The automation & control systems governing the 26.10.1.2 The two- stroke layout field
modern electronic engine, The two - stroke engine basic characteristic, which is
- A simplified view into the engine development derived directly from market requirements ( power
process divided in the above groups. and speed ), is the layout field. The layout field is
defined by four straight lines ( on a power-speed
Particular focus will be placed on the trade- off off diagram with log - log scales ) which represent the
in terms of reliability, cost , manufacturability and major design limitations.
serviceability of the engine that the engine designer
49
The two-stroke engine

layout field and certain
Engine Power [%]
100%
o
important influences to
basic engine dimensions
90%
o
and designs. 80%
70% @
60%
85% 90% 95% 100%
Engine Speed [%]
Stroke /bore ratio - Torque limit ( R 1 - R 3 ): A constant Mean Effective

5
Pressure, MEP, line which determines the
4-
3- t
dimensioning of the crankshaft, static & dynamic
2- torque, main bearing and hot parts.
1 - Speed limit ( R 1 - R 2): The highest permissible
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
speed, limited by tribological impacts for piston
[ m /s] Mean piston speed
running, Mean Piston Speed , MPS, max 9.5 m / s
10 in modern engines, and rotating masses which
9- TT also affect the size of the main bearing.
8-
; j
- Bearing layout limit ( R 3 - R4) : Crosshead bearing
7-
6- T and crank - pin bearing layout at maximum firing
5 pressure and lowest speed , lube oil film thickness
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
is at its lowest value at R3.
[ g /kWh ] Specific fuel consumption
- Scavenging limit ( R 2- R4) : Also a constant MEP
240 line, which represents the lower layout field limit
220 -
due to thermodynamic and scavenging effects:
200 -
high residual gases and diminishing benefit of
: derating.
180 - ~
T
160
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 These limitations will be described in more detail in
the paragraphs that follow.
[ bar ] Maximum cylinder pressure
200
i I 26.10.1.3 Main parameters for engine layout
—
180 -
160 1 X The stroke - to - bore ratio is the basic parameter that
140 - T
is derived from the layout field and determines the
120 -
100 -
H engines main dimensions. Generally, a trend towards
;
80 - - increasing stroke - to - bore ratios and mean piston
60 - : •
40 speed, needed to optimise propulsion efficiency

1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 with minimised propeller speeds, can be observed
throughout the last decades, as shown in the graphs
[bar ] Mean effective pressure
( left ).
24
22 -
20 -
18 -
16 -
—
1
14 -
12 - |
i
10 - 4.
8- Historical development of characteristic two- stroke engine
6 J + 1 i
parameters.
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
50
.
This trend leads, in principle, above a certain below for the purposes of this paper, and for better
stroke- to bore ratio, to a compromise in Specific Fuel understanding will be separated in thematic and/ or
Consumption , SFC, due to increasing scavenging, system sections.
throttling, friction , e.g. piston rings, and heat losses, The most important development steps that take
due to higher surface to volume ratio. The optimal place are the following:
stroke - to- bore ratio is difficult to pinpoint and - Predevelopment of technologies.
few studies have been made to that effect. In the - Design concept selection.
most recent known study in 2015 Mr. Parravicini - Determination of cylinder distance, as a basic
concludes that the optimum is around 3.5. However, dimension influencing all design groups along the
this tendency for increased SFC has been more than engine length .
compensated on the engine side by a steady increase - Main engine development, comprising:
in Maximum Cylinder Pressure, MCP, and MEP, - Thermodynamic & scavenging layout.
which can be observed throughout the past 60 years. - Powertrain & engine structure development.
The large step in SFC improvement was made in - Hot parts & piston running development.
the 1980’s with the introduction of the uniflow- - Fuel Injection & exhaust valve actuation
scavenged engine. Another major step, albeit application development.

influencing mainly part - load SFC has been the use of - Engine control system application
electronically controlled fuel injection. development . Technology developments,

e.g. fuel injection or engine control systems,
26.10.2 The engine development process: take place in parallel or even in advance
an overview of the engine development. Shown here is
the application development , which is the
26.10.2.1 Peculiarities of the two- stroke engine application of an existing technology to a new
business engine size.
The two -stroke engine business is characterised by - Adaptation and preparation of basic engine
a few peculiarities which have a significant effect on design for emission control methods.
the engine development and design . - Full engine vibration calculations to check for
Firstly, due to decentralised production, the licensee inadmissible natural frequencies.

model has been established over decades whereby - Component and sub -system testing on dedicated
the engine manufacturer, or licensee, builds the test benches and field tests.
engine under license from the engine designer, the - Prototype full engine test at the engine
licensor. This presents several organisational and manufacturer’s, licensee, premises.
technical challenges to the engine designer which - Factory Acceptance Test by the licensee.
will be described below. - Sea trial on the first vessel.
Secondly, due to the size of the engines and the
sheer investment needed for a prototype of each new The following diagram displays some of the most T
model, the prototype testing often takes place at the important process steps, which will be described in Overview of the engine
licensee’s premises, on a customer engine. detail in the paragraphs that follow: development process.
Thirdly, the broad use of Heavy Fuel Oil, HFO,
with significant sulphur content and viscosities up Pre -development
to 2000 cSt at 20 °C, requires several measures such Tech, development
as trace heating, specially developed fuel pumping Concept selection
and injection equipment and special alkaline oils for Cylinder distance
piston lubrication to deal with acidic combustion
Main development
residues.
Thermo & scavenge
Finally, the constantly changing nature and volatility
Powertrain & structure
of the marine shipping business and the variety
Hot parts & piston running
of vessels where the engines are applied require
Fuel injection & exhaust valve actuation
a high degree of engine customisation, which is
made possible by the low production volumes of Engine control system application
manufacturers. Preparation for emission control

Vibrations calculations
26.10.2.2 The engine development process Testing
The two - stroke engine development process is, Prototype
FAT
Sea Field
testing trail test
similarly to development in other engine segments,
highly iterative. The process will be simplified
51
Overview of the basic

engine components for
reference. A Wartsila 6
cylinder X 62 engine.
1 bedplate
2 column
3 cylinder block
4 tie rods
5 turning gear
6 flywheel
7 crankshaft
8 connecting rod
9 crosshead
I o piston
II glandboxpiston rod
12 cylinder liner
13 scavenge air ports
14 anti -polishing ring
15 cylinder cover
16 exhaust valve
17 exhaust valve drive
18 exhaust manifold
19 scavenge air receiver
20 supply unit
21 gearwheel supply unit
22 fuel pumps
23 rail unit
24 fuel common rail
25 fuel injector
26 servo oil rail
27 high pressure pipes
26.10.3 Thermodynamic & scavenging layout dimensions, firing pressure, scavenge pressure
and valve timing. These parameters are often
The optimisation of engine efficiency has always taken from engines with similar stroke - to - bore
been one of the most important targets of the ratios.
internal combustion engine developer. Therefore, the - In parallel , derating strategies are developed
engine development starts with the thermodynamic applying state of the art tuning methodologies.
layout. Whereby the engine is operated at same speed
and firing pressure but lower MEP leading to
26.10.3.1 Thermodynamic & scavenging layout higher overall efficiency and reduced friction
process losses.
The thermodynamic and scavenging layout - A zero - dimensional process calculation is then
determines fundamental dimensions of the engine made for the entire rating field , which gives
such as the shape of the combustion chamber, as output the first approximation of cylinder
size and location of the inlet ports, turbocharger pressure, exhaust flows, temperatures, injection
selection, cooler sizing, valve and injection timing, & valve timing, etc. This is used as input for the
etc. layout of powertrain , hot parts, fuel injection &
The most important steps in this development are hydraulics, scavenge system.
described below: - In an iterative process, with the above as input,
- Firstly, a semi - empirical, basic layout takes place the first dimensioning of the scavenge system
based on assumed inlet port and exhaust valve can be made, which is in turn used as an input
52
-J
CH26 > DIESEL- ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
for the first engine outlines and hot parts. The the desired firing pressure, design criteria for
combustion chamber is thence drafted in CAD. pressure gradients and the given compression
- Subsequently, CFD simulations of the scavenging ratio. A range of TCs is thus selected to fulfil these
and combustion processes are carried out requirements and optimize efficiency in different
for a single- cylinder geometry. The injection parts of the rating field.
parameters and injector geometry are optimized - SAC layout: The SAC is laid out for efficient
and an atomizer pre -selection is made in order cooling in order to minimise pressure losses
to keep the combustion chamber temperatures and increase overall engine efficiency while
within the required limits and optimize the minimising the volume for cost and space
SFC/ NOx trade - off. Extended studies also reasons. The scavenging air temperature is limited
allow combined analysis of the injection and by the temperature of the available cooling fluids.
combustion parameters together with the - Inlet port position & height: A higher port
scavenging process to optimize the inlet port height leads to higher scavenging efficiency but
shape since this highly influences the swirl to lower effective compression ratio, need to open
motion at TDC, the heat transfer and also the exhaust valve earlier, and hence reduction of
scavenging efficiency. engine work.
- Further, the Turbocharger, TC, allocation , - Exhaust valve diameter: A larger valve enhances
auxiliary blower selection and Scavenge Air the scavenging process whereas a smaller
Cooler, SAC, calculations are done and optimised diameter reduces the hydraulic forces to open it
in an iterative process in parallel with the and the cost of the expensive valve stem .
scavenge system design. - Exhaust duct angle: Generally as small, parallel
- The latter is subsequently checked with a stress to liner, as possible to reduce scavenging back
calculation , taking into account the temperature, pressure, albeit a trade - off exists with overall
pressure and weight of the parts. engine height and position / stability of exhaust
- After the design is finalised, the tuning is verified manifold.
on the prototype test engine where appropriate - Exhaust valve and injection timing: The exhaust
pressure and temperature measurements are valve and injection timing is used to control the
made. These measurements are used to check the combustion phasing and to adjust the effective
process calculation and ensure that the boundary compression ratio. Electronic engines offer
conditions have been correct. the possibility of Miller timing and sequential
injection to optimize efficiency and control
The process simulation tools used throughout emissions.
this process have been developed and maintained
over decades within WinGD ( and predecessor 26.10.4 Powertrain & engine structure
companies) and are specifically optimised for the
application on large marine two -stroke engines. 26.10.4.1 Cylinder distance
In slow-speed two -stroke engines the cylinder
26.10.3.2 Concept, design and component distance, and consequently engine length ,
choices are invariably determined by the powertrain
Throughout the thermodynamic & scavenging layout, which takes place in parallel with the
layout, the engine designer has several concept, thermodynamic layout. The cylinder distance
design and component choices to make, some of the determination is central to the engine development
significant ones are listed below: since it gives the geometrical boundary conditions
- Maximum firing pressure: Generally higher for most other design groups. The figure below
firing pressures lead to higher efficiency at the shows a cross section of the crankshaft and the
expense of higher NOx emissions and higher cylinder distance, which comprises:
loading on crosshead - and crank pin bearings,
combustion chamber parts and engine structure.
- Compression ratio: Higher compression ratio Cross- section of crankshaft
leads to increased thermal efficiency, limited by ^ crankpin bearing
throw; properties
Shrink fit length
heat and scavenging losses, tribology aspects influencing the cylinder
and increasing NOx emissions due to higher distance.
combustion temperatures. t
I
Q
- TC-selection: The required volume flow of the
TC is given by the scavenging demand , whereas
^ main bearing
the desired scavenging pressure results from Cyl. distance
53
The width of the crankpin bearing (w- crankpin Results of Elasto- Hydro- Dynamic calculations,
bearing ), which is mainly determined by the EHD, for the bearings are taken into account.
maximum firing pressure and minimum engine EHD calculations are used to determine bearing
speed. load taking into account the forces, bearing
The width of the main bearing ( w- main bearing ) , hydrodynamic behaviour of the bearings and
which is primarily laid out according to engine elasticity of the engine structure.
power, speed and rotating masses of crankshaft After determination of all crank train parameters,
and connecting rod. a final stress and strain calculation for the engine
The shrink fit length , which depends on the structure can be carried out.
required transmissible torque, web geometry,
journal diameter and crankshaft material. 26.10.4.3 Concept, design and material choices
Throughout this development process the engine
The selected cylinder distance is checked against other designer is confronted with numerous choices for
possible influences, such as connecting rod thickness, design concepts, trade - offs and material choices, the
crosshead bearing or cylinder cover arrangement , most important of which are described below:
bolts and valves. Historically, two-stroke engines have - Engine height vs. width: There exists
a clear
had uniform cylinder distance, but modern engines trade - off between crankshaft centreline height ,
such as the Wartsila - X92 feature variable cylinder which affects total engine height , and bedplate
distance. Variable cylinder distance reduces the engine width for a given stroke.
length by optimising the cylinder distance on the free A higher crankshaft centreline height ( b ) allows
end , taking advantage of the reduced torque that the a narrower, lower part, bedplate width but results
crankshaft is carrying on that end. in a higher overall engine height . The bedplate
side walls are often slanted in order to optimise
26.10.4.2 Development process the width at the bottom but still allow for enough
The development of the engine powertrain goes space for the swing radius ( a ) at centreline height.
hand in hand with the engine structure, since the The total height of a modern two -stroke marine
forces from the crankshaft influence the structure Diesel engine is normally approximately 3.5 times
and in turn the behaviour of the structure influences
the powertrain . A simplified description of the
development process for the powertrain and engine
structure is laid out in the following steps:
- Based on the bore, stroke, rating field and
cylinder pressure specifications an initial
estimation is made for width of main bearing, d
crank web, shrink fit length, and crankpin
bearing, which gives the first cylinder distance.
- In parallel, gas excitation files for the new engine
are created from the cylinder pressure curves at
various points on the rating field . Files containing
the force vectors, magnitude and distance, on the
crankshaft, from combustion, over time.
- Subsequently, with an assumed shaft line and *
propeller for a suitable marine installation, first
dynamic calculations are carried out to evaluate e
b
the main powertrain dimensions.
i f
- A first stress calculation of the new engine

structure, bedplate and column , can then be
performed in order to determine the main
structure dimensions. Illustration of trade-off between crankshaft centreline
- If evaluation of dynamic behaviour for the height and bedplate width.
crankshaft is accepted, then detailed layout and
design of crank train are carried out . a : swing diameter
- Based on final crank train data and updated b: crankshaft centreline height
engine structure, the optimization of firing c: stroke
order for crankshaft in regards to free forces and d: width of column
moments and crankshaft vibrations is started . e: height of split
54
CH26 > DIESEL -ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
engine stroke, and depends on: stroke, crankshaft by EHD calculation. Depending on the bearing
centreline height, connecting rod and stuffing box location there are different influence parameters
design . The piston dismantling height is about and challenges. First and foremost , the main
4.5 times the stroke. bearing can be subject to high edge load such
- Crankshaft: Low speed two-stroke engine that a certain flexibility for tilting of the bearing
crankshafts differ from crankshafts in other housing is beneficial. On the other hand ,
engine segments in two main characteristics: crosshead and crank pin bearings do not face
I ) the semi build construction due to limitations any inclination of the bearing pin but some other
of casting and forging for such sizes and strokes, challenges such as low hydrodynamic speed and
II ) the materials used . The crankshaft layout pin lift - off. For the crosshead bearing there are
is first and foremost based on basic guidelines some additional restrictions caused by the space
given by classification societies for semi- built availability for part dismantling, e.g. guide shoe,
crankshafts based on input parameters such as and removal out of the engine, e.g. the maximum
engine power and torque, torsional vibration diameter of the crosshead pin is restricted by the
limits, geometrical parameters such as shrink width of the column doors.
fit diameter, etc. There are two basic materials - Oil supply to piston & crosshead bearing: The
typically used for semi built crankshafts, namely oil supply for the connecting rod bearings and
a carbon steel, M60.6, and an alloyed steel, for the piston cooling system is ensured on most
34CrNiMo6, with a higher yield strength . Wartsila engines by the knee lever. The alternative
- Bedplate: The two -stroke marine Diesel engine design being the telescopic pipe, as applied for
mostly comprises a welded structure, which is example on the Wartsila RT-flex50. The design of
preferred to cast structures for reasons of size and the knee lever can accommodate a twin - circuit
production volume. The most important design system, which permits the differentiation of the
choice for the bedplate, the lower structure part , pressure level for piston cooling from crosshead
is single or double wall design . A single wall bearing lubrication oil. This feature is increasingly
bedplate is more flexible to tilting of the main important since higher firing pressures are
bearing housing, but introduces other challenges needed to optimise SFC, which increase the load
such as the fixing of the tie rods to the girder. on the crosshead bearing above the limit for a
An important design feature of the bedplate is the given diameter. This limit is increased by applying
thrust bearing, laid out to withstand the vessel’s high pressure crosshead bearing oil supply. Due to
thrust , which consists of a certain amount of the hydrostatic effect from the higher pressure.
pads arranged in an incomplete circle. The angle
where the pads can be placed is limited by the 26.10.4.4 Manufacturing limitations
flexibility of the structure, and the total bearing Due to the sheer engine size of the largest engine
area is determined by the lining material used and models, such as the Wartsila X92, manufacturers
the expected dynamic thrust. Importantly, the often come to size limitations with several
vertical position of the geometrical centre of the components, such as, but not limited to:
thrust bearing influences the tilting of the thrust - Crankshaft size & weight: foundry capacity,
bearing shaft and thus also the load distribution the crankshaft webs are free - forged out of one
of the neighbouring main bearings as well as the ingot , and capacity of the largest foundries
intermediate bearings of the propeller shaft. is approximately 60 tonnes nowadays, rough
Column: Similar to the bedplate, the column , and final machining lathe size, limited by the
which is sandwiched’ between the bedplate and stroke, and crankshaft weight due to crane
the cylinder block, can be single or double walled . capacity limitation for crankshaft assembly at
The single wall design , which is generally simpler manufacturer and engine assembly at licensee.
to produce, is heavily influenced by the guide - Bedplate size: the welded two - stroke bedplate
shoe lateral forces. An additional design choice is Post - Weld Heat Treated, PWHT, to remove
is the fixation of the tie rods, which are four per residual stresses from welding, creating a
cylinder for single wall column design and two limitation for large engines due to the size of the
per cylinder for double wall design , placement of PWHT oven .
tie rods between the walls. - Column height: the column height , which is
- Bearings: The bearing forces are the main drivers determined by the engine stroke, is limited by
of the stresses in the bearing, whereas conversely the size of the Piano- miller for the milling of the
the stiffness of the housing is influencing the crosshead guide rails, the counterpart of the guide
bearing behaviour. The interaction between shoe.
bearing housing and the crankshaft is calculated
55
26.10.5 Hot parts & piston running
.
26.10 5.1 Requirements
The requirements for the hot part components
are diverse and often conflicting with each other.
Component temperatures of 600 °C and above
presuppose the correct material selection and a
proper cooling. The thermal stresses, caused by the
temperature gradients, have to be considered in
the low- cycle behaviour analysis. The components
around the combustion space are bolted together
with elastic studs, which are pre- tensioned such
that no leakage and no dynamic sliding between the
components occurs. Finally, the level of dynamic
stress in the different components, induced by the Finite Element ( FE) model of the combustion chamber
cylinder pressure, may not exceed the set limits. components, i.e. hot parts.
One of the main contributors to the reliability of

a two -stroke marine Diesel engine is the piston - The stress calculations are iterated with CFD
running behaviour, which is directly linked to the calculations for cooling efficiency of the parts.
design of the hot parts. The standard measures - Stress and hydrodynamic, piston rings,
applied on modern Wartsila engines have already calculations of are performed on piston running
been verified for many years. They include: components.
- Liner of the appropriate material. - The layout of the entire exhaust valve drive is
- Careful turning and deep plateau honing of the done in parallel with the hydraulic layout to
liner running surface for fast and trouble - free determine the dimensions of the actuator piston
running - in. and the maximal hydraulic pressures, which
- Three chromium -ceramic coated , pre - profiled are used for the mechanical calculations of the
piston rings. actuator housing. The valve cage is optimised
- Chromium layer with ample thickness in the taking into account mechanical loads and
piston ring grooves. deformations by means of FE - calculation.
- Anti - polishing ring at the top of the cylinder liner - A s a final step, the hot parts are checked for
to scrape off deposits on the piston crown . compatibility with the surrounding engine
- Removal of condensed water from the scavenge structure components.
air by underslung and water separator.
- Cylinder lubrication by the Wartsila Pulse 26.10.5.3 Concept, design and material choices
Lubricating System , PLS. - Cylinder liner & cover: The uppermost part
of the cylinder liner is highly thermally and
.
26.10 5.2 Development process mechanically loaded since it is directly exposed
- In a first step the concepts, e.g. cylinder liner with to the combustion . The required cooling effect
or without bore - cooling, and main dimensions and part rigidity can be achieved by a thick collar
are defined based on existing similar engines with a row of cooling bores and water as coolant.
with inputs such as stroke - to - bore, compression Only the smallest engines have a more simple
ratio, port geometry and cylinder pressure from cylindrical cooling water space.
thermodynamic layout.
- The concepts are then verified and the dimensions
defined in several iteration circles. With first input
from the piston running experts, proposals are
made for combustion chamber design, exhaust
duct angle, cylinder jacket , piston height , piston
cooling, etc.
- Starting from the cylinder liner and cover only,
quasi -static stress calculations with forces and
temperature influence are made and gradually
refined to include the surrounding components Upper part of cylinder liner with bore cooling ( left) and
such as cylinder jacket and exhaust valve. cylindrical cooling water space (right).
56
CH 26 > DIESEL - E N G I N E S MANUFACTURERS
The cylinder liners are made from a grey cast iron keep the temperatures around the piston rings
alloy which offers the best compromise between within a certain range.
manufacturability, piston running behaviour and The piston is exposed to pressures up to 200 bar,
mechanical properties. so it is designed such that the stresses and
The free-standing cylinder liner is ‘sandwiched’ deformations caused by the combustion forces
between the cylinder block and the cylinder remain within the limits. The main piston
cover by the cylinder cover studs. The bolts are components: piston head, skirt and rod including
pre - tensioned so that most of the dynamic stress their bolting have to be designed very carefully to
induced by the cylinder pressure is experienced avoid any dynamic sliding at the joint faces.
as a relaxation in the compression of the cylinder - Exhaust Valve: The diameter of the exhaust valve
liner instead of a strain on the studs. The pre - is one of the first parameters that is determined
tension force of the cylinder cover studs has to be for a new engine type as it is significant for the
determined very carefully as the cylinder cover thermodynamic layout. Today the diameter of the
acts as relief valve of the combustion space: it valve disc is typically in the range of 0.5 x bore
needs to be tight during normal operation but has diameter ; a good compromise between engine
to lift - off before major engine components, piston performance, manufacturing cost and power
or connecting rod , are damaged due to excessive demand for the valve drive.
cylinder pressures, e.g. > 130% of layout pressure. The temperatures of the exhaust valve spindle
Additionally no dynamic sliding is allowed typically reach more than 600 °C since there
between the cylinder cover and liner. is no cooling of the spindle itself. Excessive
- Piston: Finding a proper cooling is one of the material loss on the combustion space due to high
main challenges for the piston designer. With temperature corrosion can only be prevented
the so -called jet - shaker cooling principle, by the use of high alloy steels, including high
which is applied on most Wartsila engines, it chromium content , or equivalent welded
is possible to keep the temperatures below the protection layers, seen mostly on recent engines.
limit on the combustion space side as well as By employing a careful design of the exhaust valve
in the cooling bores. Too high temperatures at spindle and seat, the relative movement between
the piston top would lead to material losses due the two components under combustion pressure
to corrosive attack from the combustion gases. can be limited , else fretting would lead sooner or
Excessive temperatures in the cooling space can later to serious damages on both components.
lead to carbon deposit build - up with negative - Cylinder Lubrication System: As described
consequences to the cooling efficiency. For a earlier in this chapter the cylinder lubricating
reliable engine operation , it is also necessary to system is one of the contributing factors to a
reliable piston running behaviour. It is designed
to bring the right amount of cylinder oil at the
right time to the piston rings and the cylinder
liner surface. The target is to achieve a satisfactory
piston running behaviour at the lowest possible
oil feed rate since the costs of the oil are a
considerable part of the engine operating costs.
Typically the cylinder lubricating oil is regarded
as a maintenance cost, as opposed to operating
cost, which is paid by the vessel owner, instead
of the charterer. Thus cylinder oil consumption
is often at least as important as fuel consumption
in the choice of vessel and main engine, which is
made by the owner.
The cylinder oil is injected by four to ten,
depending on the engine size, lubricating quills to
the cylinder; about one third above the piston, the
rest either in the piston rings or below the piston .
This distribution pattern as well as the position of
the quills is carefully selected to achieve the best
possible oil distribution . The oil is provided to the
W- X 62 section, showing the three piston rings and cooling quills by means of an electronically controlled ,
concept. piston - type cylinder lubricating pump.
57
The fuel injection highlighted on a 6 cylinder W-X62

engine.
26.10.6 Fuel injection and exhaust valve 26.10.6.2 System architectures

actuation systems The available fuel injection system architectures for
the engine designer range from pump - line- nozzle
26.10.6.1 System requirements systems to advanced fully- flexible Common Rail,
The fuel injection and exhaust valve actuation CR , systems.
systems are core ancillary engine systems Since flexibility and fully variability in timing and
responsible for optimising the engine operation in injection pressure are key requirements, CR systems
variable conditions of load and speed. The major are the obvious single alternative for modern two -
requirements for these systems on the modern two - stroke marine diesel engines. WinGD, previously
stroke marine engine are: Wartsila Switzerland , has been developing CR
- Fully variable, timing and pressure, load systems since the late ’90s, with the first engine
independent fuel injection. equipped with an Injection Control Unit, ICU, in
- Accuracy, cylinder - to - cylinder, injector- to - 2000. This system features an engine - driven high -
injector. pressure fuel pump unit , and an ICU located on
- Very low, stable injection quantities. the high pressure fuel rail feeding a spring- loaded
- Multi - fuel & multiple injection capability. injector on the cylinder cover.
- Fully variable, load independent valve actuation . Since then WinGD has been developing the next
- Service ability, initial cost, maintenance cost . generation of CR systems based on the same HP fuel
actuated CR injector, in order to bring the injection
The above requirements present several important control closer to the cylinder cover. By doing so, the
trade- offs that are balanced differently with different volume of high pressure fuel between the switching
system architectures. The current changing market needle and the injector tip is minimised , enhancing
trends with very low fuel oil prices and very high the accuracy and multiple injection capability of
uncertainty in the dominant future technologies the system , useful for BSFC/ NOx optimisations
for fuel consumption optimisation and emission and engine thermal management . An overview of
abatement, make the flexibility and the multi -fuel the fuel injection system developments in the last
capability of the systems key requirements for the 30 years.
future.
58
CH26 > DIESEL- ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
1 st generation 2nd generation 3 rd generation 4th generation

RT- flex Wartsila X Fuel injection system
architectures developed
Solenoid actuated
common rail injectors throughout the past
ft
Volumetric injection 30 years for Sulzer and later
control unit
Individual, hydraulically Wartsila engines.
£
O
operated, electronically
controlled fuel injection 1
3
pumps
s V
O 1000 bar common rail
>
Q)
1000 bar common rail
U)
O 1000 bar in
O Jerk pump
C 1000 bar
_c oO
u
0> ou
Jerk pump
Common rail systems
8 bar fuel supply
8 bar fuel supply
*
2012
1981 1990 1998 2008
Modern Wartsila engines feature also a compact, 26.10.7 Engine control

powerful and cost efficient exhaust valve actuation
system , servo oil pumps, high pressure pipes, valves, 26.10.7.1 Basic requirements
exhaust valve control unit . With an operating The functional requirements for the Engine Control
pressure of 200 -300 bar supplied by engine - driven System, ECS, are dictated by thermodynamic
servo oil pumps, this common rail system offers and other, mechanical, tribological, functional
the designer full flexibility in exhaust valve timing, requirements.
giving the possibility to offer several different tunings Apart from several core functions which every ECS
for customised applications. has to perform for the electronically controlled
reciprocating engine, the ECS of the marine two -
26.10.6.3 System development process stroke low - speed engine has to fulfil additional
Fuel injection and exhaust valve actuation system requirements:
development is typically highly validation - intensive - Compliance with environmental and
with rigorous component and system rig testing Classification Society Rules.
and field testing before the validated parts can enter - A single ECS for both Diesel and DF engines.
serial production . The main development steps are - Modular hardware layout allowing prefabrication
outlined below: of engine sub- assemblies, e.g. Rail Unit .

- Concept and architecture decisions are made - Simple and cost efficient hardware installation for
with basic inputs such as power, speed , injection the engine builders and shipyards.
& valve timing, cylinder pressure, valve diameter - User friendliness for commissioning personnel as
and opening time and system flexibility. well as for the Operators/ Crews.
- First designs of the supply unit , rail unit , - Local and remote diagnostic possibilities.
injection and valve drive are made taking into - Redundancy and electromagnetic compatibility.
account geometrical considerations given from - Low power consumption .
powertrains, structure, hot parts, etc. - Low cost , long lifetime, retrofit ability and a
- Hydraulic and stress calculations are used to thoroughly planned obsolesce concept .
check the first designs.
- Component and sub-system validation , 26.10.7.2 Engine control system software
functionality, endurance, on rigs and field engines architecture
for several thousand hours. Iterations of the The engine control system software of a marine
design are made as needed. Diesel engine comprises four elements:
- Multi - disciplinary design reviews with hot parts, 1 . System/ platform software: the interface between
scavenge system and design finalisation. the engine hardware and the application software.
- Testing on prototype engine and final A differentiation should be made between engine
optimisation of system and component design . hardware , e.g. Fuel injectors, exhaust valve, etc.
59
User Interfaces and software tools 1 . System / platform software development:

Architecture of the engine The platform software development starts with
Application software
control system software. requirements analysis and processes’ definition .
c £
2« Particulars such as sampling rates, e.g. crank
fO cu
u £
a ro angle 1 kHz, task rates, e.g. 100Hz starting air pilot
Q. ro
< a valve control, and transmission priorities, e.g.
System software
highest priority on CAN - Bus is fuel command
Engine control hardware due to speed regulation, are decided at this stage
for all coexisting applications and internal level
processes. A wide range of parameters and dynamic
behaviours have to be considered , such as engine
and engine control hardware, cylinder control speeds, acceleration / deceleration ratios, etc., since a
modules, etc. Engine control hardware is typically single ECS covers an entire portfolio of engines.
not the core scope of the engine developer, as Initial tests and software performance
is the case in WinGD, and is, at least partly, optimisations are performed on the laboratory
outsourced to third parties. simulators. When pControllers, processors and
2. Application software: software controlling core transmission busload are optimised and software
engine functions. operations are validated the next level of testing
3. Application parameters: the engine- dependent takes place on the test engine and later on the
values embedded in the application software. production engines.
4. User interfaces and software tools: interfaces 2. Application software: The application software is
between engine and user and other software tool. the core knowledge of the engine developer. The
development process starts with requirements
26.10.7.3 Development process: from definition; based on this the definition of the
requirements to software control concept is started and the design is
The development process for control system done in a Simulink model. This model is then
software is carried out according to the so called optimised through several iterations and tests
V- process. The graph below visualises relations and in Simulink environment. After compilation to
dependencies between development steps from the processor / pController code, the optimised
requirements gathering and formulation to final Simulink model is tested on the laboratory
validation . simulator on the real hardware control modules.
After successful testing on the simulator, the
The process will be explained in more detail in the application is subject to final validation on the test
following steps, referring to the abovementioned engine and later on the production engine.
four elements. 3. Parameters definition: This element begins
with process definition , including Simulink
modelling and establishing a theoretically safe
T range of parameters for the particular process
Illustration of the V-process and application, e.g. overlap of fuel injection with
of software development. exhaust valve opening not allowed. Subsequently,
the first attempt to classify parameters into
Order
Q Delivery predefined groups takes place. Parameters are
grouped in regards to I ) their nature: engine,
Project - incl. risk-, quality-management
bore, size -specific, engine cylinder configuration -
specific, and installation , i.e. tuning, specific,
Configuration-, and II ) their accessibility: expert level editable,
version- & commissioning level editable, operator level
Requirement change- Validation editable.
management
The initial setup of parameters is then
res
Concept
crosschecked on the laboratory simulator and
T3
Verification later optimised on the test engine where safe-
Technical ranging, allowed for certain level of accessibility,
solution is finally validated . Final grouping of parameters
> f
Design
Implementation is reviewed with a commissioning team and
operational experts who contribute to the
time > creation of commissioning procedures.
60
4. Interfaces and software tools development: The On the other hand , CIS systems usually offer better
development of the operator s interface is based utilisation of hardware but require more data to
on available functions of the Graphical User be transmitted across the control system. Where
Interface, GUI , and particular needs of an engine, functionalities are concentrated and common
e.g. a DF engine requires a much more complex functions are controlled by central modules.
interface than a Diesel engine. Particularly Hardware utilisation is low for split intelligence
important for this element is classification rules, systems because the functions are distributed for
ergonomics and considerations about marine redundancy but only few modules are fully utilised .
practice. Appropriate combination of specific features of these
Commissioning and debugging tools are two architectures, and other, such as commonality of
developed and reviewed with relevant software modules, obsolescence management , etc. provides a
experts as well as operational experts experienced good base for achieving competitive cost level for a
in field activities. Finally, comprehensive manuals specified redundancy level.
are created.
26.10.8 Emission control concepts: effects to
26.10.7.4 Modern control system hardware basic engine design
architecture: perculiarities over other
industrial engines Modern two -stroke marine Diesel engines need
Due to the nature of its application as a single to comply with the emission legislation of the
prime mover and the corresponding classification International Maritime Organization , IMO.
requirements, a marine engine has to demonstrate Regulations comprise limits for the emission for
high redundancy and reliability; features that greatly Nitrogen Oxides, NOx and Sulphur Oxides, SOx,
affect the architecture of its ECS. E.g. in the event globally and more stringent limits inside Emission
of certain severe but non - critical failures, a single Control Areas, ECA. A detailed description of the
prime mover will go into slowdown rather than regulatory framework can be found in Annex VI of
shutdown on a multi prime mover vessel. A high MARPOL 73/ 78, Regulation 13 and 14 and in several
level of redundancy is, however, accompanied by publications .
high complexity and cost; therein lies the main trade SOx emissions, for a given fuel sulphur content , can
off in choice of engine control system architecture. be controlled by exhaust gas after- treatment based
The two extremes are split Intelligence Systems, SIS, on scrubber technology, which has limited impact
and Centralised Intelligence Systems, CIS, examples on the engine design . Alternatively, low sulphur fuels
of which are shown below. can be used . The increasing use of low sulphur fuels
The SIS is characterised by the absence of a dictates an adaptation of the fuel injection , cylinder
particular hardware module which plays a role of the lubrication and the engine control systems to take
main computational and communication interface. into account different evaporation, ignition or
Modules are equally important in the sense of lubrication characteristics of the fuel type.
functionality and each function is carried by at least The Tier II NOx emission limits, which came into
two modules. Common functions are distributed to force in 2011, can be fulfilled with optimisation of
cylinder modules as equally as possible. All modules electronically controlled engines. By adjusting the
are equal and are processing and controlling assigned scavenging air pressure, the fuel injection parameters
own cylinder functions, e.g. fuel injection, and and the exhaust valve timing, the NOx limitation
common tasks, e.g. fuel pressure regulation , external can be fulfilled without significant increase in SFC.
communication , etc. On the other hand , the Tier III NOx legislation can
hardly be achieved only by adjusting the combustion
In CIS there are at least two different type of and injection - relevant control parameters without
hardware modules: main - and cylinder- control a substantial fuel consumption penalty. More
modules. Typically, for redundancy reasons, there are economical solutions are exhaust gas after treatment,
two main modules which are acting communication SCR , other internal measures, EGR, or the WinGD
masters for internal Bus communication and as low - pressure Dual- Fuel , DF, technology, the effects
interfaces to external systems. Additionally these two of which to the basic engine design will be described
modules store the software package for the entire below.
system , process and sometimes also control common
regulation tasks for the entire engine. .
26.10 8.1 Selective catalytic reduction, SCR
Currently, WinGD’s preferred solution for Diesel
Overall, SIS offer very good redundancy, however engines to comply with Tier III legislation is exhaust
that is often at the expense of hardware utilisation. gas after- treatment based on SCR technology
61
since it is technically the most advanced, proven surroundings. The valves act as the interface between
and currently most cost efficient solution . The SCR and engine system, such that the vast forces
SCR reactor can either be mounted upstream or induced due to the high pressure and the momentum
downstream of the turbine. In the Low- Pressure, LP, change from flow redirections have to be considered
SCR system, the reactor is placed downstream of in the engine structure as well as on ship hull side.
the turbine such that only minor modifications are Additionally, the SCR reactor thermal capacity
required on the basic Diesel engine. needs to be considered during transient operation
However, the LP SCR has the disadvantage of the as well as in the heating up phase to guarantee stable
lower temperatures, pressure and density of the operation of the engine.
exhaust gases at the catalyst , which thus requires a WinGD is currently also in the later stages of
different composition and / or heating of the exhaust development of a fully integrated HP-SCR system ,
gas. This leads to large reactor volumes and the risk whereby the catalyst and all reactant injection and
of formation of ammonia sulphates, in particular mixing equipment and all flow control valves are
for operation with high -sulphur fuels, since the integrated on the engine. This configuration presents
temperatures are mainly below the dew point of obvious space and arrangement challenges, since
ammonia sulphates. the reactor and mixing pipe need to be extremely
The High - Pressure, HP, SCR requires more compact in order to be placed below the exhaust
significant modifications on the engine since the manifold.
reactor is located between exhaust gas receiver
and turbocharger. In this configuration , higher 26.10.8.2 Exhaust gas recirculation, EGR
temperatures before the TC reduce the efforts on the Another technology used by WinGD to decrease
engine process and control to keep the temperatures the NOx emissions is High Pressure Exhaust Gas
above the dew point of ammonia bi -sulphate. Recirculation , HP-EGR. By recirculating exhaust gas
Furthermore, the higher density of the gas allows into the combustion chamber, the heat capacity of
a more compact arrangement of the SCR system the gas in the cylinder is increased and the oxygen
and reduced volumes of the reactor and the mixing concentration is reduced, thus reducing combustion
devices. temperatures and NOx formation. In order to
The SCR system can be bypassed in order to enable reduce corrosion, mechanical damage and deposit
the operator to switch between Tier II and Tier formation, the exhaust gas has to be cleaned before
III modes when entering or leaving ECA. The it is mixed with the fresh charging air. Besides the
required piping and the flow control valves are exhaust gas cleaning device, scrubber, a cooler, a
integrated in the engine design and supported by the blower, to overcome the pressure gradient, and a
engine structure, but the system itself is designed water separator are required on the engine, such that
to be supported by the engine room walls and these components can be integrated into the engine
design and structure.
Apart from the components installed on the engine,
complex waste water and sludge treatment devices
need to be integrated into the vessel system.
26.10.8.3 Low pressure dual fuel ( DF ) engine

Despite the recent drop in liquid fuel prices, the
increasing availability of gaseous fuels has made the
latter attractive for application in the marine sector,
even beyond the LNG carrier sector. On this basis,
WinGD has decided to utilise their long- standing
experience in the field of low - pressure dual - fuel
technology on four- stroke engines to develop a
new product range of two - stroke dual - fuel engines.
Integrated HP-SCR on a These engines do not only enable the use of gaseous
6RT-flex50B. fuels but they are inherently compliant with the most
stringent future emissions standards: NOx, SOx and
particulate matter emissions.
The low pressure DF engine development has
presented additional challenges to WinGD which
have been duly overcome, such as:
62
CH 26 > DIES EL- ENGINES MANUFACTURERS
- Stable pre- mixed combustion control, influenced consumption to compensate the scavenging effect of
mainly by mixing, ignition and a lower geometric the EGR. EGR systems are generally better suited to
compression ratio required to avoid knocking. large engines since the complexity of the scrubbing
- Ffigher maximum combustion pressures system may not be particularly suited to small
compared to the diesel layout in order to increase engines.
the thermodynamic efficiency which, though , can A simple version of EGR can also be used to increase
be used to further optimise Diesel SFC. power output and / or decrease SFC in DF engines,
- Accurate and reliable operation of gas admission where no scrubber is needed as long as the EGR is
systems and valves, which have been validated only running in gas mode.
thoroughly on test rigs. The choice of technology also depends markedly on
- A CR pilot fuel system , which is independent of the standpoint. For the vessel owner the initial and
the main fuel system . The pilot fuel injector is operating costs and the reliability are most relevant.
integrated into a pre -chamber which is used to Conversely, for the engine builder, the focus is on
achieve a stable combustion and low unburned manufacturability, ease of assembly and initial cost
Total Hydrocarbon , THC, emission . including material and testing. For the shipyard, the
;
best solution is one placed entirely on the engine so
By carefully integrating the above measures into the that both costs and technical responsibility are taken
basic engine design, WinGD is able to offer its entire by the engine maker. Finally, the engine designer i
*
Diesel portfolio as DF- ready engines without major strives to achieve the best compromise of the above
changes to the basic diesel engine itself. demands.
26.10.8.4 The choice of emission control concept 26.10.9 Conclusions

The choice of the right technology depends on
several parameters such as the vessel type, trade 26.10.9.1 The engine development process
routes, time share spent in and out of ECA, scenarios As it has been described in the chapters above, the
of fuel and urea price development and expected low - speed marine two -stroke engine development
future industry trends. Whilst for LNG carriers the process is characterised by a few particularities
low- pressure DF engines are the obvious choice, such as decentralised production , the sheer size of
for other vessel types equipped with Diesel engines the engines, broad use of FIFO and the volatility of
the choice is by far more complicated. SCR and the shipping business as a whole, which constitute
EGR systems are used primarily to achieve Tier III important boundaries for the engine designer. Still,
emissions limits; however both solutions can also be overall the process follows a few familiar steps found
operated outside ECA to enhance the efficiency of in the development of any product:
the engine in Tier II mode. Additionally, DF engines - Assumptions
can be used for vessels other than LNG carriers - First designs
running in gas mode within ECA and on liquid fuel - Calculations
outside ECA. - Detailed design

SCR systems require certain temperature levels - Iterations
to avoid the formation of deposits and to ensure - Testing
an efficient conversion of NOx, hence the tuning - Final verification/ prototype testing
for Tier III mode is adapted in such a way that the - Endurance testing
exhaust temperatures are above the required limits.

In order to optimise the engine operating cost , the Throughout the development , the engine designer
engine is tuned to lower SFC and higher engine - out is presented with numerous concept , design and
NOx emissions, which are in turn reduced by the material choices, which need to be decided upon
SCR to meet Tier III legislation . SCR systems are based on input from all customers: the vessel owner,
generally suited better to smaller engines, where a who ultimately chooses the vessel and frequently
single catalyst of a moderate size can be used. There influences the engine type, the shipyard, which
exist technical solutions for very large catalysts and specifies the engine type and configuration and the
also for multiple catalyst configurations, but these engine builder, licensee, who procures/ manufactures
introduce challenges such as structural and control the parts and assembles the engine. The most basic
issues respectively. choices are concentrated in the thermodynamic
EGR leads, in principle, to a decreased scavenging layout and the layout of the powertrain, which
efficiency of the engine. Nonetheless, the determine the size and design of the combustion
recirculation of residual gas also allows different chamber and the cylinder distance respectively,
tunings of the engine towards lower fuel affecting consequently the whole engine.
63
1
Subsequently, the engine structure concept is chosen that is bound to affect the shipping industry with
and the design is iterated and refined in steps with all more stringent emissions legislation in the near
peripheral parts such as hot parts, scavenge system , future.
fuel injection and hydraulics, and ancillary systems For these reasons, the next generation of marine
such as platforms, piping and electrical components. Diesel engines are likely to feature, among other :
The whole engine is then subject to several checks, - Multi - fuel capability.
such as vibrations analysis, component and system - Higher fuel injection pressures.
tests, before a prototype is built and tested on test - Higher firing pressures.
bed and later in a vessel. The result is todays modern - Combined emission control mechanisms
two -stroke Diesel engine. integrated on the engine.
- Condition Based Maintenance, CBM.
.
26.10 9.2 The next generation two -stroke - Big Data: vessel and engine variables acquisition ,
engines transmission and statistical processing in order to
The major trend shaping todays marine engine optimise vessel performance.
business and the requirements for the next - Remote data connection allowing remote
generation of engines is the development of the fuel problems diagnostics, software download and
and gas prices. engine performance optimisation.
With crude oil prices at record low levels and no
significant indication of a reversal of this trend , The rate of adaptation of such technologies, and
there is likely to be less imminent pressure on fuel consequently the rate of evolution of marine two -
consumption and multi - fuel compatibility in the stroke engines, is dictated by trends in the marine
near future. However these requirements are still business, market pull , and technology developments
expected to remain a medium to long term trend. in other segments which can be adopted on
The second major influence are the climate change marine engines, technology push . In any case, the
initiatives. At several instances in the recent past, modern two -stroke diesel engine, in a form akin
leading to the United Nations conference on climate to the current state- of - the art design , is very likely
change in Paris in November 2015, it has been made to survive the challenges of the next decades and
increasingly clear that more stringent measures need remain the prime mover of most cargo vessels in the
to be taken to decelerate global warming, a tendency world in the long term .
State- of-the -art Wartsila

X 72 diesel engine on the
testbed with a water brake
for measuring the effective
shaft power.
64
CH26 > DIESEL - E N G I N E S MANUFACTURERS
Nomenclature References
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure 1 Parravacini M. Determination of the optimum

CAPEX Capital Expenditure stroke- to- bore ratio of a large two - stroke engine
CAD Computer Aided Design using simple models. Thesis, ETH Zurich, 2015.
CBM Condition Based Maintenance 2 Spahni M., Kyrtatos A., De Jong R. The New
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics Generation of Low- Speed Engines from Wartsila .
CHB Cross Head Bearing CIMAC, 2013.
CIS Centralised Intelligence Systems 3 Boletis E., Kyrtatos A., De Jong R. A new fuel
CPB Crank Pin Bearing injection and exhaust valve actuation system for
CR Common Rail a two- stroke engine family in the 30 to 50 cm bore
DF Dual Fuel segment. CIMAC, 2010.
DWI Direct Water Injection 4 Sandelin K., Peitz D. SCR under pressure - pre-
ECA Emission Control Areas turbocharger SCR for marine 2- stroke diesel
ECS Engine Control System engines. CIMAC, 2016.
EEDI Energy Efficiency Design Index 5 Ott M. The 2-stroke low- pressure Dual -Fuel
EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation technology: from concept to reality. CIMAC, 2016.
FAST Fuel Actuated Sackless Technology
GUI Graphical User Interface Bibliography
HP High Pressure
IACS International Association of The new Wartsila 820 mm - bore engine series -
Classification Societies advanced design and first service experience,
IMO International Maritime Organisation Marc Spahni, Heinrich Brunner and Ronald de Jong. WinGD 5 X 72DF engine
MB Main Bearing CIMAC 2010, Bergen . cut- out view.
NOx Nitrogen Oxides

OPEX Operating Expenditure
PDH Piston Dismantling Height
PLS Pulse Lubricating System
SAR Scavenge Air Receiver
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction
SFC Specific Fuel Consumption
SOx Sulphur Oxides
VVT Variable Exhaust Valve Timing
VIT Variable Injection Timing
SAC Scavenge Air Cooler
SIS Split Intelligence Systems
TEU Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit
TC Turbocharger
THC Total Hydrocarbon
TCO Total Cost of Ownership
TDC Top Dead Centre
WinGD Winterthur Gas & Diesel
65
Ship propulsion
27.1 Introduction 68 27.15 Direction of propeller rotation: lateral forces 94

27.2 Ship types and hull resistance 69 27.16 Engine layouts and load diagrams 95
27.3 Load lines of a ship 69 27.17 Propulsion- and engine characteristics 95
27.4 Ship dimensions 70 27.18 Electronic governors with load limitation 97
27.5 Hull shape 70 27.19 Use of diagrams 97
27.6 Ship's resistance R 72 27.20 Summarising the effects of the various types of resistance
27.7 Screw propulsion 77 on engine operation 101
27.8 Propeller types 77 27.21 Comments 103
27.9 Flow conditions around the propeller 79 27.22 Future improvements in propulsion efficiency and reduction
27.10 Propeller dimensions 83 of C02 103
27.11 Operating conditions of a propeller 87 27.23 March 2017 112
27.12 Increasing ship speed 93 27.24 Some distinctive issues 112
27.13 Parameters causing heavy running conditions 93 27.25 Slow steaming of merchant ships 116
27.14 Manoeuvring speeds 94 27.26 Ship propulsion with gas- and dual-fuel engines 120
Propellers have been used for ship
propulsion ever since the introduction of the
reciprocating piston - driven steam engine in
the 19th century. , i
- *ii -
-
The diesel engine has been in use as the ’
standard propulsion engine since the 1950's.

The combination of a diesel engine and a — -
- •
-
«»»
propeller gives a propulsive efficiency of mw, -

i ; iE
t
-- £
approximately 33%. So two -thirds of the
energy generated by the fuel is wasted!
27.1 Introduction perpendiculars and the block coefficient are

discussed.
Source: A summery of a study by MAN Diesel & Other topics are towing resistance, comprising
Turbo, the largest engine manufacturer for medium - frictional -, residual - and air resistance, and the
and low speed - diesel engines in the world . effects of these resistances in real terms.
2 Further elaboration on marine propulsion
Since the introduction of auxiliary power - a steam and the flow conditions near the propeller.
engine - on sailing vessels, ships have been fitted The wake - and thrust coefficient will also be
with a propeller shaft between the propulsion engine discussed. The total engine output required
and the screw or propeller. for the propeller is computed from the
This is still the case today: nearly all seagoing vessels aforementioned effective- towing resistance
with a power output over 2000 kW, approximately and the efficiencies depending on the various
90,000 vessels, uses a propeller driven by a diesel propeller- and hull shapes. Next, the operating
engine for propulsion . conditions for a screw deduced from propeller
Numerous ships for inland - water navigation, laws for fixed - pitch propellers are discussed.
including pleasure craft use propellers. Other These conditions vary from navigating in calm
propulsion systems such as jet - propulsion are only waters to conditions varying from light to heavy
used for very specific craft. operating resistances, such as fouling and heavy
swell.
Every vessel requires a different propeller to achieve 3 In this section the significance of choosing the
maximum efficiency from the chemical (fuel ) energy correct Maximum Continuous Rating ( MCR )
supplied to the diesel engine. This depends, among and the optimal point for the propulsion engine
other things, on its dimensions, hull shape, the will be discussed. Attention is paid to the load
desired speed and available propulsion power. curve of the engine in relation to the design of
the screw. The compilation of the accompanying
To obtain a basic idea of marine propulsion , the load diagrams is described in detail using a
subject is subdivided into three areas of interest. number of examples. It is important to be
1 The most elementary issues, such as ship aware of how various ship resistances affect the
dimensions, hull shape, displacement , ship continuous service rating of the engine.
weight , design draught , length between
The combination of a diesel

engine driving a propeller
has been the most
commonly used propulsion
system for over 75 years. It
is used by more than 90,000
large seagoing vessels,
hundreds of thousands of
inland vessels, and millions
of yachts, cabin cruisers and
other ships.
68
C H2 7 > SHIP PROPULSION
Category Class Type abbrev.
Oil tanker Crude ( oil) Carrier CC The three largest ship categories.
Very Large Crude Carrier VLCC
Ultra Large Crude Carrier ULCC The three main ship categories are; container ships, bulk carriers
Product Tanker
(grain, ore) and tankers that can be further subdivided into classes
Tanker
Gas tanker Liquefied Natural Gas carrier LNG that are more specific, and types, such as oil, gas and chemical
Chemical tanker Liquefied Petroleum Gas carrier LPG tankers.
There are often 'multi-purpose' ships, which are suitable for various
OBO Oil / Bulk/Ore carrier OBO
tasks.
Bulk carrier Bulk carrier
Container carrier
Container ship Container ship
Ro -Ro
Roll On-Roll Off
General cargo
General cargo ship
Coaster
Reefer Reefer Refrigerated cargo vessel

Ferry
Passenger ship
Cruise vessel
27.2 Ship types and hull resistance
Depending on the cargo and loading conditions,

ships can be subdivided into different categories,
classes and types.
27.3 Load lines of a ship
Every seagoing vessel has load - line marks amidships

Freeboard deck
t D: Freeboard draught
on each side of the hull; this is known as the ‘Plimsoll TF TF: tropical fresh water
Mark’. This mark usually consists of steel plates that F: fresh water
are painted in a distinctive colour and have been F Tropical
welded on the port and starboard side of the hull. S Summer
The lines and letters of the Plimsoll Mark correspond
W Winter
with the freeboard regulations as laid down by the WNA Winter - North Atlantic
Danish load mark
IMO, the International Maritime Organisation , and
indicate the maximum draft to which a ship can
safely be loaded. This draft is dependent on sea,
Freshwater Seawater
season and salinity. The salinity of the water affects
the level; fresh water is less dense than seawater and
therefore exerts an upward force on the ship. A
The load lines of a ship.
There are load lines for sailing in fresh water and seawater,
in tropical conditions and for sailing in summer and winter times.
According to the international freeboard regulations, the summer
freeboard draught is equal to the 'Scantling draught,' which is the
draught when dimensioning the hull.
The winter freeboard draught is lower than in summer, as there is
a greater risk of encountering adverse weather. However, the
freeboard draught in tropical seas is somewhat higher than the
summer freeboard draught .
69
1
Displacement and loading capacity.
I_ BP Length between perpendiculars D

Length on the waterline
^LQA Length overall BWL
BWL Breadth on the waterline
D Draught: 1/2 (DF + DA)
DF Draught foreward
DA Draught aft
DA
AM midship section area
° .J
F
1~ BP
^ WL
^- OA
27.4 Ship dimensions 27.4.2 Deadweight = displacement =

ship's total weight
27.4.1 Displacement and loading capacity
Displacement may also be expressed as the ships
When a ship is loaded to a given waterline, displacement volume. SI unit is m 3.
displacement equals the mass of water displaced by
the ship. 27.4.3 Gross register tons / Net Register Tons
So displacement equals the full weight of the laden
ship; seawater has a specific mass of 1025 kg per m 3. Ship’s volume can also be expressed in Gross
Displacement includes the weight of the ship itself Register Tonnage ( GRT ) and Net Register Tonnage
and its loading capacity. Loading capacity is often ( NRT ) . A gross register ton equals 100 cubic feet or
expressed in tons deadweight. Deadweight also 2.83 cubic metres.
includes fuel and other necessities, such as lubricants These values indicate the total internal volume of
and water required for ship propulsion . the ship according to certain complex rules that
Therefore, deadweight constitutes the difference apply to said values and are often used to calculate
between displacement at a given moment and the commercial fees such as port and canal dues.
ships own weight , expressed in metric tons.
27.5 Hull shape

Ship type
dwt/light Displ./dwt
weight ratio ratio The part of the ship located below the waterline is
Tanker and
6
most relevant in ship propulsion .
Bulk carrier 1.17
The ship measurements found below are used for the
Container ship 2.5-3.0 1.33-1.4 design draught . The selection of the design draught
depends on load , weather conditions and operating
conditions. The degree to which the ship is loaded
The relationship between a ship's deadweight tonnage, is also of importance: is the ship generally lightly-
lightweight and displacement. or fully loaded ? In general, the most common
draught between full -load displacement and ballast
The lightweight of a ship is not usually used to indicate the size of displacement is used.
a ship. Deadweight, based on the loading capacity of the ship,
including fuel, lubricating oil and other supplies required for ship
operation provides a good indication of the size (read: loading
capacity) of the ship.
70
CH27 > SHIP PROPULSION
Volume of displacement:
Waterline area: A WL
D Block coefficient, Z.WL based: CB

Waterline plane
V XD
' WL
X
Midship section coefficient: CM 8wlxD
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient: CP

A M X LWL
A WL
Waterplane area coefficient: CWL
LWLXV
Block coefficient | Approximate ship

Hull designs
Ship type
C , speed Vin knots
Lighter 0.90 5 -10
Ship's lengths Bulk carrier 0.80 - 0.85 12 - 17

Generally, the overall length (i0A ), the total length of the ship, Tanker 0.80 - 0.85 12 - 16
does not affect the calculation of the hull's water resistance. 0.55 - 0.75 13 - 22
General cargo
The length on the waterline (iWL ) and the length on the load
Container ship 0.50 - 0.70 14- 26
lines ( /.pp) are factors used for the calculation.
Ferry boat 0.50 - 0.70 15 - 26
The length between perpendiculars (Lpp ) is the length
between the first load line, usually a vertical line through the A
stem's intersection with the waterline, and the aft load line, which Block coefficient CB-
normally coincides with the axis of the rudder.
Generally, this length is slightly shorter than the waterline length The most important of these coefficients is the block coefficient
and is expressed as: CB, which is the ratio of displacement volume and Vw the volume
/ Bp - 0.97 x /_ w|.
-
of a block with dimensions: length on the waterline, the breadth
on the waterline and the draught according to the formula:
Draught D
The draught of the ship (D) is defined as the vertical distance from CnB = ^w
the waterline to the most submerged point on the hull.
VxVxD
The draughts, foreward and aft, are usually identical when the In this instance, the block coefficient refers to the length on the
ship is loaded. waterline.
However, ship manufacturers often use a block coefficient which
Breadth on the waterline BWL is based on the length between perpendiculars, thus producing a
This is the largest breadth on the waterline. slightly larger block coefficient, as the length on the
perpendiculars is slightly smaller than the length on the waterline.
Block coefficient CB
Various shape coefficients are used to denote the shape of the CnB = ^w
hull.
LBPXB LXD
A small block coefficient means less resistance and consequently
potentially higher speeds.
71
27.5.1 Waterplane coefficient CW L 27.5.4 Longitudinal centre of buoyancy LCB
The waterplane coefficient is the ratio of the The longitudinal centre of buoyancy ( LCB) is the
waterline area AWL and the product of the length on longitudinal distance from a point of reference to the
the waterline and the largest width of the ship. centre of the fore and aft perpendiculars.
The distance is usually established as part of the
A WL
CWL length between the perpendiculars and is positive
LWL x BWL
if the reference point is situated in the first half of
the length between the perpendiculars and negative
In general, the waterplane coefficient is when situated in the last half.
approximately 0.10 higher than the block For fast ships such as container ships, the LCB is
coefficient or: negative, while slow-speed ships such as tankers and
bulk carriers usually have a positive LCB.
CWL - + 0.10
The LCB is usually between - 3% and + 3%.
The difference is slightly larger for fast ships with
low block coefficients, where the stern is partially 27.5.5 Fineness- ratio CL W
submerged and therefore part of the waterplane.
The length / displacement ratio or Fineness ratio
27.5.2 Midship coefficient CM ( CLW ) is the ratio of the waterline of the ship LWI and
the length of a cube with a volume that is equal to
The midship coefficient CM is the ratio of the the volume displaced:
submerged midship section AM (amidships between
LWL
the fore and aft perpendiculars) and the product of CLW
the ships width £ WL and the draught D.
AMx.
BWL x D
27.6 Ship's resistance R
For bulk carriers and tankers this coefficient is
approximately 0.98 to 0.99 and for container ships A ship must move efficiently through the water
0.97 to 0.98. and it is therefore imperative to diminish the ship’s
resistance in water. The force of ship’s resistance
27.5.3 Longitudinal prismatic coefficient Cp opposes the propulsion force.
The calculation of this resistance R plays a crucial
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient Cp is the ratio of part in the selection process of a propeller and
the volume of displacement Vw and the product of consequently the propulsion engine.
the mid -ship section area AM and the length to the
waterline LWL " 27.6.1 General
C,
cP = A M X LWL C M X BWL x D x LWL The ship’s resistance is partially influenced by
CM the ship’s speed, displacement and the hull shape.
The total resistance RT consists of various
The Cp is not an independent form coefficient , but resistances R , divided into three groups:
entirely dependent on the block coefficient CB and 1 frictional resistance;
the midship coefficient CM. 2 residual resistance;
3 air resistance.
The effects of the frictional and residual resistances

depend on the shape of the hull and draught; the
air- resistance effects are dependent on the surface
area of the ship above the waterline.
In container ships, or heavily laden ships
transporting large objects on deck, the air resistance
is high .
72
CH 27 > SHIP PROPULSION
A loaded heavy-cargo ship

has significant air
resistance.
This increases when operating

in head winds.
Water with a velocity, v and a density, p has a 27.6.2 Frictional resistance /?F
dynamic pressure of: V i x p x v2 ( Bernoulli’s
principle ). If water comes to a complete standstill The frictional resistance R ]: of the ship’s hull is
as the result of an object ( in this instance a hull ) dependent on the wet surface - area As of the hull and
moving through it , the drag load of the water on the the specific frictional coefficient Rv
hull is equal to the dynamic pressure exerted on the The resistance increases as a result of fouling, the
hull, which results in a dynamic force on the hull, growth of algae, weeds and barnacles on the ship’s
namely pressure x surface area . hull. Many anti - fouling painting systems on the
market limit or prevent fouling of the hull. These
This fact forms the basis for calculating and / or often contain tributyl tin compounds ( TBT ) , which
measuring the source resistances, R , of a ship’s hull, are extremely toxic.
using a dimensionless resistance coefficient Cp as IMO prohibited these paint systems for new
related to the force K , which is dependent on the constructions as of the first of January 2003, and a
dynamic water pressure at a certain speed v on a general prohibition was implemented on the first of
surface area which in turn is equal to the hull’s wet January 2008.
surface As. The rudder surface is also included in the TBT alternatives are available, such as copper - based
wet surface area. anti- fouling paints. However, these appear to be less
The general formulas for calculating ship’s resistances effective.
are:
When a ship moves through the water, the
2
reference force = K = Vi x p x v x As and frictional resistance increases to approximately the
square root of the ship’s velocity.
source resistance: R = C x K
The frictional resistance of the ship in the water is
Based on many model - resistance tests in towing approximately 70 to 90% of the total resistance. This
tanks and using the corresponding dimensionless applies to large low -speed ships, such as bulk carriers
hull data, methods have been developed to and oil tankers ( deep draught ).
calculate the required resistance coefficients C, and For large high -speed cruise ships of relatively small
consequently the corresponding source resistances R. draught , this can be less than 40%.
In practice, the calculation of the ship’s resistance
for a particular ship design is performed in a towing The frictional resistance is formulated by:
tank using corresponding model and provides
R ¥ = CFx K.
accurate data.
73
Frictional resistance RF High- speed, large container ships

have propulsive power outputs up to approximately
70,000 kW.
More power is required with velocities up to 25 knots. Container

ships are always loaded; containers are added and removed, but
these ships rarely sail unloaded. The propeller load and therefore
the engine load are usually identical.
27.6.3 Residual resistance RR A further increase in the diesel - engine output above
this velocity will not result in increased ship speed !
The residual resistance RR comprises the wave- and All the extra power is converted into wave energy!
eddy resistance. Wave resistance refers to the energy
loss caused by waves produced by the ship travelling The residual resistance amounts to approximately 8
through the water, whereas eddy resistance that leads to 25% of the total resistance for low-speed ships,
to power loss is caused by the separation of the water For high -speed ships, this can rise from 40 to 60% of
surface by a hull resulting in swirls and eddies. These the total resistance,
eddies are prevalent at the stern . Shallow water also has a significant effect on the
Wave resistance at low speeds is proportional to the residual resistance, as it is more difficult for the water
square root of the velocity. However, it increases displaced by the ship to flow astern. ( Resistance of
rapidly at higher speeds. the displaced water volume over the ground ).
This essentially means that a speed restriction is The specific frictional resistance is defined as follows:
created, the so-called the maximum hull velocity.
xK -
The Berge Stohl with a load capacity of more than 300,000

tonnes and a draught of 19 metres is one of the largest
bulk carriers in the world. Large tankers and bulk carriers
have low operational speeds. In a loaded condition, 90% of
the hull is below the waterline.
To achieve high speeds with these displacements, and breadths

reaching from 30 to 70 metres would require huge power
outputs.
The picture shows an

empty tanker in ballast, the
bow and the rudder are
almost out of the water.
y
2
. . .=
* V
T
7,
^
-3} T iv
The propeller operates just

.
L » »« >
*—
1*
below the water surface.
.
r; Vt
'. - - :
«i- jm
74
27.6.4 Air resistance /?A However, the power supplied to the propeller, PD ,
required to move the ship at velocity v, is slightly
In principle, the air resistance in calm water is higher. This is due to the flow conditions around the
proportional to the square of the ship’s velocity and revolving propeller and propeller efficiency itself,
proportional to the cross-sectional surface area of which will be discussed later in this chapter.
the ship above the waterline.
Normally, air resistance is approximately 2 % of the 27.6.6 General total ship resistance
total resistance.
For container ships carrying high loads in a head If the frictional resistance is divided into wave- and
wind , air resistance can rise to 10% of the total eddy resistances, as described earlier, the distribution
resistance. This also applies for large passenger liners, of the total towing resistance RT can be expressed in
and in particular, heavily laden freighters. percentages ( see figure ) . This is applicable to both
low - and high -speed ships.
Similar to the aforementioned resistances, air
resistance is expressed as: RA - CA x K, but can 27.6.7 Ship's resistance increase during
occasionally be based on 90% of the dynamic air operation
pressure with a velocity v. In this case, the formula is
as follows: When the ship is in service, the paint coatings on
2
the hull will gradually degrade. Steel corrosion will
RA = 0.90 x V4 x PA R x V x Aair
[ )
slowly increase; weeds and barnacles will attach

where pAIR constitutes the specific air mass and AAIR’ themselves to the hull. Adverse weather conditions,
the cross -sectional surface area of the ship above the perhaps in conjunction with a badly laden ship,
waterline. can cause deformation of the bottom plates of the
ship. This becomes evident when the beams, which
27.6.5 Towing resistance /?T and the effective look like ribs, protrude from the ship’s hull. The hull
( towing ) power PE becomes fouled and its surface is no longer smooth,
which consequently results in a frictional resistance
The total towing resistance RT is calculated as increase. The propeller surface can become rough
follows: RT = Re + RV and fouled.
Therefore, the corresponding effective ( towing )
power, PE, required to move the ship or allow it to be
towed through the water at a velocity v is:
PE = vx RT
Air resistance /? A. In relation

to their displacement,
passenger ships, cruise
ships and ferries have tall
superstructures and are
therefore susceptible to
( head) winds .
75
Type of resistance % of RT
Total ship's resistance in general. High Low
speed speed
ship ship
The right column shows low-speed ships, such as bulk carriers
/?F = Friction 45 - 90
and tankers, the left column applies to cruise ships and ferries.
Container ships may sometimes be placed in this column or = Wave 4 0 - 5
/?E = Eddy 5 - 3
between the two columns.
/?A = Air 10- 2
The main difference between both columns is, as previously fl
mentioned, the wave resistance.

In conclusion, all resistances are proportional to the square of the
ship's velocity, but for higher speeds, the wave resistance
increases more rapidly and is therefore a larger portion of the total
resistance.
Ship speed v
kW Propulsion power 'Wave wall'

This tendency is clearly visible for a 600 TEU container ship, 8,000
originally designed for a service speed of 15 knots.
Without any alterations to the hull design, it was requested that

the speed for a sister ship of similar size be increased to 6,000 -
New service point
approximately 17.6 knots. However, this would result in a relatively
high wave resistance and would require twice as much
propulsion power !
4,000 -
A further increase of the propulsion power would only produce a

slight increase in the ship's velocity as the largest part of the
Normal service point
additional propulsive power is converted into wave energy.
The ship has reached the maximum hull velocity valid for the hull
2,000 -
design and only produces a so-called 'wave wall.' The shape of the
ship's hull will have to be modified to obtain the required speed
increase.
In 2008, there was a tendency to reduce slightly the service
0 T
velocity of ships in order to reduce fuel costs. 1
Since 2009, a large number of container ships have been 10 15 20 knots
operated at a reduced speed. This is referred to as slow steaming. Ship's speed
Power and speed relationship for a 600 TEU container ship
76
r CH 27 > SHIP PROPULSION
Estimates of average increase in resistance for ships

In Summary
navigating the main routes In principle and theory, the resistance increase in
North Atlantic route, navigation westward 25 - 35% heavy weather is proportional to:
- the amount of adverse wind and current
North Atlantic route, navigation eastward 20 - 25%
20 - 25%
conditions;
Europe - Australia
- the size of the waves.
Europe - East Asia 20 - 25%
The Pacific routes 20 - 30%

It is difficult to distinguish between these two factors.
Obviously, resistance is increased by ( heavy) seas, wind

conditions and currents. 27.7 Screw propulsion
In comparison to a ship's resistance in calm weather conditions, The traditional method of marine propulsion is
heavy seas and head winds can increase the total ship's resistance with a propeller. This has been the most widely
by 50 to 100%. used method of propulsion for most ships for over
On North Atlantic routes, the first percentage of a 50% increase a hundred years. Sometimes two and sporadically
corresponds to the summer period and the second percentage of three propellers are fitted.
a 100% increase, to the winter period.
Data reveals that for a typical 140,000-ton (deadweight) bulk The required thrust T, for the propeller enables
carrier on certain routes, especially on a northern route in the the ship to move at a velocity, v and this is usually
Pacific Ocean between Japan and Canada, the increased higher than the generated towing resistance Rv
resistance when loaded shows extreme increases of 220% with an As described earlier, this divergence is caused by
average increase of 100%. differences in the water- flow between propulsion and
towing.
In calm water, the resistance caused by fouling can

result in a total ship’s resistance increase of 25 to 27.8 Propeller types
50%.
Generally, the larger the ship, the less the increase in Propellers can be divided into two main groups:
resistance. 1 fixed - pitch propellers ( FPP) ;
However, the resistance of large, laden ships with a 2 controllable - pitch propellers ( CPP) . These are
deep draught, such as bulk carriers and tankers, may also known as AP (adjustable pitch ) and VP
alter rapidly with hull fouling below the waterline. ( variable pitch ) propellers.
A medium- speed
Caterpillar MaK diesel
engine with reduction
gearing, a propeller shaft
and a controllable-pitch
propeller; a common
propulsion installation.
77
Velocities Power
Ship's speed :v Effective (towing) power : PE = RTXV
Arriving water velocity to propeller - VA Thrust power delivered by the
(Speed of advance of propeller) : PT =
PE
propeller to water nH
Effective wake velocity : V w = V ~ VA
v - vA Power delivered to propeller p PJ
=~
Wake fraction coefficient :w= 0
nB
v
Brake power of main engine : PnB = —

Forces ns
Towing resistance « T
Thrust force T Efficiencies
Thrust deduction fraction F = T - RJ 1-f
Hull efficiency nH = 1 - w
T - RT
Thrust deduction coefficient :f= Relative rotative efficiency
T
Propeller efficiency - open water n0
Propeller efficiency - behind hull • nB = n0
Propulsive efficiency - n0 = nH nB
nR *
Shaft efficiency
*
'
is
Total efficiency : nT
,
17 =
P
?TB
P
I
P P
y x y x Y = % x % xns = n H x n0 x r l R x r l s
rD r
"
B
V
F
T
PT PD PQ PE
The theory of ship propulsion.
& t
Winter in the Baltic sea.
The resistance that a ship

experiences with ice floes is
not included in this chapter.
78
27.8.1 Fixed- pitch propellers Fixed-pitch propeller ( FP-Propeller ) Controllable-pitch propeller ( CP-Propeller )
FP- propellers are cast in one piece and usually

made of a very strong copper alloy. The position
of the blades and therefore the propeller pitch is
fixed and cannot be modified. When operating in ,
for instance, poor weather conditions, propeller
performance properties such as thrust will only alter
in combination with the supplied engine power and
propeller speed. Monobloc with Hub with a mechanism for
Most ships not requiring sophisticated manoeuvring fixed propeller blades control of the pitch of the
( copper alloy) blades (hydraulically activated)
capabilities such as, container ships, bulk carriers
and tankers are equipped with FP- propellers.
These ships generally travel great distances on the Propeller types.
high seas and do not berth frequently. They can
safely enter ports to load and discharge aided by Another important advantage is that a directly
their bow thrusters ( container ships) and / or by tugs. reversible engine is no longer required. Thus, the
diesel -engine design remains simple and it operates
27.8.2 Controllable- pitch propellers at a high, fixed rpm, rapidly producing the desired
power for the propeller during manoeuvring which
Controllable- pitch propellers have a relatively large can then take place in a safe, swift manner.
hub as this space houses the hydraulic mechanism
that controls the pitch ( angle ) of the adjustable
blades. The price of a controllable - pitch propeller can 27.9 Flow conditions around the
be three to four times that of a fixed - pitch propeller. propeller
Furthermore, the propeller efficiency is somewhat
lower due to the relatively larger hub. 27.9.1 Wake coefficient w
The propeller is also more vulnerable in operation
than a fixed - pitch propeller. When the ship moves through water, the friction
of the hull creates a ‘friction layer’ of water on the
Controllable -pitch propellers are often used in surface of the hull. In this friction layer the water
ships that make frequent manoeuvres. Ferries, velocity at the surface of the hull is equal to that of
container- feeder ships, dredgers, Ro - Ro ships the ship, but is reduced as the water distances itself
and a great many other, slightly smaller ships use from the hull surface until the water velocity is zero.
CPP- propellers. This takes place at a certain distance from the hull,
which is equal to the outer surface of the friction
layer.
A large six-bladed
fixed-pitch propeller for
a large container ship
( Wartsila Propulsion).
79
the hull. The higher the ratio d to LWL the lower the
’
wake -fraction coefficient w.
Obviously, the wake -fraction coefficient w increases
when the hull is fouled .
For single -screw ships the wake-fraction factor w
is usually in the 0.20 to 0.45 region , with a
corresponding flow velocity to the propeller of 0.80
to 0.55 of the ship’s velocity v. The larger the block
coefficient , the larger the wake-fraction coefficient.
On twin -screw vessels with a conventionally shaped
stern , the propellers are normally positioned outside
the ‘friction layer’, which results in a significantly
lower wake-fraction coefficient w.
A high wake -fraction coefficient increases the risk of
propeller cavitation, as the water speed around the
propeller is often irregular and heterogeneous.
A more homogeneous wake field for the propeller,
The wake fraction behind a large container ship; the involving a higher speed of advance of the propeller
Norasia Enterprise at an operational speed of 26 knots.
vA is at times required and can be obtained in various
ways, for instance by placing the propellers in nozzles.
The enormous displacement of the ship's hull caused by the high Nevertheless, the preferred method is to design the
speed creates a 'pit ' of about 1 metre behind the ship. As shown stern in such a way that an optimum wake fraction is
here, the water cannot immediately fill up the pit from the sides. achieved.
The eddies in the water generated by the rotating propeller are
also clearly visible. 27.9.2 Thrust- deduction coefficient t
Knots for ship's velocities knot = 1 nautical mile per hour = Screw rotation draws the water in front of it astern
1852 metres per hour towards the propeller. This results in an extra
resistance on the hull, called ‘augment of resistance’
or, in relation to the total required thrust force T
Therefore explaining why water near the propeller on the propeller, ‘thrust - deduction fraction’ F. This
has a wake velocity, vw
in the same direction as means that the thrust force T on the propeller has to
the ship’s velocity v. This means that the speed of overcome the ship’s resistance RT as well as this ‘loss
the arriving water, vA, at the propeller, given as the of thrust’ F.
average velocity over the propeller’s wake area is The thrust -deduction fraction F is expressed as a
lower than the ship’s velocity v. dimensionless number.
Therefore, the effective wake velocity at the The thrust - deduction fraction t is defined as:
propeller is equal to = v - vA and is expressed
vw F _ T -RT
as a dimensionless number by means of the wake ~
Y
~
T
coefficient w. The generally applied wake coefficient
as defined by Taylor is as follows: This thrust - deduction coefficient t is calculated with
calculation models established by research carried
w= vw V - VA out on various hull shapes.
V V
Generally, the thrust - deduction coefficient increases
The value of the wake coefficient is largely dependent as the wake fraction coefficient w increases.
on the shape of the hull, but also on the location of The shape of the hull plays a key role; a bulbous bow
the propeller and its size. It has a significant effect on can decrease the thrust - deduction coefficient at , for
the propeller efficiency. instance, low speeds.
The thrust - deduction coefficient t for a single- screw
The propeller diameter or rather the ratio of the ship is usually in the region of 0.12 to 0.30 as a ship
propeller diameter d and the ship’s length LWL with a large block coefficient has a large thrust -
somewhat affects the wake fraction coefficient deduction coefficient.
For twin -screw vessels with a conventional stern, the
as and gives a rough indication of the way in
^
- WL
which the propeller performs in the wake field of
thrust - deduction coefficient t is much lower as the
propellers draw water further away from the hull.
80
27.9.3 Efficiencies Small tankers

20,000 DWT
Reefers
Propeller Container ships
The hull efficiency qn is defined as the ratio between Large tankers
efficiency
> 150,000 DWT
effective ( towing ) power PE= RT x v and the thrust % 1 1
power which the propeller delivers to the water 0.7
PT= T x vA > from which follows that:

PE RTxv Rt / T 1 -1 0.6
PT T X V A VA / V 1 -w n ( revs./ s )
0.5 1.66
For a single -screw vessel, the hull efficiency rjH is
2.00
normally in the region of 1.1 to 1.4 with high values
0.4
for ships with high block coefficients.
For twin -screw ships with a conventional stern , the
0.3
hull efficiency rjH is approximately 0.95 to 1.05, again
with the highest values for ships with high block
coefficients. 0.2
27.9.4 Open- water propeller efficiency qQ 0.1
i 1 i 1 l
The propeller efficiency rjQ is related to working in 0 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
open water, which is to say, the propeller operates in
a homogeneous wake field with no hull in front of it. Advance number J -
nxd
The propeller efficiency is dependent on the speed of
advance vA, the thrust force T, the rate of revolution
of the propeller per time unit ( minute ), the propeller The potential propeller efficiency qQ in relation to the
diameter and the design of the propeller. speed of advance vA.
Considerations are:
- the number of blades; J is the 'advance number' of the propeller and is dimensionless.
- the surface area of the propeller blades in relation
to the total circular surface area of the propeller Furthermore, the rate of revolution per second; this is clearly a
circle; table for fixed -pitch propellers of large ships, directly driven by
- the pitch / diameter ratio, which will be discussed two- stroke crosshead engines.
later in this chapter. Therefore, the efficiency of a propeller varies from 45 to 70%. This
means that at a total engine efficiency of 50% the total propulsive
The propeller efficiency rjQ may vary from 0.35 to efficiency is much lower.
0.75, with high values for fast - running propellers. Let us assume that the total engine efficiency is 50% and the
propeller efficiency 65%.
As a rule of thumb, it can be stated that roughly Then, the total propulsive efficiency of the fuel ( 100%) is
a third of all the energy supplied to the engine in 0.5 x 0.65 = 0.3250 or 32.5 %.
the form of fuel is used to provide the ship with a

particular speed.
27.9.5 Relative rotative efficiency qR of the

propeller
The actual velocity of water flowing to the propeller

behind the hull is not constant and does not reach
the circular propeller surface area at the correct
angle, but has a rotational flow. This explains the
discrepancy between a propeller operating in open
water and a propeller operating behind a ships hull.
This difference is called the relative rotative
efficiency rjR.
81
A picture of a large
container ship with a
speed of 27 knots.
The bow wave ( 1 ) is relatively

small. The propeller water (2)
with the wake fraction can be
clearly seen in the picture. This
container ship of 5500 TEU
produces fewer waves at sea . "Vi
as
-
than a cutter at full speed! L- -=\
The relative rotative efficiency rjR on single propeller As can be seen the propulsive efficiency rjD is equal
vessels lies between 1.0 and 1.07. In other words, the to the product of the hull efficiency the open -
rotating motion of the water has a positive effect. water propeller efficiency r ]0 and the relative rotative
The relative rotative efficiency for two propellers lies efficiency rjR of the propeller, in which the latter is
slightly below 1, approximately 0.98. less important.
Combined with w , the wake fraction factor, and f , In view of this, it can be inferred that a ship’s
the thrust deduction coefficient , the relative rotative hull with a high wake-fraction coefficient w, and
efficiency rjR is often used to compare the model tank consequently a high hull efficiency rjH provides
tests with the theory. the best conditions for the highest propulsive
efficiency rjD.
27.9.6 Propeller efficiency operating However, the open - water propeller efficiency rjQ is
astern also dependent on the speed of advance vA which
increases as the wake-fraction coefficient w rises,
The ratio between the thrust power Pv which is and therefore often the opposite effect is achieved.
delivered to the water by the propeller, and the
power PD, which is delivered to the propeller by Generally, the best propulsive efficiency is
the propulsion engine is indicated by the propeller achieved when the propeller operates in a
efficiency rjR , and defined as follows: homogeneous wake field.
PT
% = ipD
rxrlQxrlR 27.9.8 Shaft efficiency qs
The shaft efficiency rjs is, amongst others, dependent

27.9.7 Propulsive efficiency qD on the alignment and the lubrication of the shaft
bearings and on the reduction gearing, if any.
The propulsive efficiency rjD , not to be confused with
the propeller efficiency rj0 in open water, is equal to The shaft efficiency r ]$ is equal to the ratio of the
the ratio between the effective ( towing- ) power P£ power PD transferred to the propeller and the shaft
and the required power delivered to the propeller or: power PB delivered by the main engine.
%=
PD PT PD^ x — rls = ry
B
*7D *1H x rlux rlox *1R The shaft efficiency normally amounts to about
0.985, but may vary from 0.96 to 0.995.
82
27.9.9 Total propulsive efficiency rjT For strength and manufacturing purposes, the
propeller diameter will seldom exceed 10 metres and
The total propulsive efficiency r]T is equal to the ratio a power output in the region of 90,000 kW.
between effective ( towing) power PE and the brake These values were achieved in the ‘Emma Maersk’ in
power supplied to the propulsion engine rjB and is 2006!
expressed as follows: The largest propeller diameter ( 2011) is 11 metres
and the propeller has four blades!
P p P
p
*
B
P
rD PB
>/ T MD Ms MH Mo MR Ms
27.10 Propeller dimensions
Propeller diameter d . Wartsila Propac Cp Project Guide
The largest propeller diameter is normally selected Shown here, in-line engines with 6, 8 and 9 cylinders and bores
in order to achieve the largest possible propulsive of 200 and 260 millimetres.
efficiency rjD. However, a number of conditions must Included: the nozzle-propeller systems with all data.
be considered.
For instance: the shape of the hull at the stern of Propac ST selection table
the ship may vary greatly and is predominantly Engine type 6L 20 8L 20 9L 20 6L26 8L26 9L26
MCR engine power

dependent on the type of ship, the ship design CPP
kW 1080 1440 1620 2025 2600 2925
and the required clearance between the tips of the HP 1469 1958 2203 2754 3536 3978
propeller blades and the ships hull. This is closely MCR engine power
FPP
kW 1080 1440 1620 1950 2480 2790
related to the propeller type. HP 1469 1958 2203 2652 3373 3794
MCR engine speed rpm 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
For bulk carriers and tankers, which often sail in Thruster type 200 250 300
ballast conditions, a request for a fully immersed Propeller diameter mm 1900 2100 2100 2300 2100 2300 2400 2600 2600 2800 2800 3000
rpm 318 318 248 248 274 274 257 257 245 245 215 215
propeller is an option. Propeller speed
Bollard pull with CPP

Container ships do not require a maximum size as
in 19A nozzle tonne 35 37 46 49 50 53 63 66 79 82 90 93
they seldom sail in ballast conditions. in HR nozzle tonne 39 40 51 53 55 57 69 71 86 89 99 102
The above - mentioned factors attest to the fact that Bollard pull with FPP
it is relatively difficult to calculate an exact diameter in 19A nozzle tonne 35 36 46 49 50 52 62 64 76 79 87 90
for the propeller. However, the rule of thumb with in HR nozzle tonne 38 39 51 53 55 57 67 69 83 85 95 98
regard to propeller size is as follows: -

MCD type for steerable thrusters with FPP
LD type 3000- 3 3000- 3 3000-4 3000 -4 3000 - 4 3000-4 3000-5 3000- 5 3000- 6 3000-6 not available ->
HD type 3000- 3 3000- 3 3000 - 6 3000 - 6 3000- 7 3000- 7 3000- 7 3000- 7 3000- 8 3000-8 not available ->
The ratio between the propeller diameter and the
draught of the ship can be described as follows: 0B Propac ST main dimensions
a large propeller diameter automatically means a Thruster type
low speed of rotation n.
A mm B mm C mm D mm E mm M mm
FS/CS
1600 1200 2100 1743 985

175 1600 910 610
E 1800 1230 2200 1843 1109
For bulk carriers and tankers, the following T
1900 1300 2500 2048 1179
applies: 200
2100
1900
1350 2600
1200 740
2148 1303
2100 1400 2630 2160 1299

225 2100 1210 740
d/D < approximately 0.65. D 2300 1450 2830 2360 1423
H 2400 1525 3100 2512 1485
250 2100 1435 840
For container ships: 2600 1575 3200 2612 1614
2600 1665 3500 2890 1609
d/D < approximately 0.74.

0A
I 275
2800
2800
2850
1765
1770
3620
3700
1465 877
3010
3090
1731
1735
M 300 2850 1465 877
3000 1870 3700 3090 1858
83
The water should advance towards the propeller as

smoothly as possible, so without eddies. The propeller
rotates completely 'freely ' under the cut -away section of
the ship.
2
This graph represents the ideal propeller diameter, here
1000
from 0.3 metres ( small ships, yachts) to 3 metres (larger
8
ships, fishing craft ). 6
4 Vb
horizontal: propeller speed from 100 to 5000 rpm
vertical: power in kW to 2000 kW V’
2
slanted line: This represents the ideal propeller diameter from, £ larger diameter smaller diameter
highe efficiency
0.3 metres (small ships, yachts) up to 3 metres (larger ships, fishing QJ V lower efficiency
craft). The larger the propeller diameter, the higher the propeller
5
o
o.
<u
100
8 * \ 5 * <
efficiency. The smaller the propeller diameter, the lower the c 6
CD
propeller efficiency. C
LU
4 \
10
8
N*
O
6
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 4 5
100 1000
Propeller [rpm]
CIPS fixed-pitch propeller sizes
Propeller diameter mm 75 r /min
A graph from MAN Diesel & Turbo showing the optimum 100
7000
ratio of the propeller diameter (vertical left) to the engine
power ( horizontal) and the speed ( vertical right). 125
6000
150
Example: At a propeller diameter of 6000 mm (6 metres) and a 5000 /

200
speed of 100 rpm, a shaft power of 7000 kW is required. An
4000 250
optimum propeller efficiency of approximately 70% is obtained. 7
300
350
3000 7
400
7"
2000
1000
T
1000 3000 5000 7000 9000 11000 13000 15000

Engine power kW
84
27.10.1 Number of propeller blades 27.10.3 Pitch / diameter ratio of the

propeller p / d
Propellers can be manufactured with two, three, four,
five or six blades. The lower the number of blades; The pitch / diameter ratio p/ d expresses the ratio
the higher the propeller efficiency. For reasons between the pitch of the propeller p and the propeller
of strength, two or three blades do not suffice for diameter d .
heavily loaded propellers. The pitch p is the distance that the propeller travels
Large ships, which are propelled by two -stroke through the water per revolution, if there is no slip
crosshead engines generally, use four- bladed ( see next section ).
propellers. Large container ships with speeds As the pitch may vary along the length of the blade
reaching 25 knots and large propulsion engines ( the blades radius), the ratio is normally related to
sometimes require five- or six- bladed propellers. the pitch at 0.7 of the diameter (0.7 r) , where r - Vi d,
Due to vibrations, some propellers are not used the radius of the propeller.
in certain instances. Propellers with a different In order to obtain optimum propeller efficiency
number of blades are selected in order to avoid at a given propeller diameter, an optimum pitch /
generating natural frequencies in the ship’s diameter ratio should be found , which in turn should
superstructure. correspond to a certain design rate of revolution .
If, for instance, a propeller is designed for a low
27.10.2 Disk- area coefficient revolution rate, the pitch / diameter ratio should be
increased and vice versa for efficiency.
The disk- area coefficient , in older literature referred If a low design rate of revolution is required and
to as the expanded - blade area ratio, is the ratio providing that the draught of the ship allows this,
between the surface of the propeller blade and its it is possible to opt for a larger propeller diameter,
disk area . A factor of 0.55 is considered adequate. which will effect an increase of the propulsive
efficiency.
For traditional four- bladed propellers, the disk - area
coefficient is insignificant , as a value in excess of
0.55 will result in extra resistance on the propeller in
water and therefore result in a minimal increase in A simple pitch measurement for a fixed- pitch propeller for
propeller efficiency. a cutter.
Heavy propeller loads are found on large ships, they Using a measuring pin, the pitch on each radius of the propeller
often have five- or six - bladed propellers and higher can be determined. In fact, the drop of the measuring pin at a
disk- area coefficients. On naval vessels they can be as given angle is measured.
high as 1.2 (frigates ). The pitch of a fixed-pitch propeller is often measured at 0.7 of the
radius.
fr
T
The disk-area coefficient is high, about 0.7.
85
27.10.4 Propeller coefficients J, KT and KQ 27.10.5 Manufacturing accuracy for

propellers
Propeller theory is based on models, but in order
to enable a general use of the theory, a number ISO 484- 1:1981 (CE)
of dimensionless propeller coefficients have been
Manufacturing Mean pitch for
Class
introduced , in relation to: accuracy propeller
- the propeller diameter d\ S Very high accuracy +/- 0.5%
- the rate of revolution n\ I High accuracy +/- 0.75%
- the specific mass of the water p. Medium accuracy +/- 1.00%
Wide tolerances +/- 3.00%
The three most important coefficients are discussed

below. Prior to manufacturing a propeller, the accuracy- class
standard must be established.
The advance number of the propeller / is, as
mentioned earlier, a dimensionless expression of the Example ISO 484- 1:1981 (CE) which has four different accuracy
propeller velocity of advance vA. classes.
Each class describes, amongst others, the maximum tolerance of
7 = VA the average pitch of the manufactured propeller, including the
nx d
maximum tolerance of the corresponding propeller speed (the
The thrust coefficient is expressed dimensionless as rate of revolution).
follows: The propeller price is dependent on the chosen accuracy class,

with the lowest price for class III.
T
KT = px n 2 x d4 ' However, it is inadvisable to opt for class III as the tolerances (+
/- 3%) are too high.
And the propeller torque as: The tolerance of the pitch should not exceed +/- 1.0%.
The accuracy of manufacturing the propeller corresponds to the
Q
Q= KQ = p x n2 x d 5 ' accuracy of the propeller speed (rate of revolution) tolerance and
2 x Tt x n
is +/- 1.0%.
Here the total accuracy of the propeller has a tolerance of +/-
The open - water propeller efficiency rjQ can be 2.0%.
calculated from the aforementioned coefficients, This also corresponds with the operating conditions in heavy
because as previously mentioned, the propeller weather.
efficiency rjQ is as follows:
27.10.6 Influence of propeller diameter
PT T xV. Kr J
and the pitch / diameter ratio on
° n
pD Qx 2 xnx n KQ 2 XTT
the propulsive efficiency fjD
With the help of special and complex propeller As mentioned earlier, the highest possible propulsive
diagrams, which, amongst others, include /, K T efficiency at a certain required velocity of the ship
and K Q curves, it is possible to calculate/find the is achieved by using the largest possible propeller
propeller s sizes, efficiency, thrust , and shaft power. diameter d, in conjunction with the corresponding
optimum pitch / diameter ratio p / d .
86
Shaft power 80,000 dwt crude oil tanker

kW Design draught = 12.2 m
An example for an 80,000 dwt crude oil tanker, with a
-
Ship speed = 14.5 kn
9500 -
service speed of 14.5 knots and a maximum propeller p/ d
9400 - d = Propeller diameter
diameter of 7.2 metres. d 0.50
p / d = Pitch/diameter ratio
9300 - p/ d 6.6 m p/ d
0.67
According to the blue line, a propeller with a maximum diameter 1.00
9200 -
6.8 m
of 7.2 metres has an optimum pitch/diameter ratio of 0.7 and the 9100 - 0.95 0.68
0.55
lowest possible shaft power of 8820 KW at a propeller speed of
9000 - 0.90
7.0 m
100 r/min. 0.69 Power and speed curve
0.85 0.60 for the given propeller
8900 -
If the pitch for this diameter is altered, the propulsive efficiency is 0.80 7.2 m diameter d = 7.2 m with
different p / d
decreased, or the necessary shaft power will increase, see the red 8800 - 0.75 0.70 0.65
curve. 8700 - 7.4 m M Power and speed curve

0.71
d for various propeller
8600 - p/ d diameters d with
The blue line shows that when a larger propeller diameter is optimum p / d
8500 -
feasible, the required shaft power is decreased to 8690 KW at
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 r/ min
94 r/ min; in other words, the larger the propeller, the lower the
Propeller speed
optimum rate of revolution of the propeller.
The red curve shows that with regard to propulsion, it is always
advantageous to use the largest possible propeller diameter even So, by choosing a slightly lower pitch/diameter ratio, comparable
though the propeller speed could be too low at the optimum to the optimum ratio, the propeller and consequently the engine
pitch/diameter ratio. This with relation to the required engine speed will increase and only require a minimal power increase.
speed.
27.11 Operating conditions of a

propeller
27.11.1 Slip ratio 5
Pitch p
The slip S. Slip
If the propeller had no slip in the water, or if the propeller did not
thrust the water backwards, the propeller would move forward
t
with a velocity of v = p x n in which n is the rate of revolution of 0.7 x r
the propeller and p the pitch of the propeller. d
Imagine a similar situation with the propeller moving in cork ( a r

solid mass ); then the slip would be zero and the propeller would
move in relation to the cork with a velocity of v = p x n.
However, as water is a liquid and moves backwards, the apparent
propeller speed forward decreases with the slip and is equal to v o r vA Sxpxn
the ship's velocity v, and the apparent slip can be expressed as: pxn
SA = p x n - v.
pxn-v v
The apparent slip ratio: SA = pxn pxn
The apparent slip SA, which is dimensionless, is defined as follows:
pxn-v v p x n - vA
The real slip ratio: SR = - =1- pxn
pxn pxn pxn
87
DIESEL ENGINES > BOOK III 1
Velocity of corkscrew: v = p x n Pitch p
A rotating 'propeller' in a
solid mass (in this instance,
cork). --
• • .
? w . •
i
•
"
1
7& $ i - .• v
> «v •XV
7
-
The 'propeller ' speed is equal
/A .
-
»•
to the distance travelled // \\ .
v = p x n. ' --
VV T * V
J ..v $
/
it •
There is no slip. X/
jr < V V:
*V• •
i
y/i
. - > 1
. Vi
*i • v.
Corkscrew Cork Wine bottle

T
The apparent slip, which is calculated by the crew, For a ship with a fixed - pitch propeller, the ship
provides valuable information as it gives the speed v is proportional to the size and the rate of
propeller load in varying operating conditions. revolution , so:
The apparent slip increases when:
P = c x n3
- the ship sails into the wind and / or waves;
- the ship sails in shallow waters; which precisely expresses the propeller law which
- the ships hull is fouled ; states: ‘the required engine power output delivered
- the ship accelerates. to the propeller is proportional to the rate of
revolution to the third power’.
Under increased resistance, this means that the
propeller velocity has to increase to maintain the Measurements demonstrate that the relation between
required ships speed. the power output and the engine speed for certain
weather conditions is fairly congruent , whereas the
27.11.2 Real slip SR relation between the power output and the ships
velocity is often higher than the v to the power of
The real slip SR is greater than the apparent slip SA three.
due to the fact that the actual speed of advance vA of A reasonable relationship to be used for estimations
the propeller is smaller than the ship’s velocity v. in normal ship’s velocities could be as follows:
The real SR which provides a more accurate picture
of the propeller’s function , is: For large high -speed container ships:
velocity ± 2 2 - 2 6 knots.
V X (1 - w )
S R = l - p VxAn = 1 - pxn P= c x V4 - 5
If a ship is moored ( at quay trials) and the propulsion

engine operates at full load , the ship’s velocity v For medium sized, medium - speed ships such
equals 0 and the real slip 1.0. The slip is sometimes as feeder-container ships, RoRo ships etc.:
given in percentages. velocity ± 1 6 - 2 0 knots.
P= c x V40
27.11.3 Propeller law in general
The resistance R for low ship’s speeds is proportional For low-speed ships such as tankers and bulk
to the square of the ship’s velocity: R = c x v2, where carriers and small feeder-container ships:
c is constant. The required power P is therefore velocity ± 1 2 - 1 4 knots.
proportional to the ship’s velocity v to the power of
P= C X V3 3 -
three.
P = R x v = c x v3
88
27.11.4 Propeller law for a propeller running The propeller law is predominantly applied to fixed -
under heavy conditions pitch propeller ships running at partial load.
Diesel manufacturers’ project guides and engine lay-
Obviously, the propeller law can only be applied to out and load diagrams specify the engines curves for
identical operating conditions. both light - and heavy - running conditions.
If, for instance, after a certain amount of time the These diagrams use logarithmic scales and straight
hull is fouled and consequently has an increased lines.
water resistance, the wake field differs from the wake
field of a clean’ hull during for example, the trial
runs.
A ship with a fouled hull is subject to extra resistance
in the water, which effects an increased propeller
load at an identical engine output. The rate of
revolution will therefore be lower.
The propeller law is now applied to a different
‘heavier’ propeller curve than that of a ‘clean’ hull.
Similar considerations apply to ships labouring in
heavy seas, in strong counter- currents, in stormy
weather and high waves. There will also be a heavier A load diagram for a four- stroke medium- speed
propeller operation in tail wind and high waves than Wartsila 38B diesel engine operating on HFO.
in calm weather operation . Propeller type: fixed- pitch propeller.
27.11.5 Ballast conditions vertical: cylinder power in kW.

horizontal: rate of revolution per minute (rpm):
When a ships sails in ballast , which is to say, with less - minimum rpm: 200;
displacement, the propeller law applies to a ‘lighter’ - maximum rpm: 600.
curve; at a similar power output the propeller speed MCR: at 600 rpm and 725 kW per cylinder.
will increase slightly. normal service power: at 85% of MCR at 600 rpm and 625 kW per
cylinder.
vertical hatched area: operating area for the propeller load on the
engine.
propeller hatched area : area in which the governor is activated,
top: mechanical fuel stop.
Operating area W 38 B 725 kW / cyl.: FPP application
700 MCR
Mechanical fuel stop
85 %
600 MCR
Range for governing

purposes only
500
/
>
u
x
400 Nomina
^ propulsion
=3
CL
§ Propeller
30
° layout area
200
Range for
continuous
100 operation
Min. speed
\
0
100 200 300 400 500 600
Speed [rpm]
89
Operating area W38B 725 kW /cyl.: CPP Combinator Curve application

A load diagram for a four-
stroke medium- speed 700
Mechanical fuel stop
MCR
Wartsila 38 B diesel engine
fuelled by HFO. Propeller 600
type: controllable- pitch
Range for governing
propeller. purposes only
500
.u
400
Q.
8 300
200 Range for

Min. speed continuous
operation
100
0
200 300 400 500 600
Speed [rpm]
27.11.6 General propeller performance at

increased ship resistance
Heavy BHP Shaft power horizontal: the rate of revolution of the propeller per minute
running 21,000
vertical: the shaft power BHP (brake horse power)
Brake Horse Power: 736 Watt
mm Extremely bad weather 6%
18,000 draught mean: Dmean = 6.50 m
Average weather 3%
A draught forward: DF = 5.25 m
a Extremely good weather 0%
draught aft : DA = 7.75 m
15,000
green line A = extremely good weather
blue line B = normal weather
12,000
red line C = extremely bad weather
Clean hull and draught D

Dmean ~ 6.50 m 9,000 Bottom left of the figure: the ship's velocity in knots (knots =
DF = 5.25 m 1 nautical mile per hour = 1,852 metres).
DA = 7.75 m
Top right of the figure: the apparent slip in percentages.
Source: Lloyd ' s Register 6,000
This data is gathered over a period of a year and only includes the
Propeller speed
influences of weather conditions!
These measurements have been reduced to three average
Heavy seas and adverse winds and seas. weather types and show an average 'heavy ' running of 6%, in
reality, slightly more.
Resistance resulting from heavy seas can cause the propeller to In order to prevent slamming of the ship and consequent
run 7 tot 8% heavier than in calm seas, or at the same power damage to the stern, the ship's velocity is reduced to a more
output to the propeller, the rate of revolution of the propeller may acceptable level. If not, the bow of the ship could be damaged
be reduced by 7 to 8%. and the propeller speed would increase the moment the head of
This chart applies to a medium-sized container ship. the ship is submerged in a wave while the stern of the ship,
including the propeller, would lift out of the water.
90
Power
12.3 knots A
100% power
Sli
D' D A
/
/
/
t 15.0 knots
/ 100% power
t
*
Propeller /
curve for *
fouled hull
and heavy
seas ^ t
A Propeller curve
t
for clean hull and
t
10.0 knots t
calm weather
50% power t
t
t
t
t
it 12.3 knots
50% power
C
/
HR HR = Heavy running
LR LR = Light running
Propeller speed
(Logarithmic scales)
>
The difference between the curves for a light- and heavy One would initially think that point A would move to B as with
running propeller is clearly visible in these charts. fixed- pitch propellers the propeller moves through the water at
the same speed. If the propeller were to rotate through a solid
Here the ship's velocity is 15 knots and the delivered engine mass, this would be accurate. However, water is not solid and will
power 100%. This applies to a clean hull just after dry-docking and yield, and the propeller will have slip, which increases at a higher
in calm water. With 15% extra engine power, the corresponding thrust, produced by a higher resistance of the ship. This is why
velocity increases from 15.0 to 15.6 knots. point A moves to point B, which in fact is close to the propeller
As described earlier and corresponding to the calm weather line of the left figure.
conditions, an extra margin, the so - called 'sea margin,' is Operational point B is now positioned on the propeller line, which
established for poor weather conditions such as wind, waves and runs heavier than the propeller line of the left figure in calm water.
currents. This is the extra power margin that can be used for bad
weather conditions. In some cases, for instance when the hull is fouled and the ship
So most propulsion marine engines usually operate at 85% of sails in heavy seas and head winds, the resistance can increase
their power output. The 15% margin serves to bridge the significantly and extra, up to 100% or more, power is required. See
increased resistance. the example in the right figure.
In this example, the ship's velocity at 100% of the engine power is
15.0 knots, at point A. At a speed of 12.3 knots with a clean hull In this example, the velocity of the ship at 100% engine power is
and in calm weather, only 50% of the engine power is required, 15.0 knots, at point A. At a velocity of 12.3 knots with a clean hull
point C at the bottom of the figure. and in calm water, only 50% of the engine power is required at
point C, bottom of the figure.
figure left: horizontal: the ship's velocity in knots; vertical: the In heavy conditions similar to those mentioned previously, the
power supplied to the propeller in percentages. ship could achieve a maximum speed of 12.3 knots at a 100%
If the resistance increases to a level that requires an additional engine-power output.
15% power, the operating point shifts from A to B. The operational point now shifts from point A to D. Operational
figure middle: horizontal: the propeller speed in knots; vertical: point D is now shifted to the left, relatively far from point A, which
the power delivered to the propeller in percentages. implies heavy running.
Situations such as these should be meticulously calculated when
designing the propeller.
A propeller with bent blade tips is more suitable for these heavy
loads than a standard propeller as the propeller is more capable
of absorbing the higher torque in heavy conditions.
91
In waves and head winds,

the resistance of the sailing
ship increases significantly.
The engine's power output
is increased considerably to
maintain the same speed.
Shaft power SMCR: 13 ,000 kWx 105 r /min

Another example of a reefer during trials. % SMCR Wind velocity : 2.5 m / s Head wind
105i Wave height : 4 m
horizontal: the engine/propeller rpm at a maximum shaft power Tail wind

SMCR s
of 13,000 kW and an rpm of 105. 100 -
vertical: the engine power in percentages.

5
weather conditions: wind velocity 2m/ sec, wave height 4 metres. 1
Line 1 is the standard engine/propeller line for normal speed at a 95 -
normal load at maximum 100% shaft power and an rpm of 100 Propeller design
light running Heavy 7
(point SMCR).
running
The red line applies to 'heavy running' a slight head wind and 90 -
waves. The speed lies between 20.5 and 21.1 knots. Here the
required power is 85 to 90% and the rpm 98 to 99%.
The black line on the right applies to tail wind; the speed 85 -
(|)
increases to 21.1 and 22.3 knots, depending on the power output
and the rpm.
At 21.1 knots, the rpm is 98% and the power output 82%.
80 -
Near the red line and at a speed of 21.1 knots this is approximately
98.5% and 86% and therefore more power (read fuel) will be
required.
96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 % SMCR

(Logarithmic scales ) Propeller / engine speed
92
27.12 Increasing ship speed
Engine shaft power, % A

A 100% reference point
110 -
M Specified engine MCR
O Optimising point
100
90
80
mep
70 110%
100%
( Logarithmic scales ) Engine speed, % A
Increasing the ship's speed. 27.12.1 Shallow waters
vertical: shaft power in percentages Sailing in shallow waters may cause an increase in
horizontal: engine rpm the ship’s resistance, thus subjecting the propeller
green area: normal engine load to a larger load than would be the case during free
yellow area: maximum rpm for short periods sailing in open water.
red area: engine overload
m.e.p. 110-60%: mean effective pressure in percentages of a 27.12.2 Influence of displacement
maximum 100%
point A = M: 100% power, 100% engine speed, 100% mean A laden ship may carry 10 % more or less than
effective pressure the average load. This, of course, affects the ship’s
resistance and the required propeller power, but only
Slanted lines - acceleration of the ship - the top line temporarily has a minor effect on the propeller curve.
traverses the overload area. When the ship sails in ballast, the displacement
When the ship accelerates, the propeller can be subjected to an volume can be considerably less when compared to
even larger load than during free sailing. the loaded condition, and the propeller curve could ,
The engine power, which at that time is higher than during free for instance, be 2% ‘lighter’ at an identical engine
sailing, is high and it may take some time for the propeller rate to power. The speed would then increase by 2 %.
achieve a new and higher revolution rate.
27.13 Parameters causing heavy

running conditions
The following examples give an indication of the

risks involved in sailing with a heavily loaded
propeller in poor weather conditions.
93
27.13.1 Relatively small ships 27.13.7 Sailing in shallow waters

(less than 70,000 dwt )
Sailing in shallow waters increases hull resistance
Relatively small ships ( less than 70,000 dwt ) such as and reduces the directional stability of the ship.
reefers and medium -sized container ships are more
vulnerable than larger ships, such as large tankers 27.13.8 Ships with a skewed propeller
and container ships, because the latter types are large
in relation to the wave size. Ships with a skewed propeller are able to absorb a
higher torque under heavy running conditions.
27.13.2 Small ships ( length between
perpendiculars equal to or less
than 135 m and approximately 27.14 Manoeuvring speeds
20,000 dwt )
Below a certain ship speed , the so - called
Small ships have a low directional stability and manoeuvrability becomes increasingly difficult , as
consequently require frequent rudder corrections, the water velocity arriving at the rudder is too low.
which increase the ships resistance. It is rather difficult to indicate the exact value for
the minimum manoeuvrability as the water velocity
27.13.3 High- speed ships arriving at the rudder is dependent on the slip
stream of the propeller.
High -speed ships are more sensitive to waves than Often manoeuvring speeds of 3.5 to 4.5 knots are
low -speed ships, because waves have a higher observed.
reaction force to high -speed ships than to low -speed According to the propeller law, low engine power
ships. is required , but this is, of course, dependent on the
weather conditions which can cause an increased
27.13.4 Ships with a flat stern resistance and therefore more propulsion power is
required.
Ships with a flat ( truncated ) stern are more likely to
be slowed down by waves than ships with a sharp
stern . Similarly, a sharp stem will cut the waves more 27.15 Direction of propeller
efficiently and therefore reduce the heavy running of rotation: lateral forces
the propeller.
The blades of a propeller of a ship afloat have better
27.13.5 Fouling of the hull and the propeller grip in their bottom position than in their top
position .
Fouling of the hull and the propeller, including The shallower the water the larger the resulting
corrosion of the hull, will also increase the resistance lateral force, which is the case during port
and therefore the propeller torque. manoeuvring or in shallow waters.
The propeller should be polished each time the ship
is dry docked ( even when floating in a dry dock ). Therefore, a clockwise - turning propeller will push
This particularly applies to the propeller tips, as the the ship in starboard direction and push the bow
speed and therefore the frictional force are at their of the ship towards port side. This is counteracted
highest here. Using anti -fouling paints prevents the by the rudder.
growth of living organisms such as seaweeds and
barnacles. So, when reversing with a fixed- pitch propeller, the
lateral - force direction is reversed. The stern of the
27.13 .6 Ship acceleration ship will move to port and the bow to starboard.
Accelerating the ship’s velocity will increase the The actual reason for a clockwise - turning propeller
propeller torque and therefore temporarily give a to thrust the stern towards starboard is the fact that
heavy- running propeller. the top part of the water flow around the propeller
rotates and strikes the aft side of the ship’s hull.
94
27.16 Engine layouts and load 27.17 Propulsion- and engine

diagrams characteristics
As mentioned earlier, the effective brake power PB is 27.17.1 Fouled hull

proportional to the mean effective pressure ( mep ) pe
and the engine speed ( rate of revolution ) n. After a certain sailing time, the hull and propeller
In the engine formula of a certain type of engine, pe resistance will increase due to fouling and corrosion .
and n are variables, whereas the others Consequently, the ships velocity will decrease if
the propulsion power remains at the same level.
( —4 x D x 5 x —a x Z) are constant and referred to
2
If, however, the engine delivers more power to the
as C. propeller, the operating conditions of the propeller
change to what is called ‘ heavy running’.
PB = C x pcx n and for a constant mean effective
pressure PB = Cx nl
As previously mentioned , the shaft power with a Furthermore, modern, highly efficient ships have a
fixed -pitch propeller, may in accordance with the relatively high velocity and very smooth hull - and
propeller law be expressed as: propeller surface areas (at sea trials). This means
that the inevitable build - up of surface roughness
PB = C x rP ( the propeller law). on hull and propeller during regular service causes
Therefore, for the examples shown below, the brake the propeller to rotate more heavily, in comparison
power can be expressed as a function of the speed n to ships already constructed with a rougher hull
to the power output of PR = Cx n\ surface.
27.17.2 Heavy- weather conditions and sea

margin used for engine layout
If, at the same time, the weather is poor with head

winds, the ship’s resistance increases significantly,
this leads to even heavier running.
In determining the required engine power, it is
common practice to add an extra power margin, the
so - called sea margin , which is a standard 15% of the T
propeller design power PD. With the anemometer 'True
However, for large container ships margins of 20 to Wind,' the wind speed can
30% are sometimes used. be established accurately.
42.5 knots! 80 km per hour.
The relation between the linear functions with linear scales

and power functions with logarithmic scales. These are
generally used by large engine manufacturers.
95
A storm as seen from the

bridge of a large container
ship.
Power Heavy seas and 'sea margin' in the graph. The propeller
design point is PD.
Usually, estimations of the required propeller power and the

speed are based on theoretical calculations for a loaded ship and
often based on tank tests executed in a hydraulics laboratory.
Engine margin The combination of the speed and the required power output is
( 10% of MP)
referred to as the design point, PD, of the ship's propeller. In the
figure for a light running propeller, this is straight line 6.
Sea margin Some shipyards and/or propeller manufacturers use a design
( 15 % of PD)
point PD that also partially or entirely incorporates the sea margin
(power surplus).
When establishing the required engine speed for a propulsion
engine, it is advisable, in comparison to line 6, clean hull, propeller
and calm weather, to select the heavier propeller line 2.
LR (5 %)
Line 2 has 3 to 7% fewer revolutions.
HR
On average a 5% difference is acceptable.
Engine speed
Note that the chosen 'sea margin' does not signify that a heavier
propeller line was selected.
© Heavy propeller curve - fouled hull and heavy weather
® Light propeller curve - clean hull and calm weather
The SP point = the maximum service propulsion point for a
MP: Specified propulsion point sailing ship.
SP: Service propulsion point The combination of the speed and the engine power for a heavier
PD: Propeller design point
running propeller and a sea margin is referred to as the maximum
PD ': Alternative propeller design point
service propulsion point SP. This applies to a fouled hull and
LR: Light running factor
heavy-weather conditions.
HR: Heavy running
The 'heavy ' propeller line 2 will generally be applied as the basis
for the engine characteristics during free sailing and the propeller
line for a clean hull and calm weather, line 6, for a 'light ' running
propeller, LR.
96
27.18 Electronic governors with 27.18.3 Recommendations

load limitation
Continuous operation within a certain time limit is
To protect the diesel engine against thermal - and only allowed in the area limited by the lines 4, 5, 7
mechanical overload, the accepted electronic and 3 of the load diagram.
governors include two limiter functions. For fixed - pitch propellers that operate in calm
weather conditions with a loaded ship and a clean
27.18.1 Torque limiter hull, the propeller / engine may run along or close to
the propeller- design line 6.
The torque limiter ensures that the approved After a certain running time, the ship’s hull and the
limitation lines of the load diagram are adhered to at propeller grow increasingly rough by fouling and
all times. contamination, thus causing the propeller to run
The torque limiter algorithm compares the calculated more heavily. The propeller line will shift to the left
fuel - pump index ( fuel amount ) and the actual from line 6 to line 2. Therefore, more propulsion
measured engine speed with a standard reference B power will be required to maintain the ship’s velocity.
limiter curve, which gives the maximum allowable If the propeller runs heavily in calm weather, this
fuel - pump index at a given engine speed. If the could indicate that the hull requires cleaning and
calculated fuelpump index is above this line, the possibly the propeller needs polishing.
actual fuel - pump index is reduced accordingly. The area between lines 4 and 1 is available for
The standard reference limiter curve should be operation in shallow waters, for acceleration and if
adjusted to correspond to the limitation lines of the required , for non -steady operation without any time
load diagram . limit.
27.18.2 Scavenging- air pressure limiter

27.19 Use of diagrams
The scavenging- air pressure limiter prevents the
engine from being over- fuelled in relation to the Examples
amount of air supplied by turbochargers while The following are five different examples; four
accelerating. This is mainly the case during rapid examples for fixed - pitch propellers and one example
load fluctuations such as in manoeuvring. based on a controllable- pitch propeller. They
The scavenging- air pressure limiter algorithm illustrate the flexibility of these diagrams.
compares the calculated fuel - pump index and the In this aspect , the choice of the optimum point O has
measured scavenging- air pressure with a standard an important influence.
reference limiter curve that gives the maximum fuel -
pump index at a certain scavenging- air pressure. Source: MAN Diesel & Turbo
If the calculated fuel - pump index is above this
limiter line, the fuel - pump index is reduced
accordingly.
The reference limiter curve should be adjusted so
there is a sufficient air supply for a good combustion
process.
97
1
27.19.1 Example 1:
Normal operating conditions
without a shaft generator
Power Power
Specified MCR of Engine > > > i
S: Continuous service rating of

engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load
diagram *- 2
Point A of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve
through optimising point (O)
Propulsion and
Line 7: Constant power line
engine-service curve
through specified MCR (M) for heavy running Propulsion and engine-service
Point A: Intersection between curve for heavy running
lines 1 and 7 > Engine speed >• Engine speed
Example 1 : normal operation without shaft generator. Point A can be found between propeller line 1 (2) and the line of
the continuous rate line 7, through M. In this instance, point A is
Normally, the optimising point 0 and the engine line 1 are placed equal to point M.
on line 2 (for heavy running). When point A has been located, the layout diagram such as in the
figure above can be drawn and the current load limitations of the
diesel engine can be found.
27.19.2 Example 2:
Special load conditions without a
shaft generator
3 . 3% A 5% A
1
Power Power l
Specified MCR of Engine
S Continuous service rating of
5% L
engine
Optimising point of engine
Reference point of load 1- 2
diagram

through optimising point (0)
Line 7: Constant power line Propulsion and Propulsion and engine- service
through specified MCR (M) engine- service curve curve for heavy running
for heavy running
Point A: Intersection between
lines 1 and 7 > Engine speed > Engine speed
A
Example 2: Special load situations without shaft generator. It is recommended to move the layout diagram further right,
when it is expected that the ship will sail on a route where poor
The propeller can be subjected to a heavier load when the ship weather conditions are a common occurrence.
accelerates than during full load. The same applies when the ship The latter is performed by shifting the optimising point 0 and
is subjected to extra resistances, for instance when sailing in consequently propeller line 1 to the left.
heavy winds with high wave resistances. However, this will result in a fuel- cost increase due to a slight
In both instances, the engine - service point moves to the left of increase in fuel consumption.
the normal service line as the propeller will run heavier. An example is shown in both graphs. The top figure shows,
To avoid exceeding limitation line 4 of the load diagram to the compared to the normal situation in the first example, that
left, it is sometimes necessary to reduce the speed and/or the limitation line 4 has been shifted to the left, thus creating more
power output. space between the lines 2 and 4; here a light load factor has been
applied.
98
J
27.19.3 Example 3:
Normal operating conditions with a
shaft generator
Li
i
Power Power
A >k 5% L , M: Specified MCR of Engine
S: Continuous service rating of
engine
0: Optimising point of engine
l~ 2 diagram

L- 4
Propulsion curve Line 7: Constant power line
Propulsion curve
for heavy running through specified MCR (M)
Engine- service curve for heavy running
Engine-service curve
for heavy running Point A: Intersection between
for heavy running
> Engine speed > Engine speed lines 1 and 7
Example 3 : A standard case, here however, with a shaft In this instance, a shaft generator has been installed and therefore
generator. In the figure, the engine line has been drawn for the power output delivered to the propeller is reduced by the
heavy running, including the extra power required for the power supplied to the shaft generator.
shaft generator.
The optimising point 0 and the engine line 1 are then found in a
similar fashion as in example 1 .
27.19.4 Example 4:
A special case, with a shaft generator
M: Specified MCR of Engine

Continuous service rating of
Power Power engine
/1 11
O: Optimising point of engine
diagram
Point A and M of
load diagram
Point A: Intersection between
Propulsion curve lines 1 and line L 1 - L 3
Propulsion curve for heavy running
for heavy running Point M: Located on constant
Engine service curve Engine service curve power line 7 through point A
for heavy running for heavy running and at MP's speed
> Engine speed > Engine speed
Example 4: A special case with a shaft generator. When the latter solution is chosen, the required MCR power of the
1
engine can be reduced from point M to M as is shown in the
Also in this special case a shaft generator is installed, but unlike figure.
example 3, the MCR-point MP is placed at the top of the diagram Situations such as these seldom occur as ships rarely have a
This means that the MCR of the engine, point M, will be placed normal operating speed with high engine power outputs such as
outside the top of the diagram. these.
This problem could be resolved by choosing a diesel engine with In the example, optimising point 0 is chosen equal to point S, and
an extra cylinder (for instance a nine-cylinder instead of an eight- so line 1 is found.
cylinder in-line engine). Another and cheaper solution is to Point A, having the highest possible power can be found at the
reduce the electrical power to the shaft generator when the ship intersection of line L1 -L 3 and the complete load diagram has
is sailing at full power output . This is achieved by using a diesel been drawn in the right figure. Point M is found on line 7 at MP's
genset. speed.
99
27.19.5 Example 5:
A controllable- pitch propeller, with
or without a shaft generator
Power
3.3% A 5 %A
Recommended range
for shaft generator
operation with
constant speed
Combinator curve speed

for loaded ship
and incl . sea margin Engine speed
>
Example 5: A controllable- pitch propeller, with or without a

shaft generator. Most ships have a controllable- pitch
propeller.
Load chart, without a shaft generator

If a ship is fitted with controllable-pitch propellers (CPP) the
combinator line (of the propeller with optimum efficiency) is
usually chosen for a loaded ship including a sea margin.
At a given propeller speed and pitch the CP propeller runs heavily
in poor weather conditions.
Therefore, it is advisable to select the line for a lightly loaded
propeller, such as the dotted line, ensuring a larger margin
between the normal line and the lines for heavy-weather
conditions such as 4 and 5.
Load chart, with a shaft generator

The hatched area indicates the recommended speed range
between 100% and 96.7% of the maximum continuous rating
(MCR) for an engine with a shaft generator operating at a
constant speed.
The service point S can be situated at any point in the hatched
area .
The combinator line of a loaded ship including a sea margin still
has an ample margin indicated by lines 4 and 5.
100
27.20 Summarising the effects of

the various types of
resistance on engine
operation
A brief summary of the effects of the various types

of ships resistance on a fixed - pitch propeller and the
propulsion engine is shown by the diagram below.
PD: Propeller design point, clean hull and calm weather

Continuous service rating for propulsion with The influence of the various resistances the ship is subject
a power equal to 90% specified MCR, based on: to is illustrated by means of corresponding service points
SO: Clean hull and calm weather, loaded ship for propulsion with an identical propulsion power, based
S 1: Clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial) on the propeller- design point PD, plus 15% additional
S2: Clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship power.
SP: Fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship

S3: Very heavy sea and wave resistance Propeller- design point PD
As previously mentioned the propeller is normally designed for a
certain ship velocity ( v ) valid for a loaded ship with a clean,
Engine shaft power % of A
smooth hull in calm weather.
100% ref. point ( A ) The corresponding engine speed and power are indicated by
110 -
Specified MCR (M)
point PD on the propeller line 6 of the load diagram.
105
100
Increased ship speed, point SO
If the engine power increases by, for instance, 15% and the ship
SO
has a smooth hull and operates in calm weather, point SO, the
SI
S2 ship velocity v and the engine speed n will increase in accordance
SP
with the propeller law (more or less valid for normal speeds).
S3
Point SO is placed on the same propeller line as point PD.
PD
3
vso = V X VU 5 = 1.041 x v
3
nSQ = n x yfUs = ] .048 x n
110
Normal speed ranges with clean hulls and 15% sea margin,
Engine speed, % of A
point S2
Line 1: Propeller curve through point A =M, lay-out curve for engine Conversely, still operating with a loaded ship and clean hull, but
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship now with additional resistance due to heavy seas, extra power of,
Line 6: Light propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, for instance, 15% is required to maintain the ship velocity v (15%
loaded ship, lay-out curve for propeller sea margin).
Line 6.1: Propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial) If the velocity of a ship v52 = v and the propeller has no slip, the
Line 6.2: Propeller curve, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship engine speed will remain constant.
Line 6.3: Propeller curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance However, as the water abaft the propeller gives way, the propeller
does slip, the engine speed will increase and the service point S 2
will be placed on the propeller curve 6.2 close to SO on the
propeller curve 6.
The propeller curve 6.2 could possibly indicate a slightly heavier
loaded propeller than curve 6 (approximately 0.5%).
Depending on the type of ship and its dimensions, the heavy
running of the propeller and therefore the factor will be 0.5%
higher or lower.
For resistances that correspond to about 30% power increase
(30% sea margin) the corresponding relative heavy-operating
factor will be in the region of 1%.
101
S=PD : Propeller-design point incl. sea margins, and continuous service rating
of engine
Line 1 : Propeller curve for lay -out of engine
Line 1 . Combinator curve for propeller design, clean hull and 15 % sea margin,
loaded ship
Line 6.1 : Light combinator curve, fouled hull and calm weather, loaded ship
Line 2 : Heavy combinator curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
Line 2.1 : Very heavy combinator curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance
Engine shaft power % of A
110 - 100 % ref. point (A)

Specified MCR (M)
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
In other words, in the example the propeller-design curve is
65 approximately 5% 'lighter ' than the propeller curve that is applied
to the lay - out of the main engine.
60
55 Operating in heavy seas with extremely high waves, point S 3

When operating in these conditions the propeller can run
50 between 7 and 8% (or more) 'heavier' than in calm conditions.

65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 Consequently, at the same engine/propeller power, the rate of
Engine speed, % of A revolution is decreased by 7 to 8%.
For a propeller power equal to 90% of MCR, point S3 in the load
diagram shows an example of this operating condition.
Sailing with a fouled hull and in poor weather conditions,
point SP In some instances when operating in heavy headwinds, the heavy
When, after a certain operational time, the ship's hull is fouled and running is often such that the service point is placed left of line 4.
its surface consequently rougher, the wake field will alter in In such instances, when the ship begins to pitch and the propeller
relation to that of a smooth ship (clean hull). periodically surfaces, it is recommended to decelerate in order to
A ship with a fouled hull experiences more resistance, which avoid damage to the ship and the propulsion installation.
results in a modified wake field and therefore a heavier rotating
propeller than would be expected by deteriorating weather Accelerating and operating in shallow waters
conditions alone. When the ship accelerates and the propeller is working heavier
The propeller curve will shift to the left, see propeller curve 2 in than during normal operating speed, the effect on the propeller is
the load diagram. This propeller curve indicates that the hull is at times equal to the operating conditions at point S 3.
fouled and the ship operates in poor weather conditions. The The accelerating effects are sometimes even greater.
propeller/engine load has increased approximately 5% in relation The same applies to operating in shallow waters.
to propeller curve 6.
In order to safeguard the air supply for the diesel engine's Trials at open sea point S 1
combustion process, which determines the limit of the torque Normally, the curve 6 for a clean hull will be equal to the trial-trip
and the engine speed, it is common practice to ensure that the propeller curve. However, as the ship is seldom in loaded
engine and the turbocharger match each other according to the condition during the trials and usually operates in ballast, the
load on propeller curve 1 of the load diagram, equal to the propeller curve at 6.1 has a somewhat lighter load than curve 6.
'heavier ' propeller curve 2. Point SI in the diagram provides an example of the power
As opposed to point S 2, point SP is normally used to determine supplied to the propeller at 90% of the MCR.
the engine layout by referring this rating to 'average operating' It may be necessary to exceed the maximum engine speed of the
power at 90% of the specific MCR-point, which matches a 10% propeller to 107%, so curve 9 in the diagram, during the trials to
margin with the maximum engine power. evaluate how the ship operates at 100% power.
102
.M
27.21 Comments Therefore, the total propulsion efficiency in a ship

lies between 25 and 35%. Applying the rule of
In practice, ship’s resistance is compared to the thumb, this means that a mere third of the energy
outcome of the model tests in a laboratory, for released during combustion is actually used for ship
instance Marin, Wageningen, The Netherlands. propulsion .
The results from the towing tests are also used for
optimising the propeller- and hull design. 27.22.1 IMO- Energy Efficiency Design Index
When the required engine power, including the
margins and the propeller speed is known, the IMO regulations stipulate that the permissible C02
correct engine can be selected with an engine emissions for ships between 2012 and 2018 will have
selection programme developed by the engine to be reduced to 70% of the current permissible
manufacturer. emission ( 2015) in relation to the 100 % index of new
It is even possible to state the requirements via ships under construction today.
internet , so the manufacturer can assess the clients Reduction in the C02 emissions is roughly directly
demands in advance. proportional to a reduction in fuel consumption . The
manufacturers’ objective is to achieve a 30% decrease
In view of this, the relation between the ship and the in fuel consumption for future voyages under normal
propulsion engine is extremely important, as well as conditions. Clearly, this is no easy task. In the last
the position of the load diagram , which is to say the 100 years, diesel - engine efficiency has only gradually
choice of the engine- layout diagram in relation to the increased from + / - 25 to + / - 50%. In order to realise
operational curve in order to achieve an optimum a 30% decrease in fuel consumption in less than
propulsion engine. 10 years, attention must be paid not only to diesel
In order to avoid overloading the main engine engine capabilities but also:
during excessive operating conditions it is advisable
to use an electronic governor with load control. - Fuel consumption at a lower output per hour, per
nautical mile or per freight ton .
For a main engine that also drives a shaft generator - Fuel consumption with a change in propeller
for generating electricity for the ship, the interaction dimensions, that is, a larger diameter.
between the ship and the propulsion engine is - Fuel consumption by changing the number of
complex. Nevertheless, in practice problems very propeller blades.
seldom occur.
The next example is based on the following
assumptions:
27.22 Future improvements in
propulsion efficiency and 1 The propulsion engines are those of a two -stroke
reduction of C02 crosshead type and in conformance with the IMO
Tier II emission regulations even if decreased
Source: A summery of a study by MAN Diesel & fuel consumption implies a reduction in NOx
Turbo, the largest engine manufacturer for medium - emissions.
and low speed - diesel engines in the world.
2 Moreover, all ships have a fixed - pitch propeller
Generally, the propulsion efficiency in ships is low. ( FPP ) and each propulsion engine is directly
Four-stroke trunk- piston engines and two -stroke connected to the propeller and for this reason
crosshead diesel engines have a total efficiency of have an identical rpm.
just below 50% to just over 50% for larger cylinder
diameters.
The efficiency of fixed - and adjustable propellers

depends on type, size, rpm and the number of
blades, ship’s shape and various other factors. It lies
usually between 50 and 70%.
103
MAN Diesel & Turbo has studied three types of Furthermore, the higher the stroke - diameter ratio
ships. of a two -stroke crosshead engine, the higher the
engine efficiency. This means that engine types
Type 1 with a high stroke diameter ratio ( super- long
A 75,000 dwt Panamax Product Tanker with an stroke ), such as a MAN B&W S80ME- C9, has
operational speed of 15.1 knots. a slightly higher efficiency than a short -stroke
engine such as a MAN B&W K80ME-C9.
Three engine types:
A MAN B&W 5S60MC - C8 at normal power output Electronically controlled engines have better
( MCR ). capabilities for engine adjustment during
A MAN B&W 6S60MC - C8 at reduced power output. operation than engines equipped with a camshaft.
A MAN B&W 6S60ME - C8. This means that the MAN B&W ME / ME- C type
engines have relatively higher efficiency when
Type 2 running under low NOx IMO Tier II rules than
A 4,500 TEU Panamax Container Ship at reduced the traditional MC/ MC - C type engines.
cruising speed.
If the design speed of a ship is reduced , both the
Propulsion engine MAN B&W 6S80ME-C9 and a required engine power and the rpm decrease, which
MAN B&W 6 K80ME - C9 compared to a MAN B&W in turn may affect the aforementioned propeller- and
8 K90 MC - C6 and a MAN B&W 9 K 90 MC - C6. main - engine particulars.
- Effects of the reduced speed.
- Effects of adjusting the number of blades. 27.22.3 Summing up the above
Type 3 Propeller
An 8,000 TEU Post - Panamax Container Ship at A larger propeller diameter produces:
reduced speed. - A slight increase in propeller efficiency.
- An increase in optimal rpm.
A MAN B&W 9S90ME - C8 with reduced power
output compared to a MAN B&W 10 K98ME - 7 and a Reducing the number of propeller blades produces:
MAN B&W 12 K 98 ME- C 7. - A slight increase in propeller efficiency.
- An increase in the optimal rpm .
27.22.2 Propeller and main engine:
important data Example: Reducing the number of propeller blades
from 6 to 5 should achieve a 10 % rpm increase for
In general one can say that the larger the propeller optimum propeller efficiency.
diameter, the greater the propeller efficiency. It has
also been established that a larger propeller diameter Main Engine
requires a lower rpm in order to achieve optimum An increase in the rp max and *p mep ratio results in:
speed of both the propeller and propeller diameter.
- Higher efficiency, also at reduced power.
- Two-stroke crosshead- engine efficiency is in part - An electronically controlled engine, type ME has
dependent on the maximum combustion pressure a marginally higher efficiency and more control
and the mean effective pressure ratio. The higher over the NOx emissions than an engine equipped
the ratio, the higher the engine efficiency and the with a camshaft.
lower the fuel consumption ( bc ) .
104
.
.. d
27.22.4 Example 1
Main ship particulars assumed:

This example shows that by derating the main engine,
Scantling draught m 14.2
significant fuel efficiency can be achieved if a four- bladed
Design draught m 12.6
propeller with a large diameter is used.
Length overall m 228.6
Length between pp m 219.0
Breadth m 32.2
Sea margin % 15
Engine margin % 10
Design ship speed kn 15.1
Type of propeller FPP
No. of propeller blades 4
Propeller diameter m target
Derating of main engine

16,000
SMCR power and speed are inclusive of: Dprop — 7.2 m
- 15% Sea margin nblade = 4 Dprop = 6.8 m
- 10% Engine margin 16.0 kn nblade — 4
- 5% Propeller light running coefficient
14,000 - Dprop = 6,95 m
Constant ship speed coefficient: oc = 0.3 nblade = 4 >
15.5 kn
oc = 0 -3
12,000 - M3/M4 oc = 0 . 3 _ M2 15.1 ki 15.0 kn

M1
o5
£
o
CL 14.5 kn
OC
o 10,000 -
C /3
c 14.0 kn
o
w
3
Q.
2
0- 8,000 -
oc = 0 -3 13.0 kn
105 r/min
6,000 -
M = SMCR
M1 = 11 ,900 kW at 105.0 r/min 5S60MC - C8
M 2 = 11 ,900 kW at 105.0 r /min 6S60MC - C8
M3 = 11 ,680 kW at 98.7 r/min 6S60MC - C8
M4 = 11 ,680 kW at 98.7 r/min 6S60MC-C8
4,000 T T T T T T T
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115
Engine/propeller speed at SMCR (r/min)
A
Various main engine and propeller graphs and potential This diagram shows the layout diagrams of the 5 and 6
propulsion SMCR power outputs (M1, M2, M3 and M4) fora S60MC-C8/ME- C8 type engines including the SMCR points, Ml ,
75,000 dwt Panamax product tanker running at a similar M2, M3 and M4 at 15.1 knots with the propeller curves of the
speeds of 15.1 knots. three different propeller diameters, 6.8 m, 6.95 m and 7.2 m, each
with four propeller blades, respectively.
Standard example
Option 1: the standard ship's main engine, a MAN B&W, type
5 S60MC-08, a SMCR= M2 = 11,900 kW at 105.0 rpm and a
designed ship speed of 15.1 knots, runs at a normal speed.
105
Derating
Reduced fuel consumption by derating

IMO Tier II compliance
50 M1
— Alt. 1: 5S60MC-C8 nominal (Basis) M2
SMCR = 11,900 kW at 105 r/min
M3
— Alt. 2: 6S60MC-C8 derated M4
SMCR = 11,900 kW at 105 r/min
45 - — Alt. 3: 6S60MC -C8 derated
-C SMCR = 11,680 kW at 98.7 r/min
CM Alt. 4: 6S60MC -C 8 derated
SMCR = 11,680 kW at 98.7 r/min
Reduction (-) of fuel consumption

Total Total Propeller Engine
t/24h % % %
0.00 0.0 0.0 0.0
-1.14 -2.9 0.0 -2.9
-1.60 - 4.1 -1.8 -2.3
-2.39 -6.1 -1.8 -4.3
Average
service load
80 % SMCR
25 T T T T T
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Engine shaft power (% SMCR)
The MAN B&W type 5 S60MC-C8 with a SMCR = M2 = M1, Reduced fuel consumption per day or per voyage
Alt. 2 with one additional cylinder allows for derating to the In example 3, the reduced fuel consumption of 4.1% is achieved
same SMCR point as the MAN B& W type 5 S60MC-C8 with a by the combined improvement of propeller- and main engine
SMCR = M2 = Ml operating at full power. This reduces the efficiency.
fuel consumption by 2.9 % at a SMCR of 80%.
Main engine MAN B&W type 6 S60ME- C8
A larger propeller diameter A further decrease in fuel consumption is obtained by installing
Also, if the stern of the ship can be adjusted (example 3), a an electronically controlled main engine (example 4) with an
propeller can be installed with a (larger) diameter of 7.2 metres identical SMCR = M4 = M3. The diagram shows the overall
and a corresponding SMCR = M3 = 11,680 kW at 98.7 rpm reduced fuel consumption of 6.1% effected with a 6S60ME- C8,
comparable with a MAN B&W type 6S60MC-C8 with reduced with an additional reduction of 2% compared to the MAN B&W
engine power. type 6S60MC- C 8. This can be explained by the fact that the ME-C
type has a higher efficiency than the MC-C, IMO NOxTier II type,
which makes it easier for this type to meet the IMO Tier II
requirements for NOx emission.
27.22.5 Example 2
A 4,500 TEU Panamax Container Vessel

Based on a ship where propeller diameter is Main ship particulars assumed:
unchanged. This example clearly shows the reduction
Scantling draught m 13.3
in fuel consumption by reducing the original ship
Design draught m 12.0
speed of 24.7 knots. The calculation concentrates on
Length overall m 286
the influence that the number of propeller blades
Length between pp m 271
and the corresponding influence of the selected
Breadth m 32.2
engine type that enables the design speed of the ship,
Sea margin % 15
22 knots, to be achieved. Apart from the data of the
Engine margin % 10
selected main engine type, the ship’s particulars are
as follows:
Propeller diameter m 8.3
No. of propeller blades target
Design ship speed kn target
106
Number of propeller blades changed

nblade —5 c?
50,000
SMCR power and speed are inclusive of: Dprop = 8.3 m
r>blade — 6
- 15 % Sea margin
- 10 % Engine margin
/ S' 25.0 kn
M1
- 5 % Propeller light running margin oc = -0.07 24.7 kn
40,000 - 24.5 kn
Constant ship speed coefficient = - 0.07 24.0 kn
W\C'C6 M2
I )0
a> 23.0 kn
| 30,000 - +0.7% 8K90W\C -Cg
Q.
cc 22.0 kn
O M3
21.5 ka C9
6K80ME
'
c
/) - 21.0 kn
c
o 20,000
w
-
3
a
o "blade -
CL 78 r/min 104 r/min
10,000 - M = SMCR
M1 = 41,130 kW at 104.0 r/min 24.7 kn 9K90MC -C6 (Reference)
M2 = 36,560 kW at 104.0 r/min 24.0 kn 8K90MC -C6
M3 = 26,900 kW at 104.0 r/min 22.0 kn 6K80ME-C9
M4 = 27,060 kW at 78.0 r/min 22.0 kn 6S80ME-C9
0 T T T T T T T
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Various types of main engines and their propeller curves Four-bladed Propeller
and potential SMCR points (Ml M2, M3 and M4) for a 4,500
# When the number of blades is reduced from 5 to 4, the
Panamax Container Ship with varying design ship speeds. corresponding optimum SMCR propeller curve at a normal pitch
shifts to the right at a speed increase of approximately 10% and is
Five-bladed propeller represented by a corresponding SMCR pitch curve at reduced
A MAN B&W type 9K90 MC-C6 with a SMCR = Ml = 41,130 kW set pitch. The last curve shows a ship speed of 22.0 knots, a SMCR
at nominal propulsion power of 104.0 rpm, a ship speed of 24.7 point M3 = 26,900 kW at 104.0 rpm.
knots and a five-blade propeller as shown in the graph. The This point is situated in the top corner of the layout graph of a
optimum propeller curve with a normal pitch with five blades MAN B&W type 6K80ME-C9 main engine.
crossing M 1 indicates a corresponding SMCR power and line M
for the main engine for reduced ship speeds. Six- bladed Propeller
The corresponding SMCR = point M4 = 27,060 kW at 78 rpm for a
Point M2 = 36,560 kW at 104.0 rpm applies to a MAN B&W main ship speed of 22 knots at an increased propeller pitch, this time
engine, type 8K90MC-C6 with a propeller curve for reduced pitch with six propeller blades and therefore a reduced propeller speed.
and five propeller blades, which potentially can achieve the Point M4 is equal to the nominal SMRC point of the MAN B&W
design speed of 24.0 knots. type 6S80ME-C9 main engine.
The required SMCR point at 22.0 knots is approximately 26,800 kW

at 90 rpm.
The layout diagram of a MAN B&W 8S70ME-C 8 with L1 = 26,160

kW, a speed of 91,0 r /min and five propeller blades shows that the
maximum design ship - speed for this engine type is 21.8 knots.
107
Reduced fuel consumption per day
Fuel consumption per day

kg/24h/teu t/24h
IMO TIER II compliance
40 -r- 180 -
V 130
9K90MC- C6
38 - 170 - SMCR = 41,130 kW x 104.0 r/min
36 - - 120
160 - 8K90MC- C6
34 - SMCR = 36,560 kW x 104.0 r/min
150 - - 110 ?
"
& 32 -
O 0
o»d
140 - % Reference
Ce \ 100 Y0
8.
I 28 -
30 - 6K80ME- C9
130 - SMCR = 26,900 kW x 104.0 r/min P >' Q.
c
•
Q.
6K80ME- C9
120 - SMCR = 27,060 kW x 78.0 r/min
- 90 s
CL
§ 26- 2
co
§ 24- 110 - ^ 24.7 kn - 80
E
13
CO
c
o
o
0
’
iS 22 - 100 - 70°/' 24.0 kn 0
>
- 70 0
20 - 90 - 0
cc
Fuel reduction (-) per day S80ME-C9 K80ME-C9
18 - 80 - Ship speed -34.7% -34.7% - 60
Propeller +0.5 % +0.0%
16 -
70 Engine -2.8% 1.4% - - 50
14 - 22.0 kn Total: -37.0% -36.0%
60 T T T T T
21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0 23.5 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5
Design ship speed (kn)
A
Reduced fuel consumption per day. At a ship speed of 22.0 knots; a reduction of approximately 37%
can be achieved for a MAN B&W type 6S80ME- C9 main engine.
Fuel consumption per day for the aforementioned alternative
main engine is calculated in compliance with the IMO Tier II The super- long stroke MAN B&W type 6S80ME- C 9 main engine
emission regulations. with higher efficiency effects a higher reduction in fuel
The findings as shown in the graph are related to the design ship consumption than the short - stroke MAN B& W type 6 K80ME-C9
speed for engine service loads of 70%, 80% and 90% SMCR. Using main engine.
24.7 knots as a reference and a SMCR of 80%, the curves
demonstrate that the potential fuel reduction per day can be
considerable.
Reduced fuel consumption per voyage
Fuel consumption per teu per n mile

Reduced fuel consumption
70
per voyage. 9K 90MC- C6
3» - 130 ~
E SMCR = 41,130 kWx 104.0 r/min £
c 8K90MC- C6
The graph shows the fuel
- 120
® 60 - SMCR = 36,560 kW x 104.0 r/min E
c
consumption per nautical mile O} 6K80ME- C9 110 %
e \oad
"
0 SMCR = 26,900 kW x 104.0 r/min Q.
as well as the fuel E % Reference =3
6K80ME- C9 100 2
c 50 - SMCR = 27,060 kW x 78.0 r/min
consumption per voyage at a 0 0
Q- Q.
reduced power output . The - 90 c

13
0 s0% o
CL
results are significant. If the
70% swi£S.
24.7 kn - 80 E
o. 40 -
ships speed is reduced from c =3
CO
o c
+Q. 3 - 70 o
24.0 kn o
24.7 to 22.0 knots, the overall E 0
decrease in fuel consumption

13
£ 30 Reduction (-) of fuel - 60 a
0
o consumption per voyage >
o +cc3
per voyage is 28% for a MAN 0
6K80ME-C9: - 28 % - 50 0
=3
LL 22.0 kn 6S80ME- C9: -29 % cc
B&W type 6K80ME- C 9 and 29%
20 r T T T
- 40
for A MAN B&W type 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0 23.5 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5
6 S 80ME- C9. Design ship speed (kn)
108
27.22.6 Example 3
An 8,000 TEU Panamax Container Ship Main ship particulars assumed:
Standard, a six- bladed propeller, shown here with a Scantling draught m 14.5
varying number of propeller diameters. This example Design draught m 13.0
shows the quantity of fuel saved by reducing the Length overall m 323
ship’s speed. The calculation is aimed at showing the Length between pp m 308
impact of the propeller diameter at a reduced ship Breadth m 42.8
speed and the subsequent choice of main -engine Sea margin % 15
type. Engine margin % 10
No. of propeller blades 6
Propeller diameter m target
Design ship speed kn target
Increased propeller diameter

80,000
SMCR power and speed are inclusive of: Dprop = 8.8 m
- 15 % Sea margin
- 10% Engine margin
/
- 5% Propeller light running margin
70,000 - M = SMCR 26.0 kn
M1 = 69,800kW at 102.1 r/min 26.0 kn 12 K98ME-C7 (Reference)
M2 = 60,000 kW at 97.0 r/min 25.0 kn 10K98ME7
M3 = 43,100 kW at 78.0 r/min 23.0 kn 9S90ME-C8
a> 25.0 kn
60,000 - 6- bladed FP - propellers
o
CL Constant ship speed coefficient = - 0.2
cc
O
2
co 24.0 kn
c
.9 50,000 - 78 r/min
=CL3
2 23.0 kn
CL oc = 0.2
-2.2%
oc = 0.2 22.5 kn 104 r/min
40,000 - -1.7 %
3S
c8
aS90
C C0
^
|
^* '
97 r/min
30,000 T T T
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105
Various main engine and propeller curves and the SMCR An increased propeller diameter of 9.3 metres.
possibilities Ml, M2 and M3 for an 8,000 TEU Post-Panamax
container ship at varying design speeds. At a ship speed of 23.0 knots, a propeller diameter of 9.3 metres
and 71.5 % of the design draught (virtually the maximum) the
Propeller diameter: 8.8 metres. SMCR power and the speed will fall to M3 = 43,100 kW at 78 rpm.
The MAN B&W type 1298ME- C7 with SMCR = M1 = 69,800 kW at Adjusting the propeller diameter corresponds to a ship speed
102.1 rpm at reduced power is the standard reference point. The coefficient of A = 0.2
design ship speed is 26.0 knots and the six-blade propeller has a
In (43,100 kW / 44,100kW )
diameter of 8.8 metres. X= = 0 ,2
In (78.0 rpm / 87.5 rpm)
SMCR = M2 = 60,000 kW at a reduced ship speed of 25.0 knots SMCR point M3 equals the design ship speed of 23.0 knots and
and an unchanged propeller diameter. In this instance a MAN can be achieved with a derated MAN B&W type 9S90ME-C 8 main
B&W type 1098ME-C7 main engine running at 97 rpm will suffice. engine.
A further reduction in the ship speed to 23.0 knots and an

unchanged propeller diameter of 8.8 metres requires a SMCR of
approximately 44,100 kW at 87.5 rpm.
109
Reduced fuel consumption per day
kg/24h/teu t/24h Fuel consumption per day

300
- 130
12K98ME- C7
35 - SMCR = 69,800 kW x 102.1 r/min
- 120
10K98ME7
SMCR = 60,000 kW x 97.0 r/min
30 -
250 - h no g
£
"
O cc
d
0
c6 *
\o 100 YCD
Q.
c . seW' % Reference
c
Q.
i
•
- 90 Ba
E3 25 - 200 -
9S90ME- C8
=
0
E
3
c SMCR = 43,100 kW x 78.0 r/min CO
o 26.0 kn - 80 c
o o
o
0
0
L
*- 20 - 70% - 70
>
ca
150 - 25.0 kn a3
cc
Fuel reduction (-) per day
Ship speed -34.7 % - 60
Propeller -1.3%
15 - Engine -2.3% - 50
23.0 kn Total: - 41.0 %
100 T T T T
22.5 23.0 23.5 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5 26.0 26.5
Reduced fuel consumption per day. decrease in the daily fuel consumption of 41% if the MAN B& W
type 12 K98ME-C 7 and 26 knots is replaced by a MAN B&W type
The fuel consumption per day for all three main engines is 9S90ME- C8 and 23 knots.
calculated in conformance with the IMO Tier II emission
regulations. This reduction is due to:
1 A ship speed reduction of 37.4%
The graph shows the findings for ship speeds of 70%, 80% and 2 An increase in propeller efficiency of 1.3%
90% in relation to the design ship speed. 3 An increase in engine efficiency of 2.3% due to the super -long
stroke MAN B&W type 9S90ME- C 8 main engine as opposed to
Having a ship speed of 26.0 knots as a point of reference and at the short - stroke MAN B&W type 12 K98ME-C7 main engine.
80% SMCR, the fuel consumption curve shows a potential
Reduced fuel consumption per voyage
Fuel consumption per teu per n mile

Reduced fuel consumption
60
per voyage. 12K98ME- C7
h 130
0
E SMCR = 69,800 kW x 102.1 r/min

c 10K98ME7 - 120 r
The graph shows the fuel 0 SMCR = 60,000 kW x 97.0 r/min E
consumption per nautical mile 3 50 - - 110
0
f
0 Q _
d
as well as the reduced fuel E ce \03 I
consumption per voyage.
c
0 9S90ME- C8
*> se ^' % Reference
100
0
Q.
Q.
- 90
—
5 40 - SMCR = 43,100 kW x 78.0 r/min c
0 o
22
•
4 =
80% s
\
^
Q.
Decreasing the ship speed 0
- 80 E
Q- =3
\g
C 0
70% sw 2
from 26 to 23 knots effects a 2 C
o
reduction in fuel consumption
Q. 26.0 kn - 70 o
| 30 - 25.0 kn £
0
0
of 33% per voyage! C
- 60 0
o >
o
Reduction (-) of fuel consumption 15
0
=3
LL. 23.0 kn per voyage: - 33%
- 50
0
cc
20
22.5 23.0 23.5 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5 26.0 26.5
110
27.22.7 Summary Super long-stroke engines with a marginally higher

efficiency that are commonly used in tankers, such as
Future political requirements for reducing the MAN B&W type S80 and S90, will in the future
C02 emissions for sea - going vessels provide an be used in large container ships. This will lead to
opportunity for interesting, but also costly and a decrease in fuel consumption of 30% per voyage
drastic developments of ships, such as amongst and consequently a reduction in C 02 emissions of
others, heat - recovery systems. Here an important 30%, in comparison to the engines presently used in
point of interest is the design of the stern of the ship. large container ships. Furthermore, using liquefied
For instance, at low speed together with either an natural gas ( LNG ) instead of heavy oil achieves a
increased propeller diameter and / or a changed C02 reduction of 23%, dependent on the chemical
number of propeller blades, the opportunity to select composition of the LNG.
an engine type which normally would not be used in
large, high -speed container ships is available. 27.22.8 Rule of thumb for achieving
optimum efficiency
In general, the largest ships, the largest diesel

engines, the largest propellers and the largest electric
gensets result in the highest efficiency!
Larger ships require relatively less propulsion power to

maintain a certain speed than smaller ships of a similar
type.
The Colombo Express from Hapag Lloyd (2005), 8749 TEU,

34,500 kW, was succeeded by the considerably larger Emma
Maersk (2006) of 13,800 TEU, 83,400 kW. These will soon be
followed by 18,000 TEU ships of the Triple E-class' by Maersk Line
with a shaft power of 63,300 kW and two propellers (2013).
The energy costs perTEU and consequently the C02 emissions
will therefore continue to decrease.
T T
Larger propellers running at lower speeds produce Larger engines with a large stroke volume per cylinder
higher efficiencies than smaller propellers running at have higher efficiencies than smaller engines with a lower
higher speeds. Shown here, a propeller with a diameter stroke volume. Shown here, a large two- stroke crosshead
of 8.5 metres and maximum speed of approximately engine driving a large disc generator in a diesel- power
110 rpm. This is a propeller for a 8,600 TEU container ship. plant .
111
27.23 March 2017 The power is then decreased by a factor 2.56 from 40
to 15.6 MW.
In order to reduce transport costs by water,
numerous measures have been taken and various If it is assumed that the efficiency of both the engine
technologies implemented to reduce the largest and the propellers is unchanged , then the fuel
expense, the fuel- oil consumption. reduction is 39 %, a huge difference at full load.
The auxiliary power required on board is not taken
Transport by water has significantly declined since into account .
the beginning of the global economic crisis in 2008 In a two -stroke crosshead engine with this power
and the flow of goods decreased . reduction , the electric - driven auxiliary blower (s)
Over 90% of all the global cargo is transported per must be switched to ' continuous running ' to achieve
ship. sufficient scavenging of the cylinders.
Shipping lines, engine manufacturers, transport The design of the propulsion engine
companies, design bureaus for ships and many other Some gains can also be achieved in propulsion -
agencies have examined in detail how lower costs engine design . The engine efficiency can be
can be achieved for cargo transport in the shipping increased slightly with all kinds of minor alterations
industry. to the engine and the process, from some tenths of
percentages to a maximum of approximately 2 to 3
per cent.
27.24 Some distinctive issues The two -stroke crosshead engine then achieves a
maximum efficiency at a certain load certain load of
The largest expense in the transport by water is the 54%.
fuel - oil consumption . Fuel - oil consumption amounts
to 60 to 70 % of the total operating costs of the ship The design of the propellers
contingent on the number of voyage days. The largest efficiency loss besides the propulsion
engine is the propellers. Propeller efficiency varies
Fuel efficiency from 60 to 70 %.
The fuel - oil consumption is primarily dependent on A significant amount of the power supplied to the
the ship speed. propeller shafts, dependent on the engine efficiency,
Before the economic crisis of 2008, the large is lost, approximately 30 to 40% caused by propeller
container ships in particular had a service speed of slip as mentioned earlier in this chapter.
24 to 26 knots. Therefore, considerable energy savings can be
Most of large containerships currently sail in the achieved by: the shape of the propellers, the number
‘Slow Steaming’ mode, the ship speed is reduced to of blades, the number of revolutions per minute, the
15 knots. This obviously results in huge fuel savings underwater body and many other details. Together
and therefore reduced operating costs. they determine propeller efficiency.
Unusual and constructive improvements have
Economies of speed: propulsion power entered the market in recent years.
The fuel - oil consumption per unit of distance
travelled, usually nautical miles, is proportional to The design of the hull
the square of the speed according to the formula: In particular, the bow and stern are subject to
constant discussions, modifications and revisions.
PI : P2 = V12 : V 22
Power at service speed PI = 40 MW. 27.24.1 Example 1: The design of the Triple - E
Power at ‘slow steaming’ P2 ships of shipping line Maersk in
Copenhagen, Denmark
Speed at PI = VI = 24 knots
Speed at P2 = V 2 = 15 knots The largest and most efficient ships in the world .
The first ship, the Maersk Mc- Kinney Moller came
PI : P2 = V 12 : V22 into service at the beginning of 2014 and is the
40 : P2 = 242 : 152 first in a series of 20 ships. The capacity of the
P2 = 15.6 MW containerships is 18,000 TEU, this surpasses by 16%
the previous series of container ships, the Emma
Maersk .
112
Some comparisons: B Triple - E Capacity Management The MaerskMc -Kinney

1996 Regina Maersk Class 7,100 TEU It is of paramount importance for the greatest M0 ller in the container
1997 Sovereign Maersk Class 8,100 TEU economic return that the full- load capacity is terminal in the Rotterdam
2006 Emma Maersk Class 15,500 TEU utilised. port. More container space
2013 Maersk Triple - E Class 18, 000 TEU In difficult economic years, this is extraordinarily is also created with a 'two
difficult and a complex task. island' design, by moving
Length 400 m . Currently, March 2016, large containerships are the navigation bridge and
Beam 59 m . being taken out of service and laid up. accommodations further
Draught 14.5 m . towards the bow.
Height 73 m . C The full - bodied Triple - E saves energy and
Deadweight 165,000 metric tonnes. creates space
Reefer container capacity 600 The Triple- E was designed with a wider, more
Top speed 23 knots spacious hull than the Emma Maersk series
Crew members 13 - 22 and therefore has a capacity for an extra 2500
containers.
27.24.1.1 Specific details Hull form: A U-like hull form , sometimes
Triple E means: referred to as a ‘ bath tub’ shape, was chosen
1 Economy of scale, instead of a ‘V-shaped hull’ of the series Emma
2 Energy efficient , Maersk . This hull form accommodates more
3 Environmentally improved. containers; an extra row of containers was added
in the width giving it 23 rows compared to the
A Cradle to cradle Emma Maersk’s 22 rows.
This programme allows for improved recycling of
all materials, primarily steel. 27.24.1.2 Design of the hull
It also takes the fuel into account. Energy is This seems more like vessels that were in service in
required to manufacture the ships and oil is the mid - nineteenth century, with the bridge and
used to produce the fuels used . Steel is recycled accommodation separated from the engine room,
on a large scale. However, as different types of known as the two- island design.
steel and other metals are mixed in the recycling Moving the navigation bridge forward has allowed
process reducing the quality of the recycled steel, containers to be stacked higher in front of the bridge
therefore steel has to be manufactured from new without any loss of visibility.
iron ore.
Eventually 95% by weight of the ship will be
documented as being fit to recycle.
113
The propulsion system of

the Triple - E, a combination
of two two- stroke
crosshead engines each
directly driving its own
propeller.
Two MAN B& W ME engines

with a shaft power of 32 MW The new design of two
each directly driving a four- propellers and a skeg with
bladed propeller with a a rudder.
diameter of 9.8 metres. The
specific fuel-oil consumption
of the engines is 168 grams
per kWh.
The series consists of

20 vessels; all their names
start with a M.
On the shipyard in
South Korea .
114
J
The modified hull form of the Triple- E creates more 27.24.1.3 Efficient propulsion: The Triple- E's
resistance in the water than the sleek V- design of the twin- skew
Emma -series. This new design of two propellers and a skeg with
Reducing the service speed of the Triple- E has a rudder installed behind each propeller resulted
compensated this negative effect. in the fuel - oil consumption at a maximum service
speed of 23 knots { Emma -series 25 knots) and with
The maximum service speed of the Triple - E is 2500 extra containers to be 20% lower than the
limited to 23 knots with low revolutions per minute Emma series.
of 80 rpm compared to the Emma series of 25 knots The required engine power is in fact only 64 MW
and 90 rpm. compared to the Emma series’ 80 MW.
This means that the Triple- E' s operational sweet spot
- the speed at which the vessel is most fuel efficient - The fuel reduction of 20% means that the emissions
is lower than Emmas. of the greenhouse gas C02 are also 20% lower.
The pleasing result is that the increased resistance
caused by the bulkier design has no significant The use of an ultra long - stroke engine has also
impact on the Triple- Es greater overall efficiency. resulted in a slightly higher efficiency and therefore
lower fuel costs.
Each propeller driven by a

two stroke crosshead
engine of MAN B& W.
The design of the

separated bridge with
accommodation and
the engine room.
115
The most efficient and

environment friendly
transports 8,000 TEU on
one ship.
Maersk LineTriple-E vessel

Maersk Mc -Kinney Moller in
the port of Bremerhaven,
Germany.
The diameter of the propellers is always problematic 27.25 Slow steaming of merchant
for ship designers. The maximum propeller diameter ships
is dependent on the dimensions of the vessel and the
available space beneath the keel. Currently, end of 2015, many ships operate,
The Emma series has one main engine with a six - primarily larger container ships, with a significantly
bladed propeller with a diameter of 9.8 metres and reduced service speed. The primary reason is the
a weight of 131 tons. The Triple- E series has two savings of fuel per unit of distance travelled.
propellers with a diameter of 9.65 metres with four It is a topic that affects the entire industry, from
blades which create less resistance in the water. The cargo owners, carriers, ship owners and operators, to
two four- bladed propellers provide greater pushing equipment manufacturers.
power in relation to the single six - bladed propeller.
The lower engine speed of the Triple-E series of 80 A combination of factors has led to the past years
rpm compared to 90 rpm of the Emma series has becoming hugely challenging for certain sectors of
axiomatically a lower fuel - oil consumption . the global merchant -shipping industry.
These factors include:
116
- The downtown in the global economy, resulting in Example

reduced transportation - capacity demand. When the service speed is reduced from 27 to 22
The substantial global order book for new knots ( -19 % ) , the engine power can be decreased by
tonnage, a legacy from the boom years, resulting 42%.
in record - high deliveries of new ships. The fuel- oil consumption per hour is consequently
- The global financing crisis. decreased by 58%.
- The sudden fall in ship values. At 18 knots, this increases to a 75% reduction in
- High fuel costs. fuel - oil consumption .
- Increasing operating costs ( manning, lube - oil,
maintenance ) . Shipping lines can choose between laying up part of
- Falling freight rates, which in turn also impact their fleet or slow steaming’.
charter rates. Slow steaming is preferred because it offers the
ability to increase capacity quickly when the market
All of these things have put the entire valve chain situation changes and more load capacity is required.
starting from cargo owners to the carriers, ship
managers, ship owners, financing institutes and Slow steaming also has another advantage:
equipment suppliers under big pressure. The amount of fuel saved per cargo ton also
decreases the industry’s C02 emissions per cargo
The industry has had to quickly adjust, which has ton .
resulted in a sharp slowdown in new ship orders, It cannot be assumed that slow steaming only has
cancellations of already confirmed orders, the advantages for the industry as:
delaying of new ship deliveries, laying up and idling - Other operating costs of the ship remain equal.
of vessels and all kinds of cost reduction measures. - Measures must be taken in order to operate the
propulsion engine for a prolonged length of time

The largest expense, specifically for containerships at a lower speed and - power; continuous low-load
and other large ships, is the fuel. operation .
These types of ships predominantly use two -stroke However, a number of the large container shipping
crosshead engines that directly drive one or two fixed lines have indicated that slow steaming might create
propellers. as much as an overall cost saving of 10 to 25%,
The speed of the ship is simply reduced by reducing dependent on the number of ships in their fleet that
the engine speed and therefore also that of the are slow steaming’ and the average achieved speed
propellers. reduction .
The power required from the main engine, however,

correlates disproportionately with the ship speed.
100%
90% - The correlation between the ship speed, the required

80% - engine power and the fuel- oil consumption.
70% -
Horizontal: the required engine power.
60% - Vertical: the ship speed in relation to the maximum ship speed.
50% -
40% -
30%
20% -
-
— • The fuel- oil consumption is slightly above 10% and of course the
associated power if the ship speed is decreased to 60% of the
maximum ship speed.
10% -
0%
Engine power
Ship speed
Fuel consumption
117
400 40
Ship operational costs for Europe - Far East trade with
350 - - 35
different vessel speeds.
300 - - 30 „
a
Horizontal: the ship speed in knots. -C
LO
250 - - 25 ‘S
Vertical left: the costs in millions USD per year. a a)
CO -Q
Vertical right: the ship speed in knots and the number of ships. i 200 - - 20 |
c
T3
150 - - 15 TO
The orange column in particular is interesting, the fuel costs. o
r
c
The costs per year for eight ships on the route with a maximum 100 10 ships
9 ships
- 10 -*
^
8 ships
service speed of 27 knots are 275 million USD.
50
These costs per year decrease for eleven ships on the same route
with a ship speed of 15 knots. They are 150 million USD.
15 knots 18 knots 22 knots
—L o
27 knots
Voyage A /E fuel M/E fuel Containers

Mgmt Opex Capex Knots Ships
27.25.1 Technical modifications for 27.25.2 Some characteristic concerns with

'slow steaming' 'slow steaming'
Ships are designed for a certain specified load and Lower airflows
speed range, at which the total efficiency of the - The problematic area is when the electric
system is optimised. auxiliary blowers cut out and do not immediately
As the propulsion engine directly drives the fixed cut in .
propeller, the propulsion engine is then also laid - out - The possibility of exceptionally high exhaust - gas
for this optimised operating range. temperatures and therefore the temperature of
This is between 70 - 85% of MCR - Maximum certain engine parts.
Continuous Rating for two -stroke crosshead engines.
Poor combustion
The fuel efficiency of the engine, the operational - Poor atomisation
parameters, the specification of the turbochargers, - Higher sac volume in relation to the injected fuel
5
coolers, auxiliary systems, exhaust - gas boilers and volume of the injector nozzle where the likelihood
other systems are chosen and optimised for that exists that the injector needle will ‘drip’.
normal load range. - Increased contamination and carbon deposition
in the combustion space.
Obviously, when the propulsion engine is operated
continuously in a load range below 60% or even Cold corrosion
lower, the overall propulsion system is no longer - Caused by condensation of corrosive gases.
fully optimised . - Possibility of exceptionally low engine
temperatures during very low engine loads.

As the industry did not use slow steaming’ in the last
20 years, very little long- term experience is available Contamination
with the low - load operation of today’s modern - Of the exhaust system , turbochargers and
engines. exhaust -gas boilers.
This is the reason that marine engineers who daily - Of the scavenging-air space by excess cylinder
operate the engines, technical managers and also lubrication.
engine manufacturers were initially reluctant to
accept the concept. In addition, there are concerns regarding the overall
However, based on investigations performed , it can propulsion efficiency losses at low loads of the engine
be concluded that the modern two -stroke crosshead and the propellers.
engines are able to reliably operate in all load ranges Including the accelerated deterioration of condition
between 10 and 100% if operational parameters and and performance by fouling of the hull and propeller
precautions are properly followed. due to the reduced ship speed.
118
J
27.25.3 Summary of the recommendations - Another important focus is the build - up of

for the 'slow steaming' mode unburned fuel and lubricating oil in the exhaust -
gas manifold at low loads. These deposits could
- The Wartsila RT Flex engines, therefore with a unexpectedly ignite when the engine load is
common rail, are more suited than the Wartsila increased and cause serious damage to the
RTA series engines for continuous low engine turbocharger due to sudden over -speeding.
loads down to ± 10% to maintain a relatively good The recommendation is to increase the engine
combustion process. load twice per week to at least 70% of MCR for a
- This is due to the electronically controlled minimum of one hour in order to blow through
common - rail injection system and a hydraulically any accumulated carbon deposits.
regulated exhaust - valve timing. During this procedure, turbocharger ‘washing’
- In addition , the fuel injector cut - off at low load and ‘soot blowing’ of the economiser should be
where the remaining injector (s) function ( s) better, performed to reduce contamination.
enables improved injection quality and therefore Wartsila uses ‘Delta Tuning’ for existing engines
there is less contamination in the cylinder and which optimises the specific fuel- oil
consequently also in the exhaust system . consumption below 70 % load .
27.25.4 Important precautions for 'slow Wartsila uses the ‘Low- Load Tuning’ system for
steaming' new engines.
This system maintains specific fuel - oil consumption
- Regularly check that nozzle condition is correct. as low as possible by optimising the efficiency of
- More attention is required than in normal the turbocharger at lower engine loads and through
operation. bypassing a part of the exhaust - gas flow at high
- Maintain higher fuel temperatures to achieve loads.
lower viscosities. This means ‘thinner’ fuel.
- Maintain the LT cooling - water temperature at Wartsila Slow Steaming Upgrade Kit
36 °C to ensure that the optimum scavenge - air One of the turbochargers is switched off (cut - off ) at
temperature is sustained and the HT system is at low engine loads.
the upper limit between 85-95 °C. A high cooling- This increases the scavenge- air pressure resulting in
water temperature reduces condensation and higher combustion pressures.
thermal stress. The fresh - water generator will then This system is fully automated.
not be able to be fully used , the bypass valve of the
fresh - water evaporator must always be open. Example
- At normal engine loads, the cylinder lubrication A Wartsila RT- Flex 96, with three turbochargers
is dependent of the engine load and no The load range with one cut - off turbocharger is
adjustment is necessary. between 10 and 60% of MCR.
Of course, this retrofit can only be used with
However, it is recommended that regular inspections engines equipped with 2 or more turbochargers.
are performed on the piston , piston rings and This is the case for both RTA and RT Flex engines.
cylinder liner through the intake ports in the
scavenging- air space. Permanent derating of the engine
It is also recommended to monitor piston running This solution is appropriate for all engine types.
conditions and signs of over- or under lubrication .
Combination with a propeller modification
- It is important that the exhaust - gas temperature When the engine is continuously running at low
is maintained above 250 °C to prevent cold load , optimised propeller ( s) can be chosen to better
corrosion . If the exhaust - gas temperature falls match the operating conditions and achieve a higher
below 250 °C, the engine load must be increased. additional fuel efficiency at the reduced load
- High exhaust - gas temperatures, above 450 °C,
after the cylinders must be avoided during the Pulse Lubrication System
period after the electric auxiliary blower ( s ) This new cylinder lubrication system is available for
cut - out or before cut - in . As a countermeasure, new engines and as a retrofit for existing engines,
the electric auxiliary blower (s) may be switched this system ensures that the timed injection and
to ‘continuous operation’ mode. quantity of the lubricating oil can be precisely
119
1
Fuel consumption and savings versus vessel speed

Example: very large container vessel
Fuel consumption and
24 184
savings versus vessel speed
- 182
I-
22 "
- 180
Horizontal: the ship speed in f£ 18 - - 178
x:
^c
CD
knots. & 16 - - 176 o
Vertical left: the decrease in 8 14 - 174 o.
E
the fuel-oil consumption and I 12- - 172 60
c
reduction of the C02 emissions I

O
10
8-
— —
-
170
168
o
u
<u
aur
in tons per 24 hr. c *
O
6 - 166
u <v
Vertical right: the specific -13acu 4- - 164 £
fuel-oil consumption in gram cc
2- - 162
per kWh. 160
25 26 27
vessel speed (knots)
Fuel savings with Upgrade Kit C 02 reduction with Upgrade Kit
— normal BSFC
— BSFC with Upgrade Kit
adjusted to the operating conditions of the only then is it supplied to the cylinder during the
propulsion engine. intake stroke.
The gaseous fuel - air mixture in gas engines must
RPLS Retrofit Pulse Lubricating System. then be ignited by a spark generated by a spark plug,
PLS Pulse Lubricating System. or in dual -fuel engines, by the injection of a small
amount of liquid pilot -fuel.
Monitoring and control options The propellers of these propulsion systems are also
MAPEX PR system: Temperature trends of the often driven by electro motors powered via the ship’s
cylinder liners. power-supply network. Therefore gas - and dual - fuel
ICM Intelligent Combustion Monitoring system: engines operate at a constant speed and drive the
Monitoring the cylinder pressures and electric generators which supply power to the ship’s
several parameters. Trending and analysis electrical network.
of the engine’s performance and condition
of components in the combustion chamber. 27.26.1 Low loads and engine starts
This enables optimal cylinder pressures to
be controlled and adjusted automatically. A dual-fuel engine always starts in ‘liquid fuel mode’.
The switch over to gas operation mode takes place at
loads larger than 15% of engine full load .
27.26 Ship propulsion with gas-
and dual- fuel engines 27.26.2 Load steps - normal operating
temperature: liquid fuel operation
Gas- and dual - fuel engines are in general less
suitable than diesel engines for directly driving the If the engine has reached normal operating
propellers in ship propulsion . temperature for liquid fuel operation load steps
Diesel engines react rapidly to load changes and / or according the diagram below can be applied. The
other required engine speeds. load step has to be chosen depending on the desired
The speed decreases marginally with a sudden recovery time. The recovery time must be awaited
increase in the load of a diesel engine already before a further load increase is initiated . These
operating at a certain load. curves are for engine plus standard generator -
The governor / actuator or any other system used plant specific details and additional moments of
to maintain the predetermined speed immediately inertia need to be considered . If low opacity values,
adjusts the high - pressure fuel pumps and extra fuel below 30% opacity, are needed load steps should be
is directly injected into the cylinders. maximum 20% without Jet Assist , maximum 25%,
This reaction to an increased load takes longer in with Jet Assist.
a gas- or dual -fuel engine as the main fuel, gas, is
injected into the intake manifold, mixed with air and
120
Recovery time [ s]
0 2 4 6 8 10 Load application in liquid fuel mode by load steps - speed
L 50 x
drop and recovery time - L35/44DF.
45
40 •
In case of a load drop of 100% nominal engine power, the
35 dynamic speed variation must not exceed 10% of the nominal
30 - speed and the remaining speed variation must not surpass 5% of

the nominal speed.
25
Speed drop without Jet - Assist For DF engines regarding allowable load steps it must be
— Speed drop with Jet- Assist
Recovery time without Jet - Assist
20 -
distinguished between liquid fuel operation and gas operation.
r
— Recovery time with Jet- Assist
T
15
10 T T
-10 -8 -6 - 4 -2 0
Speed drop [%]
L35/44DF .
27.26.3 Load steps - normal operating

temperature: gas operation
If the engine has reached normal operating

temperature for gas operation , load steps according
the diagram below can be applied . The recovery time
must be awaited before a further load increase is
initiated. These curves are for engine plus standard
generator- plant specific details and additional
moments of inertia need to be considered.
L35 /44DF, maximum allowed load application

dependent on base load
Load application dependent on base load - L35/44DF.
35
without Jet -Assist

30 The difference between Liquid fuel mode and Gas mode is clearly
Liqued fuel mode
shown.
- 25 - ieV
£
c ^ Gasmode
°«
3
U
20 -
a
8- 15 -
TJ
o Valid only for preheated engines
-* 10 - Lube oil temperature > 40 °C
Cooling water temperature > 60 °C
and for a MN > 80
5
V
V
0 T
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Engine base load [%]
121
Example I: Configurations of electric propulsion Electric propulsion is the norm in ships which
plants Offshore Support Vessels frequently require dynamic positioning and station
The term ‘Offshore Service & Supply Vessel’ includes keeping capability. Initially these vessels mainly
a large class of vessel types, such as Platform Supply used variable speed motor drives and fixed pitch
Vessels ( PSV ), Anchor Handling /Tug/Supply ( AHTS) , propellers. Now they mostly deploy variable speed
Offshore Construction Vessel ( OCV ) , Diving Support thrusters and they are also equipped with hybrid
Vessel ( DSV ), Multipurpose Vessel, etc. propulsion systems.
Electric propulsion 8o
configuration of a PSV.
G G G G
In offshore applications often
3 - 3~ 3' 3 -*
@- V H
<@
frequency converters with a 690 V , 60 Hz
6-pulse configuration or with Eh +i + + fh
an Active Front End are used,
<@h <§M (M)- \
which give specific benefits in

the space consumption of the
electric plant, as it is possible
a a a a HI
a a a a
to get rid of the heavy and
bulky supply transformers. y ®-|y

440 V 440 V
Example II: LNG Carriers plant fulfils high redundancy requirements. Due to
A propulsion configuration with two E- motors, e.g. the high propulsion power, which is required and
600 rpm or 720 rpm, and a reduction gearbox, Twin - higher efficiencies, usually synchronous E- motors
in -single - out , is a typical configuration , which is are used . For ice going carriers and tankers also
used at LNG carriers where the installed alternator podded propulsion is a robust solution , which has
power is in the range of about 40 MW. The electric been applied in several vessels.
Electric propulsion
configuration of a LNG
G G G G
carrier with geared 3~ 3~ 3~ 3~
transmission, single screw <8H ® V

"
6,6 kV, 60 Hz
and FP propeller.
-+ +
ti
®~ \ ®~ \ ® \ ®~ ®~\
as
®r
M
a:
440 V 440 V
M M M
3 - $ KM M l 3 - 3 -
Cargo 1 Cargo 2 ®r
-
® \ "
h
>
(M -
rh (M >-
rh
M M M M
3 - 3 - 3 ~ 3 -
122
The transport of all kinds of cargo around the globe is still

the most environmentally friendly method.
In the nearby future the propulsion- and auxiliary engines
must reduce their toxic emissions.
The use of liquid natural gas, methanol and ethane will
increase.
123
Propellers

28.2 Fixed-pitch propellers 128
28.3 Use of controllable-pitch propellers 130
28.4 Fixed-pitch propellers, construction 134
28.5 Controllable-pitch propellers, construction 135
28.6 Propeller shaft and coupling flange 139
28.7 Stern tube 140
28.8 Stern-tube seals 141
28.9 Hydraulic bolts 143
28.10 Material for controllable - pitch propellers 143
28.11 Propeller design 143
28.12 Cavitation 144
28.13 Calculating the propeller -blade model 146
28.14 Examples of other propulsion systems with controllable -pitch
propellers 147
28.15 Propeller efficiency 152
* .J
..
1
28.1 Introduction
The propellor is since the beginning of the

propulsion systems for ships the most efficient
methode to drive a ship.
Most marine propellers are manufactured of copper
alloys. However, for inland shipping, small ships
and yachts, propellers are also made of cast iron,
aluminium alloys, stainless steel and numerous
synthetic compounds.
28.1.1 Large fixed- pitch propellers
Large fixed - pitch propellers are cast in a mould and

then machined. Fixed-pitch propellers and propeller blades being cast.
Apart from the accurate finish of the propeller hub,
a smooth finish of the blades is also essential; the A large foundry at the Hyundai engine works and shipyard, South
propeller must be able to have the lowest possible Korea. The unfinished fixed-pitch propeller sometimes weighing
drag when rotating through water. 100 tons must be cast rapidly in a single casting in order to obtain
a homogeneous structure.
Propeller blades for

controllable -pitch
propellers at the MAN
Diesel engine works in
Frederikshavn, Denmark.
They also manufacture
engines with cylinder bores
up to and including
500 mm, as well as four-
stroke engines up to 2011 .
The blades are of the 'high-
skew design' and highly
polished.
The magnified surface of a

propeller blade.
The smoother the surface,

the less the resistance of the
rotating propeller through
the water.
126
CH 28 > PROPELLERS
Propeller diameter [mm] Weight of propeller [ton]
11,000 -
- 200
94 r /min
10,000 - 104 r /min - 180
- 160
9,000 -
Diameter Weight - 140
8,000 -
- 120
7,000 - - 100
94 r / min
104 r / min - 80
60,000 80,000 100,000 KW SMCR power
Machining a large six- bladed fixed- pitch propeller for a A table for propeller sizes.
container ship.
horizontal: shaft power of the engine in kW
Note the approximate 4 metre supports for the propeller blades.
These prevent bending during the machining processes. Example: At 80,000 kW shaft power and an rpm of 94, the
propeller diameter is approximately 9700 mm and it weighs
130 tons!
Small propellers can be cast in large series and The mechanical properties of Cunial
sometimes only weigh several kilograms. Larger Mass density
The mechanical properties
7650 kg/ m3
propellers are individually cast and weigh up to of the propeller material
E -modulus (at 20 °C) 121000 N /mrn2
140,000 kg! 'Cunial'.
Poisson's ratio 0.33
28.1.2 Accuracy of the finish Yield stress min. 250 N/ mm2
Tensile strength min. 650 N / mm2
It is important that the hub and the blades are Elongation (longitudinal) min. 18%
finished with the utmost precision. This is required Coefficient of thermal expansion
16-1 O 6 K 1
' '
to ensure optimal operation, as well as preventing (from 20 to 100 °C )
the generation of additional vibrations, which would

negatively affect the propulsion of the ship.
28.1.3 Materials used in the manufacture of The raw material for large propellers is often ‘old’
large propellers coins, essentially a copper alloy.
Material requirements for propellers: Material NiAl CrNi

- corrosion resistant; Comparison of Cunial 625
0.2 proof stress min. 250 N / mm2 min. 380 N/mm2
- sturdy ; with other propeller
Tensile strength 590 - 780 N /mm2 600 - 790 N/mm 2
- ease of casting; Cunial 625 and
- easily machined. Elongation min. 16% min. 19%
materials, ! 3/4 chromium-
"
Impact strength nickel- steel .

30 J 21 J
A well - known alloy is ‘Cunial’, an alloy with copper, Charpy V notch
nickel, iron and manganese. ‘Cunial’ represents Brinell Hardness min. 150 240 - 300
the chemical symbols for the elements: Cu - copper,
Ni - nickel and Al - aluminium .
127
"1
28.2 Fixed- pitch propellers In extreme conditions, such as heavy- weather

conditions with head - on winds and high swells,
Advantages the propeller can become heavily loaded.
- Simple and relatively inexpensive to manufacture. During manoeuvring with large plants, the
- Very strong. maximum speed is generally the ‘manoeuvring’
- High efficiency due to relatively small hub. speed, approximately 80% of the full -load speed.
- During docking, the propeller is often stationary
and therefore cannot be damaged by obstacles. 28.2.1 Use of fixed- pitch propellers
It is also unlikely that a hawser will become
entangled in the propeller. Fixed - pitch propellers are often used in the large
power- output category IV engines, as well as
smaller power- output engines in categories I and II.
A fixed- pitch propeller
fitted hydraulically to the Engine category IV
hub. A key seat as locking Large container ships, bulk carriers and oil tankers
device is no longer are usually supplied with fixed - pitch propellers.
required. The number of times annually that manoeuvring is
required for these vessels is limited, and with the use
of bow and stern thrusters ( container ships) and tugs
( container ships, in particular bulk carriers and oil
tankers ) , manoeuvring when arriving or departing
from port is facilitated.
Due to the size of the ships in this category, adverse
weather conditions hardly affect the hull and
consequently the engine power output .
The engines are always low -speed two -stroke
Disadvantages crosshead engines with such a low speed that
- The propeller must be driven in two rotational reduction gearing is not required.
directions: All the engines are directly reversible.
1 either the propulsion engine must be reversible
( large plants) or Also see Chapter 13, Diesel - engine starting systems.
2 a reverse gear must be mounted between the
propulsion engine and the propeller ( smaller
plants ).
The tunnel shaft between

the two- stroke crosshead
engine ( background ) and
the propeller shaft ( not
visible in the foreground).
A reversible diesel engine

allows a high-efficiency fixed-
pitch propeller to be installed.
A simple and common
propulsion system for large
ships.
128
, .d
CH 28 > PROPELLERS
A change in the rotational direction can be done

quickly using a free wheel, which disengages the
propeller from the drive shaft. For very small vessels,
such as yachts and cabin cruisers, this is standard .
Vessels that often change direction use a similar
system , as it is user- friendly and simple to operate.
A small four- stroke high-

speed diesel engine
(' Vetus' ) with an angle gear
set through the yacht 's hull.
The reverse coupling is located

directly behind the engine. The
propeller is a foldable propeller
type: during sailing, it folds
back due to the flow of the
water over it providing
minimum drag when sailing.
A relatively small two- stroke crosshead engine from

MAN Diesel, type ME.
A foldable propeller in
This MC 50 can drive a fixed-pitch propeller and is directly operational setting. The
reversible. However, a controllable-pitch propeller is often rotating blades fold
installed. This engine has a common-rail system. outwards due to the

centrifugal forces.
Engine categories I and II

These four- stroke high -speed diesel engines running
on MDO usually have a fixed - pitch propeller with a
reverse gear to change the rotational direction of the
propeller.
A propulsion installation
with a four- stroke
high- speed Caterpillar
diesel engine running on
MDO. Used for inland
navigation.
Reduction gearing with a

reverse coupling connected
to a fixed-pitch propeller is
installed at the rear of the

engine (back).
129
The propeller shaft is

stationary. The yacht sails.
The propeller blades fold
back. There is minimum
drag from the propeller.
Three Azipods propulsion

units.
28.3 Use of controllable - pitch can be improved by adjusting the position of the
propellers propeller blades to the load (‘pitch mode’ ).
- With the correct reduction gearing, the engine
The position of the propeller blades can be gradually speed can be reduced to the propeller speed
modified so that with the same rotational direction which has the highest efficiency. This is effected
of the propeller, it can be steered from full speed by placing an electric-shaft generator drive on the
ahead via the ‘zero feathering position to full speed reduction gearing.
astern . ( Its operation is explained later in this - It is possible to substitute a damaged propeller
chapter ) . blade under water, if required .
Advantages of controllable- pitch propellers Disadvantages of controllable- pitch propellers

Controllable -pitch propellers are widely used and - Propeller efficiency is lower than that for fixed -
have many advantages. pitch propellers due to the relatively large hub,
- It allows for rapid manoeuvring, from full speed which contains the mechanism for adjusting the
ahead , to full speed astern; the propulsion engine blade pitch and the bearings.
continues to run in one direction at the same - They are more prone to damage by objects in the
nominal speed , and can therefore rapidly be water than fixed - pitch propellers.
heavily loaded. - On average they are three to four times more
- Every speed can be achieved without having to expensive than fixed - pitch propellers.
stop the engine. - The hydraulic system can fail and requires
- The average efficiency for ships with alternating maintenance.
loads, such as tugs, fishing boats and dredgers
130
CH 28 > PROPELLERS
A four -bladed controllable-

pitch propeller. Note the
shape of the blade: the
'skew ' model.
v
m
\
This minimizes the forces on

the actuating mechanism
inside the propeller hub and
decreases cavitation.
/
/
M
r
/
4
I
28.3.1 Use of controllable- pitch propellers Engine category III

The controllable- pitch propeller is extensively used
These are used in three engine categories. in this category for four - stroke medium -speed diesel
engines running on HFO. Furthermore, a large T
Engine category II number of feeder- container ships, chemical tankers, The most common
For the larger four - stroke high -speed diesel engines cargo carriers, ferries and passenger ships are propulsion plant with
running on MDO, they are mostly used for engines equipped with controllable - pitch propellers. controllable -pitch
with higher power outputs. propeller: a medium-speed
Is this is not the case; a reverse gear is installed in the diesel engine with
reduction gearing. reduction gearing and
shaft generator.
0 0
0 0
r T T T [
0]
hi
C3 i
B
C
1 T
131
up i [ [ [ r 5 fl ft fl fl
OoO
o
o ° 0° tua C0 B«O MO MO
111
11
T?°OoOO =
3
A smaller type of Engine category IV Several examples

two-stroke crosshead In this category for two-stroke low-speed crosshead
engine with shaft generator engines with small bores, complete propulsion sys Example 1: Large container ships
and controllable-pitch terns with intermediate shaft, shaft -generator drive, These types of ships travel huge distances each
propeller. Reverse gearing, propeller shaft and a controllable - pitch propeller are year, have large engine - power outputs and the fuel
common in these types of often installed. costs are a major component of operational costs,
engines, is not required. Engine manufacturer MAN Diesel supplies these total propulsion efficiency is of utmost importance.
systems up to and including a 700 mm cylinder A large two - stroke crosshead engine with a total
diameter. efficiency of 52 % and large diameter propeller with a
total efficiency of 75% can achieve a total efficiency
28.3.2 Propeller shapes of 0.52 x 0.75 = 0.39 or 39%. This is exceptionally
high! Therefore, 39% of the supplied fuel (100 % ) is
For each ship type, propellers are designed to eventually used to propel the ship at a certain speed.
provide the best efficiency, produce low noise and In all other propulsion systems, this is always lower
generate minimal vibrations. The propeller shape is and at times significantly lower.
a decisive factor. The propeller is custom - made for
every ship! Example 2: Ferries
Modern ferries must have low noise and vibration
levels. Propellers are specially designed to achieve
this. Manoeuvring is of paramount importance.
The four-bladed fixed-pitch propeller of a large container The controllable-pitch propeller for ferries.
ship.'Skew ' model blades.
132
..d
CH28 > PROPELLERS
Example 3: Pontoons Example 5: Propellers for icebreakers

Pontoons, which travel relatively short distances, These are designed to comply with the highest ice
often have two propellers port and starboard for classes stipulated by various classification societies.
efficient mooring and departure, thus allowing for Furthermore, they must be able to withstand very
the rapid transportation of passengers and vehicles. high tensile forces (‘ bollard puli’).
When both propellers are set in a position in which
they do not provide propulsion, they must be placed Example 6: Propellers for anchor-handling ships,
in such a position that minimizes resistance. tugboats and tenders
This also applies to ships with two propellers, where They are able to supply high tensile forces and also
one propeller is regularly taken out of commission. have good manoeuvrability even under extreme
weather conditions.
A high torque is essential and is achieved with either
Example 4: Reversible propeller for passenger a fixed tunnel thruster or a steerable thruster.
ships
These are especially designed for maximum ‘comfort’,
that is: low noise and vibration levels. The blade
shape is referred to as the ‘skew’-shape. The blades
are bent in the rotational direction .
The controllable-pitch propeller for pontoons. The controllable -pitch propeller for passenger vessels.
A
A controllable-pitch propeller for icebreakers. The controllable-pitch propeller for various vessels, such as
anchor -handling ships, tugboats and tenders.
133
28.4 Fixed- pitch propellers, 28.4.2 Propeller fixing without a key, a key-
construction less joint
28.4.1 Traditional attachment The key-less assembly is common for large

propellers. The torque of this conical connection
The traditional attachment of the propeller on the should be at least three times that of the diesel
tapered end of the propeller shaft is with a keyed engine as this construction lacks the guarantee of a
joint comprising a key and locking nut. keyed joint. Large propellers are always hydraulically
The taper is approximately 1:12, so the hub can be fitted to the shaft. This requires a meticulous working
firmly affixed to the shaft. The key does not absorb method . As security a locking nut , protected from
the thrust , but is/ was intended as security. When the corrosive seawater by a cap, is hydraulically
complications arise, it must absorb the entire engine attached to a bolt at the shaft end .
torque.
Disassembling a fixed-pitch
propeller from a shaft.
The hammer wrench is in
position.
The taper between the hub and the propeller shaft Five-bladed propeller, without key.
must be able to absorb at least twice the engine
torque.
The keyed joint is in fact undesirable for the
A fixed-pitch, six-bladed construction of the taper or conical connection. In T
propeller weighing 80 tons practice, hair cracks and fractures may occur in this Afour-bladed controllable-pitch propeller.
for the 6800 TEU location . In small propellers of, for instance, pleasure
Southampton class, craft , attention must be paid to this issue.
a large container ship. The
raw material used for
manufacture is 'old coins'.
134
.d
CH28 > PROPELLERS
28.5 Controllable - pitch propellers,

construction The cast and then
machined propeller hub
The hydraulic actuating device for the blades in the prior to installation of the
larger controllable- pitch propellers is housed in the parts, such as the pitch-
hub. actuating mechanism and

propeller blades.
A
A propeller hub attached to the propeller shaft . A propeller hub must be
very strong.
A 'finite -element method' can

A cut-away section of a be used to calculate the load
propeller hub showing the on every hub element,
pitch adjustment red: highest load,
mechanism. dark blue: lowest load.
The oil supply pipe and the

adjustment piston on the
pressure side are coloured
green.
The oil drainage area is
coloured red.
The pitch adjustment
mechanism is coloured
light yellow.
135
1
A cross- section of a Wartsila

Lips controllable -pitch
propeller.
It!
I
El
JU>
m ;
I
li
© <$) ® Blade flange

Zinc anode
Servo piston
:>>
Hydraulic pipe
©i
Propeller shaft
Propeller cap
i
Q Monoblock hub
A cross- section of the propeller hub. Explanation

The hydraulic - oil system for controlling the 'servo'-piston is
1 The servo -piston is displaced with high -pressure hydraulic oil completely isolated from the oil system for the propeller blades.
through a hollow tube inside the propeller shaft. This allows
Only the blade seals are subjected to gravitational oil pressure.
precision -pitch adjustment.
2 The hub casing ('monoblock hub') is bolted to the flange of the The blade sealing rings are made of Teflon.
propeller shaft.
3 The servo-piston moves an eccen trie pin of the propeller blade with
a 'slot -crosshead construction.'
4 Slot - crosshead construction.
5 Eccentric pin.
6 High - pressure hydraulic-oil supply line.
7 Hydraulic-oil return line.
8 Blade flange.
9 Rear - shaft seal.
Io Propeller blade.
II Zinc anode: this is the so- called sacrificial anode, which prevents
seawater corrosion. The zinc anode must be regularly substituted.
12 Propeller cap.
136
CH 28 > PROPELLERS
Blade foot
Intermediate flange
Slide ring
O- ring
The insertion of an extra intermediate flange below the The same coupling flange with the oil distribution and
blade foot allows underwater replacement of the blades. pitch indicator ( in colour ).
The propeller-blade flange is lubricated via a separate drilling. black: hydraulic coupling bush ,
light blue: oil distribution ,
green: hydraulic supply oil.

red: hydraulic return oil.
dark blue: seal.
Oil supply and drainage

Two different systems are used . Propulsion systems for medium -speed four-stroke
For propulsion systems with low-speed two-stroke engines equipped with reduction gearing, the
crosshead engines, the oil- distribution box is oil - distribution box is positioned in front of the
positioned on the shaft . reduction gearing or on the shaft .
The oil distribution is integrated in the reduction gearing

on the right, in the propeller shaft extension.
Above, the engine drive with coupling.

The top shaft is for driving the shaft generator.
Oil for emergency adjustment:
green: oil supply. C
red: return oil.
purple: oil for the coupling.
yellow: lubricating oil for bearing lubrication.
137
Loss of lubricating- oil pressure Hydraulic- oil system

When the plugs are removed, the pitch of the The system consists of a hydraulic unit (‘Hydra
propeller can be manually set in the required Pack’), a coupling flange with an electrical - pitch
position using a hand pump. The closed oil system feedback box and an oil - distribution ring.
maintains the selected position. In the reduction -geared version, this piston -operated
system is integrated in the gearbox. An intermediate
Oil distribution placed in the reduction gearing shaft is installed between the piston and the pitch -
Propulsion plants equipped with reduction gearing control device for the blades located in the hub,
between the engine and the propeller have an In case of an emergency, the pitch can be adjusted in
OD- ring fitted in front of the reduction gearing. the gearbox.
An electric - pitch gauge is mounted in the ring.
Oil tank Hydraulic Power Unit

A complete system for a controllable -pitch propeller from
[_ forward
Stern seal Ttr
MAN Diesel. tube oil —y-| — [f f t W .
L Pitch
^ order
tank
o
The hydraulic power unit controls the hydraulic - oil pressure for 003
pitch adjustment. The static pressure tanks ensure that the

6
t©
propeller-shaft seals 'forward' and 'astern' are kept under pressure.
This arrangement is used in the direct drive of controllable-pitch Servo
propellers by a small low-speed two-stroke crosshead engine.

piston f f
Lip ring seals Hydraulic Pitch
pipe feedback
ZM
ISF
Ml
— o
1 • I
Propeller shaft
Jx 5) CX5)
Monoblock Stern tube Oil Distribution Drain tank

hub Box type ODS
Hydraulic Power Unit

A similar system for a controllable-pitch propeller. However,
the oil distribution (green) is placed in the reduction
gearing. This is typical for a four-stroke medium-speed
diesel engine. Oil tank
forward
Stern £
seal
tube oil
tank
Servo
piston Hydraulic
Lip ring seals ;
pipe
o 1
'
<
x
Pitch
Propeller shaft feedback
Stern tube
Monoblock Oil Distribution
hub Box type ODF
138
r Lubricating systems
Stern tube
r i
CH28
Low pressure pipe

> PROPELLERS
Drain
oil tank Venting pipe
Minimum level 3 m
above sea level
/,
Oil tank
LAI?
64 / / / ,
/ / / / / / ,
Aft sealing Forward sealing

Tl
8.1
i IT
j
tinJY1
to Li
i
7 IT Tl-S t, i
Circulating oil
system for
Non-return valves forward stern
tube sealing
Drain
The lubricating system. Non-return valves in the propeller hub and pitch-control rod
ensure that the oil flow to the hub also flows to the stern-tube
The stern tube and controllable-pitch propeller have a common journal bearings and continues along the chromium steel stern
lubricating- oil system. tube to the adjustable -pitch mechanism.
In order to prevent seawater penetration, a lubricating-oil system The return oil flows back to the storage tank via the pitch- control
is kept under static pressure by placing an elevated gravity tank at rod.
least 3 metres above sea level, in accordance with the instructions The propeller hub is fitted with two plugs for draining and
from the manufacturer of the stern-tube seals. venting during docking.
Pitch changes create a pumping effect in the hub, resulting in a The pitch-control rod is lubricated with grease where the
lubricating-oil circulation throughout the system, including the intermediate shafts are fitted.
elevated oil tank.
28.6 Propeller shaft and coupling

flange
The propeller shaft is manufactured of forged steel In large propulsion plants with low-speed two -stroke
and then stress relieved. Material Forged Steel S 45P. crosshead engines, bearings are fitted at regular
The shaft is machined finished and hollow- bored intervals along the shaft according to the formula:
for positioning the pitch - control rod or pipes for the
L - 450 YSHAFT diameter ( mm )
supply and drainage to the servo - piston .
L = maximum bearing distance
rpm < 350 rpm / min.
139
Coupling flange
The hydraulic -coupling \

flange. / \
/ \
A coupling flange consisting of / \

Injectors '
two parts is clamped to the
propeller using oil pressure. Venting

A lubricating -oil pressure in Installation 100
dimension
excess of 2000 bars is
Wc
squeezed between the bush
and the coupling flange using
injectors. By increasing the oil
pressure in the annular space —h ® “
C with the manual-hydraulic i Markon

shaft
pump, the bush is pushed up
the conical section of the shaft
in stages. Longitudinal placing
of the coupling flange as well
as final push- up of the bush is
marked on the shaft and the
bush.
A
Measurement for push-up

stamped on the coupling muff
Hydraulic pump
28.7 Stern tube
The standard stern tube.
The standard stern tube is

fitted aft and bolted to the
propeller-frame boss.
The front section of the stern
tube has an oil box, bolted to
the stern-frame boss.
This allows thermal expansion/
contraction of the stern tube
and facilitates the installation
of the stern tube. Close
tolerances of the stern tube
are no longer required, and the
stern tube can have a potential
machining tolerance of 5 mm.

MAN Diesel, Frederikshavn,
Denmark.
140
CH28 > PROPELLERS
/ / / / Tv
|<3-
/ /
^
/ / An example of a
i
i
stern- tube bearing
i
i
i
from IHC Lagersmit B.V.,
i The Netherlands.
o—1
I
oI
I
I
I
\ \ \ x \ - 77
M Forward bearing bush

B- B
Aft bearing bush
Stern- tube bushes.
The stern tube is fitted with white metal front and rear bushings
(pink).
If required, temperature sensors can be fitted.

The stern tube and the oil space can be treated with epoxy resin.
Welding ring
28.8 Stern- tube seals

Circulation tank
Scraper
House port
Propeller shafts are
Clamping ring ( 2 / 2 )
II
X3
ft
standard with forward
and aft seals. Here, an
example from
r
IHC Lagersmit B.V.,
Kinderdijk, The Netherlands.
Lip seal
There are numerous types of

seals. Their most important
property is the prevention of
/ / / / / /
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / /
/ / / "W (sea) water and dirt particles
from entering the aft seal.
Equally important is that
House part
leakage of lubricating oil into
the (sea) water is kept to a
minimum.
y- y s-K-;
'_.
V;
Today there are also seals that
"
1 work without lubricating oil
1 (large plants) or grease (small
i
plants).
Liner
Static sealing ’
* : different executions possible
141
A fixed-pitch propeller with

stern tube and seals for
small yachts.
1 fixed -pitch propeller

2 stern tube
3 shaft seal
4 cardan coupling
5 thrust block for absorbing the
thrust
6 flexible coupling towards the
engine
Various propeller systems

with their corresponding
shafts.
28.8.1 Dry seals, pollution- free shaft seals
This system ensures that no lubricating oil from the

shaft seals can contaminate the environment.
A complete shaft seal where lubricating oil is not used.

n^n
Air
Muddy/ sandy water o
Fresh water, light blue, is fed into the far left outer seal and
ensures that no sand or mud can enter the seal.
There is an air chamber in the middle of the seal, which is kept n°n rm Fresh
water
under pressure. To the right of the air chamber, another two seals
are installed. The seal on the far right is a stand-by seal in case of
o vC
failure of the 2S/R seal.
/
j jij -
\ # 1S/R \
T#2S/R \#3S/Ry \
Fresh water Air Air chamber Stand-by seal
142
CH28 > PROPELLERS
28.9 Hydraulic bolts
A complete plant can be fitted with hydraulically <3
tensioned bolts, making assembly/ disassembly of the —U.

propeller shaft, the intermediate shafts and the flange
to the flywheel of the ( two -stroke ) engine swift,
: 3
simple and meticulous.
28.10 Material for controllable -

pitch propellers A hydraulic connecting
bolt.
ISO, the International Standard Organisation , has
introduced a series of standards for the manufacture The correct pressure can be
Ice class
of propellers ( ISO 484). applied simply and accurately
The accuracy class can be selected by the customer. Material NiAl CrNi NiAl CrNi to the flanges.
Thickness r/R = 0.35 mm 132 146 169 187 As the bolts are pre -tensioned
Propeller blades are manufactured of a nickel - Thickness r /R = 0.60 mm 71 78 90 100
by an elastic stretch process,
aluminium - bronze ( Ni, Al ) - alloy or a chromium Thickness r/R = 1.00 mm 0 0 15 13
they never 'loosen' of their own
nickel -stainless steel (Cr, Ni ) - alloy. accord.
Blade weight kg 729 877 952 1053
The graph shows the properties of both materials.
Class Manufacturing accuracy Both materials have high resistance to cavitation- erosion.
S Very high accuracy NiAl has better fatigue characteristics in a corrosive environment
High accuracy than CrNi.

Propeller blades are extensively exposed to periodic varying
Medium accuracy
stresses. Consequently, resistance to fatigue is critical.
Wide tolerances
According to classification societies, blades made of CrNi must
have a 10% higher thickness than a propeller blade made of NiAl.
The accuracy classes for manufacturing propellers. The thicker the blade, the lower the propeller efficiency!
It is usually recommended that propeller blades be
If the customer does not specify a class, the propeller is manufactured of NiAl.
manufactured according to class 1.
28.11 Propeller design
Hydrodynamic design Propeller efficiency is predominantly determined by

Propeller blades are computer designed. The basic propeller diameter and the corresponding optimum
data is derived from advanced hydrodynamic speed . To a lesser extent , the blade surface area, the
theories, practical experience and numerous model pitch and the thickness gradient of the propeller
tests at various hydrodynamic institutes. blade. These also affect the propeller efficiency.
Each blade is designed for a certain hull and adapted The blade surface is determined according to the
to the operating conditions of the ship. The total requirements for minimum cavitation, noise - and
propeller efficiency, suppressing noise levels and vibration levels.
vibrations are prime design objectives. To keep cavitation to a minimum , the pitch is
reduced towards the tip of the blade.
143
Example 1 28.12 Cavitation

What is the tip speed of a propeller with a diameter
of 8000 mm and a speed of 82 rpm ? Cavitation is caused by a localized decrease in the
vapour pressure near the propeller.
vtiP = 2 x 7i x R x n At this reduced vapour pressure, water boils causing
82
— = 34.2 m /sec.
= 2 x 3.14 x 4 x 60 vapour bubbles. When these vapour bubbles reach
other regions near the propeller, the shell of the ship
or parts of the rudder with a higher pressure, they
Speed in kilometres per hour = implode. This is accompanied by so much energy
3600 release that severe damage may be caused to the
34.2 x = 123 km per hour.
1000 surface material close to the imploding bubbles.
Example 2: Small yachts Cavitation types

How high is the tip speed of a propeller with a There are three main types of cavitation in terms of
diameter of 300 mm and a speed of 900 rpm ? their origin and position on the propeller blades.
vtip
. =2xnx Rxn
900
= 2 x 3.14 x 0.15 x 60
= 14.3 m /sec.
Speed in kilometres per hour =

3600
14.3 x = 50.8 km per hour.
1000
The thickness gradient of the propeller blade must

match the requirements of the Classification societies
for ‘unskewed’ propellers.
Part of a rudder showing Research into cavitation is particularly important in the

the effects of cavitation. design of a propeller for a particular hull.
Note the pitting caused by Not only can severe damage to the propeller, hull and rudder be
cavitation from the propeller. prevented but noise generation can also be determined in a fluid
laboratory.
Outward rotating Inward rotating Inward rotating

When testing propeller designs, much research is done to
minimize the extent of cavitation.
The right propeller has a much smaller surface area where

cavitation can occur than the two examples on the left.
The wake peaks of these two examples are higher.
The homogeneous and uninterrupted supply of sufficient water is Max. wake peak Wt = 0.40 Max. wake peak Wt = 0.35 Max. wake peak Wt = 0.28
a prerequisite for minimizing cavitation.
144
CH 28 > PROPELLERS
28.12.1 'Sheet ' cavitation on the 'suction 28.12.3 'Sheet ' cavitation on the pressure
side' of the blade side of the blade
Sheet cavitation on the 'suction side' of the propeller blade. Sheet cavitation on the pressure side of the blade.
Sheet cavitation occurs at the leading edge of the propeller
blade due to a low-pressure peak in this area. This form of cavitation is similar to 'sheet' cavitation on the suction
side. However, the generated vapour bubbles tend to implode on
The sound and vibration levels will be low if the cavitation is the blade surface due to the increased pressure.
limited and the clearance to the hull is sufficient. This is likely to produce erosion. Therefore, the blades should be
If cavitation extends over half of the radius, it can increase designed without any pressure-side cavitation.
significantly. This can lead to erosion of the propeller-blade
material and must therefore be prevented.
‘Sheet’ cavitation at the tip of the propeller blade 28.12.4 Graphs of specific fuel consumption
may develop into a tip vortex cavitation of the and towing force
propeller blade and often extends over the centreline
of the propeller. Power ( kW)
If the tip vortex spreads to the rudder, it may cause A graph depicting the
8000
material erosion . required power output in
6000
z kW ( vertical ) and the speed
28.12.2 Bubble cavitation 4000 in knots ( horizontal ).
2000
At 12 knots, a power output of
0
2000 kW is required and at
8 10 12 14 16
Speed (knots) 14 knots, 4000 kW is required.
Increasing the speed by
Consumption (kg/hour)
2 knots requires twice the
1600 [—
engine output and therefore
/
1200
7
~
/
doubles the fuel consumption!
Bubble cavitation. /
800
If the propeller is overloaded and the blade surface area is too 400
small to deliver the required thrust, the middle section on the

0
suction side of the centre of the propeller blade will be subject to 8 10 12 14 16
cavitation. This type of cavitation can be extensive and lead to Speed (knots)
erosion. When designing a particular propeller, this must be A

avoided. A graph showing fuel consumption in kilograms per hour
( vertical ) and the ship's speed in knots ( horizontal ).
Clearly, fuel - consumption increase is significantly higher than the

increase in speed. Fuel consumption is 200 kg per hour at a speed
of 10 knots. This is doubled to 400 kg per hour at 12 knots and at
16 knots; it is 1200 kg per hour. Therefore, an increase in speed of
six knots requires 1200 kg per hour of fuel, not the expected
200 kg of fuel. This amounts to six times the expected fuel
consumption to achieve a speed increase of six knots.
145
Tow force (kN)

Angle of attack ( degrees)
600
4
Suction
560
2 -
Actual
520
0 -
480
440 -2 Pressure
400 - 4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.6 0.8 1.0 r/R
Speed (knots) Dimensionless ratio of radii
The graph shows the towing force in kN ( vertical ) and the

speed in knots ( horizontal ). Increasing the speed effects a
significant decrease in towing force.
28.13 Calculating the propeller -

blade model
For all conditions in which propeller can operate,

and for all pitch angles of the blades, the flow of
water behind the corresponding hull is calculated. A modern propeller, the 'skew ' model. Cavitation can occur
The extent of cavitation is evaluated with respect to in the blue area under unfavourable conditions.
the degree of noise and vibration .
28.13.1 'High skew ' design of a propeller
A special design is used to improve cavitation

suppression by reducing induced - pressure
fluctuations.
The blade is hereby skewed in the rotational
direction. The vibrations generated by a skewed’
propeller blade are reduced to less than 30 % of those
generated by an unskewed’ design .
T
Skew angle
'High- skew ' propeller
blades ready for
Centre line shaft
transportation.
The 'high-skew ' design.
As this type of propeller does not affect propeller efficiency, it is

used in ferries and cruise ships where low vibration levels are a
requirement.
Today the 'skew '-type propeller is bent in two directions, both
rotational and contra -rotational. The blades of this kind of
propeller can be balanced so that the smallest possible force
occurs in the adjustable-pitch mechanism.
A finite - element analysis is carried out for determining the
optimum 'skew '.
CH 28 > PROPELLERS
28.14 Examples of other propulsion Electric thruster

systems with controllable - Here, the propulsion unit , an electromotor, is
pitch propellers situated on the outside of the ships hull. This system
is known by its brand name ‘Azipod’.
Apart from the traditional propulsion systems The electro - motor with a variable speed is installed
with propellers, specifically the propulsion engine in a separate pod below the ship. There are versions
with behind it the reduction gearing, coupling, that are fixed and also those that can rotate 360°.
intermediate shafts, propeller shaft, propeller along The propeller can be mounted before or behind the
with many versions, there are many other variations pod making it a tow or thrust version .
that deviate from the standard pattern: in line with The ability to rotate the pods renders rudders
propulsion engine, shafts and propeller. superfluous as the vessel has excellent and rapid
manoeuvring characteristics.
28.14.1 Example 1: Today, the abovementioned system is increasingly

Diesel- electric propulsion used for passenger ships, vessels with a dynamic-
positioning system, and ferries.
By driving propellers with electromotors with the
required electrical power generated by diesel engine Several advantages
driven generators, the location of the propellers - Both the propeller system and the diesel
and diesel engines may deviate from the traditional gensets can be installed in the most favourable
arrangement . location. It should be remembered that the ‘ hotel’
section on passenger vessels takes up over 80% of
the total space available on the ship.
- Depending on the required propulsion
output , diesel -driven gensets can be placed
off- line. In this manner, the diesel engines are
always heavily loaded and emissions are
kept to a minimum and a higher efficiency
Diesel- electric propulsion from Wartsila . Shown here, an is achieved .
LNG-tanker with Dual Fuel ( DF) engines. - In general , larger ships have medium -speed
four-stroke engines, suitable for running
Each of the four main gensets, twelve-cylinder V-engines type on HFO. This is relatively inexpensive and
12V50DF supply 11,400 kW and both auxiliary genset, consequently exploitation costs are reduced.
nine-cylinder in-line engines type 9L32DF, supply 3150 kW each.
Therefore, the total installed generating capacity is 51,900 kW.
This amount of electrical power can drive two electromotors of
12.5 MW each, driving a controllable - pitch Lips propeller.
An electrically driven POD serves as a contra -rotating propeller at
normal speeds, and as an excellent manoeuvring propeller when
entering the LNG terminals.
Wartsila 12V50DF 11400 kW Wartsila 12V50DF 11400 kW
QTg ® Q0060
MU
0 Q 000 Q
0 0 0 0 0 0 m _~_ © 000000
Wartsila 9L32DF 3150 kW Wartsila 9L32DF 3150 kW
d CM Wartsila 12V50DF 11400 kW
Q Q Q Q Q QiF
1
Wartsila 12V50DF 11400 kW
HF : s a nMn
°
i oooo
rB
.
Delivered propulsion power:

Nominal Service
0 0 0 0 0 0m ®p 0
—i .
Electric pod 17 MW 17 MW Installed engine power:

40 % 41 %
LIPS CP propeller 24 MW Mechanical transmission 0 MW
25 MW
65 % 62 % Electrical power generation 51.9 MW
Total shaft power 42 MW 41 MW Total installed power 51.9 MW
147
6,6kV / 60 Hz
Azipod 8000 kW
5Z .
a> / _
W 8L38B 5800 kW
< Lips feathering CPP

W 12 V46C 12,600 kW
000000
Hotel
consumers
Diameter 5,6 m -
W 9L38B 6525 kW
^ QO
“
I
000000
W 9L38B 6525 kW
W 12 V46C 12,600 kW
000Q00
00 000 0
^
P -BTOOGGOOe-
W 8L38B 5800 kW
LIPS thrusters:
2 x 1500 kW
r 660 V / 60 Hz
D / _
Azipod 8000 kW
ZE~
Sometimes, a larger genset driven by a gas An alternative arrangement of Wartsila design .

turbine ( fuel MDO ) is installed in the larger
propulsion plants. It can be put on - line if Both main engines, type 12V46C, drive one controllable-pitch Lips
the diesel gensets fail or when the electricity propeller with a diameter of 5.6 metres. Total shaft power is 2 x
consumption of the hotel, for instance, the air 12,600 kW.
conditioning, increases significantly. A well- The four gensets with 8L38B and 9L38B engines, total output
known example is the ‘Queen Mary II’ 24,650 kW, are available for driving both 'Azipods' of 6000 kW each.
Excellent manoeuvrability. Generally, tugboats The voltage of this network is 6600 volts at 60 Hz. Both Lips bow
are not necessary and therefore not required by thrusters of 1500 kW each are also on this grid. The normal ship's
the port authorities. grid is supplied with a voltage of 660 volts at 60Hz via two
transformers.
28.14.2 Example 2: This arrangement allows various means of propulsion:
Compact thruster a the main engines and auxiliary engines with three propellers ,
b only with the Azipods.

The propeller is driven by diesel engines via cardan c one main engine driving the controllable -pitch propeller ,
shafts. The engine power- output is transmitted to d portion of the auxiliary engines supplying power to the
the propeller via two bevel gears. There are many Azipods.
possibilities.
A Lips compact thruster.
This thruster can rotate through 360 degrees and therefore has
excellent manoeuvrability making a rudder redundant. The
thruster is driven by the diesel engine via long cardan shafts.
1 nozzle
2 controllable-pitch propeller
3 drive from the diesel engine
4 hull
5 rotating disc
r v
148
r
CH 28 > PROPELLERS
28.14.3 Example 3:
Propellers in nozzles
These are widely used. The purpose of these nozzles

is to increase the thrust by the water flowing around
the nozzle section . When the speed of the water flow
fi* inside the nozzle exceeds that of the outside flow,
a pressure difference is created , which produces
© horizontal thrust and therefore a propulsive force.
In addition , it often reduces the noise and vibration
levels generated by the propeller. The local pressure
* differences decrease due to the homogeneous flow of
^7 W I i W the water through the nozzle. Therefore, cavitation is

reduced.
A nozzle can be designed for any type of ship or
propeller. Nozzles are predominantly used on smaller
ships, for instance inland shipping, tugs, tenders and
fishing vessels.
Propulsion types of smaller vessels

<2> These diverge considerably from types for the larger
inland shipping and ocean navigation .
©
Clients often wish to install the propulsion engine
in a different place, or require electric - or hydraulic-
driven propellers.
^7
28.14.4 Example 4:
Electric propulsion
A retractable thruster system in which the thrusters can be
completely retracted into the hull. This is limited to use in small craft such as dinghies.
In sailing position, the thruster is lowered outside the hull. Advantages

1 propeller - whisper propulsion
2 bottom of the ship - no emissions when running
3 hull
- easy installation with a simple reversible
4 engine-drive shaft
5 high position inside the hull
electromotor
6 low position outside the hull
There are numerous ways
of propulsion for small
vessels. Shown here, an
Fixed systems electric drive of a fixed-
This allows the propeller to move vertically, pitch propeller. The engine
depending on the ship’s draught. In an unloaded / is reversible and can
empty vessel, the propeller will always be immersed operate at any speed.
with acceptable propeller efficiency.
A retractable system
&
These are often only used at sea .
3
Bow and stern thrusters
These are arranged in a tunnel located in the forward
superstructure or astern to generate lateral thrust.
h
This can be used to manoeuvre or to hold a position.
149
Disadvantages Advantages.
- Limited range. - The diesel - driven hydraulic set can be placed
- Storing electricity in batteries has a low efficiency. in the most favourable place in the vessel. The
The electricity required from the public grid diesel engine operates at a constant speed and
with respect to fuel supplied and generated by can therefore be loaded quickly via the hydraulic
the electric - power plants has a low efficiency of pump.
approximately 40 %. An additional 50% of this is - The auxiliary power does not require a separate
lost with loading and storage. Therefore a mere battery.
40% - 20% = 20% of the original fuel energy
remains for driving the propeller. Disadvantages
- Consequently, the total propulsion efficiency from The purchase price of a hydraulic installation is high
the fuel supplied to the power plant at a propeller and its propulsion efficiency is slightly lower ,
efficiency of 40% is at most 8% . A small dinghy

with a small diesel engine with an efficiency of 28.14.6 Example 6:
25% does not exceed 15%. Propulsion with a diesel engine and
custom intermediate shaft system to
28.14.5 Example 5: the propeller shaft
Hydraulic propulsion
Here the engine is not placed in line with the
This is also limited to use in small motor vessels propeller shaft but , for instance, astern . The propeller
for recreational purposes and for water- based is driven via a so- called Z drive’.
companies. The hydraulic unit consists of a diesel
engine, which drives an oil pump. An advantage is that the diesel engine can be
Here the propeller is driven by a hydraulic engine. installed in the most favourable location on the boat .
Furthermore, various other systems can be driven This system is common in high -speed motor boats.
by this system , such as bow and stern thrusters, an
anchor winch or a light crane.
Propulsion with a diesel engine and an intermediate-

shafting system to the propeller shaft.
A diesel-driven hydraulic propeller drive.
1 diesel engine
2 hydraulic pump
3 hydraulic-oil storage tank and buffer tank
4 oil cooler
5 hydraulic motor
6 propeller shaft with propeller
The components are connected by flexible hydraulic hoses. The

diesel engine can be positioned in an ideal place when opting for
this system. The hydraulic system can also be used for other
purposes, such as an anchor winch.
. .J
CH28 > PROPELLERS
28.14.7 Example of a large propeller
These propellers are used for very large and fast

container ships.
They are fixed - pitch propellers often with six blades.
The propeller diameter can increase to up to 9 metres
and the weight up to 100 tons!
A large fixed- pitch

six- bladed propeller.
Note the large amount of free

space around the propeller,
allowing for the free flow of
water around the propeller.
Nevertheless, cavitation will be

caused by the rudder! See
inside the yellow circles.
Removing this type of

propeller requires at least
10 engineers!
3b
151
1
28.15 Propeller efficiency
55.5%
An example of the propeller efficiency. 3 blades
55.0% - 4 blades
Horizontal: The propeller diameter from 6.6 till 8.4 metre. 54.5% - x
5 blades x
X
Vertical: The efficiency of the propeller from 51.0 till 55.5%. X X
£r
x
54.0% - X
\
5x X \
u
^-
c ;\ \
- A propeller with three blades has the highest efficiency with a 6 blades /
\ \
C 53.5% -
• /
\ \
£ / s \ \
diameter of 8.1 metre. (U
/ /
/
: x
\ \
aJ 53.0% /
x
X
' \
- With four blades and a diameter of 7.7 metre. ai
/
\ \
a /•
\
- With five blades and a diameter of 7.3 metre. l 52.5% - \
\
- With six blades and a diameter of 7.1 metre.
52.0% -
Main engine SMCR = 20,000 kW x 105 r / min
All with an engine power of 20,000 kW and 105 rev. per minute. Single screw fixed pitch propeller
51.5% -
51.0%
6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4
Propeller diameter
13,000 Some examples to increase the efficiency of the

PCBF effect 3.8%.
12,500 - ship propeller. MAN Diesel & Turbo.
12,000 -
Method Increase of
11,500 -
efficiency alone:
£ 11,000 - Pre swirl firms 3- 5%
Kappel 3- 5%
S- 10,500 -
o Efficiency rudders 2 - 4%
> 10,000 - Mewis duct 3- 8%
2
9,500 - PBCF - propeller bos cap finns 2- 5%
Post swirl fins 2-3%
9,000 -
Rudder bulb 2 - 5%
8,500 - AHT nozzle 5 -8 %
8,000
Management system example
T
14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 Alphatronic 3000 1-3%
Ship speed (knot)
An impression of the possibilities of combination of

efficiency improving devices.
Pre swirl finns
Mewis duct
Rudder bulb
Kappel
PBCF
AHT nozzle
Efficiency rudders
Post swirl finns
Alphatronic 3000
152
CH28 > PROPELLERS
28.15 .1 The Propeller Boss Cap Fins ( PBCF ). No moving parts, no modification of the hull and
Mitsui O. S. K. Lines, Ltd. no welding work is required.
It can be installed on either fixed pitch or
The Propeller Boss Cap Fins ( PBCF ) is a device for controllable pitch propellors.
propeller efficiency improvement developed by the The major classification societies placed PBCF
corporate group centred in Mitsui O.S. K . Lines, Ltd. outside their classification rules.
The PBCF feature can recover energy loss of
Propeller Hub Vortex in the propeller backward flow 28.15.2 THE KAPPEL Propeller
and save fuel consumption by 5% operating at the
same speed, or boost speed by 2% with the same fuel Shipping is the dominant form of transportation ,
consumption . carrying approximately 80% of world trade. This
It is also effective with vessel screw propellers is because, despite air, road and rail, most of the
regardless of the type or hull form of the vessels. long distance and a great deal of the short distance
PBCF order receipt exceeded 3,000 vessels transportation is made by ships. This includes all
worldwide in 2013. kinds of goods, from highly industrial products,
The PBCF has acquired patents 13 countries around meat , and fruit to grain, ore, and oil.
the world , and won awards the Society of Naval Safe and efficient ships and sea transportation are
Architects of Japan and other 2 societies. In addition, essential for the modern world. These topics are dealt
the 5% energy saving effect has been verified by with in the Section of Maritime Engineering at the
world research institutes including International Department of Mechanical Engineering. One of the
Towing Tank Conferences, ITTC, and owners. topics is propulsion of ships, in particular propellers.
Under the current importance of the global The propeller must transfer the power generated by
environment problems, the demand for the PBCF the ships engine into power to propel the ship with
has been continually growing up from not only as as little loss as possible. Worldwide, the total power
an energy saving device but also as an environment - installed in ships is approximately 6,800,000 kW and
friendly product. the annual fuel consumption is more than 7,000,000
tonnes. Even a relatively small increase in efficiency
Merits of the PBCF will mean a large saving in oil, accompanied by a
- Fuel oil saving up to 5%. PBCF can show a life - similar reduction in the emission of exhaust gases.
time effect regardless of vessel types and vessel The KAPPEL propeller is a new, innovative
design. propulsion with higher efficiency than a
- Over 25 years of experience, PBCF have been conventional state - of - the -art propeller. Whereas
installed on more than 3100 vessels. traditional ship propellers have blades modelled
- Simple construction and easy installation . on the basis of helical surfaces, the KAPPEL
- Suitable for new - building and existing vessels. propeller has modified blade tips smoothly curved
Left: The PBCF, Propeller

Boss Cap Fins.
Right: The Kappel propeller.
- Elaborate fin design reduces torque losses and saces up to - 10% less fuel consumption than standard propellers.
3 percent in fuel. - Up to 60 tonnes in weight and 11.6 metres in diameter.
- Return on investments after 3 months. - Highest efficiency thanks to costumised production for every
- For existing propellers, redesign programmes and new ships. vessel type and size, and for the specific operating profile.
- Fast and cost-effective installation. - Global service.
- Innovative 5D propulsion for the highest production precision. - Highest alloy quality for an extended operating life.
- Innovative 5D propulsion for the highest production precision.
153
A very large PBCF propeller

with a diameter of 8900 mm.
E
E
o
o
CO
to the suction side of the blade. There is a parallel around the propeller was computed and hence
development within aircraft design where many the performance of the propeller. The calculations
modern aircraft , from high - performance jet liners were complemented with model experiments.
to sophisticated gliders, have similar modifications Further model tests were necessary to examine
of the wing tips in the form of winglets. These the interaction between ship hull and propeller, in
are separate lifting surfaces attached more or particular the extent and time history of cavitation
less perpendicular to the wings on the wing tips. and the pressure field on the ship hull. On the basis
Numerical methods, as well as experiments, show of a vast number of calculations and comprehensive
that the effect of winglets is to increase the lift - drag model testing, a design was developed for a
ratio of the wing. 35,000 dwt product carrier.
Aircraft have relatively well- defined design
conditions such as climb, cruise and descent. The 28.15.3 MAN Alpha Kappel Propeller
flow to the propeller is more complicated since the
propeller works in the flow abaft the ship hull. This The new propellers will be of the highly efficient
is in particular the case for single screw ships. At Kappel design from MAN Diesel & Turbo.
each revolution a section of a propeller blade will The unique design of the Kappel propeller with its
experience a highly varying inflow. This means that forwardly swept propeller blade tips reduces the tip
the pressure on the hull varies in time, giving rise vortex and consequentially the drag of the blades
to noise and vibrations in the ship. The pressure trough the water. An additional effect of the Kappel
variation is exacerbated by cavitation , a phenomenon design is lower pressure pulses induced to the hull
that occurs when the suction of the propeller locally allowing a smaller clearance between the hull and
evaporates the water. propeller blade tips. As a result of this the propeller
One of the challenges of the KAPPEL- propeller diameter can be enlarged which increases the
design was the optimization of the propeller efficiency of the Kappel propeller even further.
with respect to efficiency. When modifying the The Kappel propeller design concept was originally
geometry of the blade tip, relative to a conventional developed by the Danish inventor Jens Julius Kappel
propeller, it was of paramount importance that and after a decade of close cooperation overtaken by
the beneficial effects of the modified blade loading MAN Alpha at Mr. Kappels retirement . Combined
were annulled by the detrimental influence of with the knowledge from MAN Alphas more than
friction on the relatively larger blade area in the tip 100 years of propeller design and refined to today’s
region . This optimization was made on the basis of concept the Kappel propeller design is among the
numerical fluid dynamics by which the flow field most efficient propeller designs in the world.
154
CH28 > PROPELLERS
With a diameter of app. 9 meters the 5-bladed About Danaos Shipping

propellers will be the largest fixed pitch Kappel Danaos Shipping Co. Ltd. is Greece’s leading
propellers delivered to date. containership management company and enjoys an
They will be manufactured by MAN Diesel 8c Turbo excellent reputation as a trendsetter for the entire
licensee, Zhenjiang Tongzhou Propeller Co. Ltd in domestic market. Danaos has also developed its
China along with the new propeller boss caps with own monitoring system for optimising its vessels Propulsion of the cruise
fins - an efficiency improving device for reducing the performance together with the affiliated Danaos ship Oasis 3 with three
hub vortex and drag behind the propeller hub. The Management Consultants, a maritime software Azipods of ABB.
new Kappel propellers and propeller boss caps with developer, that sells technology and maritime
fins contribute with an efficiency gain of 6% which consultancy in the shipping industry One of the liners for Royal
can be directly transferred to reductions in fuel oil Caribbean International is the
consumption and emission . Principal particulars Oasis 3, due for delivery from
Kjartan Ross, Business Development Manager of Vessel type Fully cellular STX France in the second
MAN Diesel 8c Turbo said: ‘I started my carrier in container vessel quarter of 2016, equipped with
the maritime industry in 2004 - same year as these Cargo capacity 8,500 TEU three 20 MW Azipod XO units
vessels were delivered . Taking the fairly high top Length overall 333.99 m from ABB. The 225,282 gt,
speed of more than 23 knots still available after Breadth 42.80 m 5,400 passenger-capacity ship
the upgrade into consideration I am continuously Design draught 13.00 will also be equipped with
impressed by how much technology has leaped Main Engine 12 K98MC - C6 ABB propulsion transformers,
forward in the maritime industry just during these Engine power and propeller speed 68,520 kW at propulsion drives and remote
last 12 years’. 104.0 RPM control systems. The other,
The propellers will be delivered directly to the Engine power after upgrade 44,000 kW at being built by Meyer Werft
shipyard where installations of the new propellers 89.7 RPM GmbH, will feature two
and bulbous bows have already been tentatively Max. ship speed after upgrade + 23 knots 20,5 MW Azipod XO
scheduled for July and September 2016. Service speed after upgrade 18.0 knots propulsion systems as well as
Kappel propeller diameter 8,900 mm generators, main switchboard,
Number of propeller blades 5 blades a remote control system, bow

thruster motors and set of
transformers.
155
Use of materials for diesel engines
29.1 General use of materials 158

29.2 Cast iron 158
29.3 Steel 159
29.4 Cast steel 160
29.5 Forged steel 160
29.6 Steel alloys 160
29.7 Aluminium 161
29.8 Ceramic materials 162
29.9 Specific materials for engine parts: engine classification according to the
four categories 162
29.10 Special finishes and heat treatments 169
29.11 Examples of modern material usage 172
The following sub - divisions can be made: Properties:

- general material usage; - thin liquid , good pouring characteristics for casts
- specific materials used in the four engine ( + );
categories according to their classification; - hard ( + ) ;
- special materials and manufacturing processes. - good machining properties such as planing,
milling and drilling ( + );
- relatively inexpensive ( + );
29.1 General use of materials - rigid ( + );
- good running characteristics in , for instance,
Cast iron was the material used in the very first cylinder liners ( + ) ;
internal combustion engines and is even now often - sound - dampening ( + );
used for many engine parts. Forged steel and later - corrosion resistant ( + );
welded steel sheeting are also in general use. The - low shrinkage ( + ) ;
properties of these materials are often enhanced by - forms an alloy with other metals, for example
adding different metals, thereby creating an alloy magnesium , to give improved characteristics;
with improved material properties. known as nodular cast iron ( + );
Materials used in the manufacture of high - load parts - heavy and often thick- walled (-);
such as exhaust valves, piston crowns, bearing caps - low melting point ( ± 1150 °C) ( + );
and fuel pumps have also been developed, enabling - low tensile strength (-);
them to resist the increasingly higher mechanical - , - brittle (-);
thermal - and chemical loads found in modern - inflexible (-) ;
industrial engines. - possible crack formation with sudden
To begin we will study the various materials, temperature variation (-) ;
their properties and general use in the engine - not capable of being welded ( -).
manufacturing industry.
Cast iron is often used for engine blocks, cylinder
liners, cylinder heads, exhaust - valve casings, inlet
29.2 Cast iron lines and piston rings.
It is further used in components with comparatively
Cast iron is an iron-carbon alloy with a minimum low mechanical load requirements such as supports,
carbon content of 2.5%. air ducts, covers and cooler casings.
The carbon percentage determines the iron alloy
properties.
Casting an engine block in

the former Caterpillar MaK
foundry, since 2006 CT,
Casting Technologies
GmbH, Kiel, Germany.
158
CH 29 > USE O F M A T E R I A L S F O R D I E S E L E N G I N ES
The casting of a large block for a four - stroke diesel engine. A cast engine block just out of the mould.
The casting time is very important for the mould quality. The deburring and cleaning of the rough block has yet to take place.
A large block weighing 115 tons must be cast within 100 seconds.
If this time is exceeded, the quality is such that the block is
rejected. The costs, approximately 100,000 - for manufacturing
the mould and the melting- down of the base materials, are lost .
A cast block of an in-line engine during manufacture.
29.3 Steel
This is an iron-carbon alloy with a maximum

carbon content of 1.7%.
Properties:
- malleable ( + );
- ductile ( + ) ;
- weldable ( + ) ;
- light in welded constructions ( + ) , for example the
A-frame for crosshead engines;
- good machinability, such as planing, milling,
drilling, grinding and polishing ( + ) ;
- high melting point of approximately 1450 °C ( + ) ;
- over 0.3% carbon hardness, surface hardening
possible ( + ) ;
- soft (-). A
The manufacture of two- stroke crosshead engines at
Steel in a steel plate form is often used in welded MAN Diesel & Turbo, Frederikshavn, Denmark ( 2005 ).
constructions such as bedplates, crosshead - engine
A- frames, air inlets in crosshead engines, air- cooler Foreground: a welded steel crankshaft-bedding or lower
casings, various supports and exhaust - gas manifolds. crankcase of a two- stroke crosshead engine.
Background: a welded steel A -frame.
159
29.4 Cast steel machinable ( + ) ;

coarse moulding which requires machining
This is an iron -carbon alloy with a carbon content operation after casting (-).
of between 0.5 and 2%. The base material is white
pig iron. Currently primarily used for the cylinder heads of
crosshead engines due to mechanical and thermal
Properties: load increases.
- can be cast in crude moulds ( + ) ; Crankshafts for all types of engines, connecting
- extremely high tensile strength ( + ); rods, piston rods and camshaft components also are
- malleable ( + ); manufactured with this material.
- high melting point ( + ) ;
- possibility of strong yet lightweight constructions
( + ); 29.6 Steel alloys
- viscous (-) ;
- shrinkage is twice as high as that of cast iron (- ) ; Alloys are added to steel, an iron -carbon alloy, in
- due to its viscosity, only used in simple casting order to enhance certain physical properties, or to
moulds (-); create new properties.
- requires annealing to resist high casting pressures
(-). Elements used in alloys are metals, such as
chromium, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten ,
Casting properties are improved by adding manganese manganese, vanadium and boron ,
and silicon . By adding 0.5 to 1.0% molybdenum ,

a higher tensile strength at higher temperatures is The various material properties of these elements
achieved. In older and larger crosshead engines it result in a steel alloy with particular characteristics,
is used to manufacture for instance, cylinder heads, for example:
high - pressure stop - valve housings, piston crowns and chromium - increases the hardness and
cylinder heads in four-stroke engines. toughness
nickel - increases the tensile strength and is
anti - corrosive
29.5 Forged steel molybdenum - increases the tensile strength and
maintains the hardness up to 600 °C
This is an iron -carbon alloy with a carbon content tungsten - makes steel heat resistant
of between 0.15 to 0.5%. manganese - increases the tensile strength and
reduces wear and corrosion
Properties: vanadium - increases ductility
A cast-steel cylinder head - malleable ( + ); boron - increases wear resistance of
of a two- stroke crosshead - high tensile strength also at high temperatures ( + ); cast - iron cylinder liners
engine. - ductile ( + );
A
The shaft and the blades in the exhaust- gas turbine of the
turbocharger are manufactured from a high-alloyed steel
for resistance to high temperatures and chemical corrosion.
160
CH 29 > USE O F MATERIALS FOR D I E S E L ENGINES
Crankshafts are the most

heavily loaded parts in a
diesel engine; they are
manufactured from high-
alloy forged steels.
The crankshafts of high - load fast - running engines

are often made of chromium nickel steel or Steel alloys.
chromium molybdenum steel.
The bearing surface of the crankpins and journal These are used for the
bearings are then hardened , thus increasing their manufacture of parts for diesel
resistance to wear. engines, for example:
Steel used in exhaust valves is often alloyed with 8 to 1 exhaust valves

2 exhaust- valve seats
12 % chromium and , for example, silicon . ‘Nimonac
80A’, an alloy of 80% nickel, chromium , titanium and
aluminium is resistant to high temperatures and the
corrosive products in exhaust gases. Currently, it is
frequently used in the exhaust valves of two-stroke
engines. The cost of this material has decreased
considerably in recent years.
Steel alloys are used in a large number of diesel -

engine parts, such as toothed wheels, fuel pumps,
shafts, cams, atomisers, valve springs and valves. T
Each component has a different material, which is The impeller of the centrifugal air pump of a turbocharger
why there are many steel alloys. is manufactured from an aluminium alloy, a light metal.
29.7 Aluminium
Properties:
- high fatigue resistance ( + ) ;
- good bearing properties ( + ) ;
- light weight ( + ) ;
- good heat conductor ( + );
- good strength properties at high temperatures
( + );
- high wear rate (-) ;
- high coefficient of expansion (-).
Aluminium alloys enhance certain material

properties.
161
Copper, nickel and magnesium ensure good heat 29.9 Specific materials for engine
conduction and favourable strength properties at parts: engine classification
high temperatures, the so - called Y- gamma alloy. This according to the four
is an aluminium - copper alloy. categories
The light - metal alloy formed with silicon , copper,
nickel and magnesium has a low coefficient of 29.9.1 Engines from 0 to 100 kW, high- speed,
expansion and a reasonable wear rate. This is an four- stroke, fuel MDO: category I,
aluminium -silicon alloy. small industrial diesel engines
Use The engine blocks are often constructed of a cast

Light metals with aluminium as the main component light metal or cast iron . An added advantage of a
are used for engine blocks in small diesel engines, light metal is, of course, its weight.
the pistons of fast - running diesel engines, the piston The cylinder liners or bushings of a light - metal block
skirts of medium -speed diesel engines, tri - metal need to be fitted separately, while a cast - iron block
axle bearings in all engines and , for example, for does not require a separate cylinder liner. Moreover,
impellers in the air inlets of turbocharger groups. a separate cylinder liner - a bushing - is regularly
Today many crankcase and camshaft covers are installed in the somewhat larger engines of this
also manufactured with light metal. The ‘hot box’ category.
of Wartsila engines, which maintains the high
temperature found in the common - rail fuel injection The pistons are often manufactured with light metal
system, is made entirely with light metals. and the entire cylinder head can be constructed from
both light metal and cast iron.
29.8 Ceramic materials The crankshaft of high - load engines is often

manufactured with a high - alloyed forged steel, but
Technical ceramic has unique properties such as for standard engines, normal unalloyed carbon steel
extreme hardness and high wear rates. It can consist suffices.
of the following compounds: However, the crankpin and the shaft journals are
T A1203, Zr02, TiC, Si 3N 4 en ALTi02. hardened .
Light-metal pistons are These are:
generally used in - aluminium -, silicon -, zirconium -, titanium -,
high- speed diesel engines. beryllium - and magnesium oxides;
- silicon -, boron -, titanium - and aluminium
The main advantage is their nitrides;
light weight, which ensures - silicon -, boron - and titanium carbides; A diesel-engine series for pleasure yachts with increasing
that the acceleration and - composites. power outputs from front to back.
deceleration forces of the
piston remain within their They are easily applied as a thin coating on , for All diesel engines are standard diesel engines and later modified
maximum limits. instance, piston rings. for use on ships. This is known as 'marinisation'.
162
CH 29 > USE O F M A T E R I A L S FOR D I E S E L E N G I N E S
29.9.2 Engines of 100 to 10,000 kW,

high- speed, four - stroke, fuel MDO:
category II, larger industrial diesel
engines
The greater the power output , the more often cast

iron is used for the block. In this case the crankshaft
is also manufactured with forged iron that ,
depending on the load, may or may not be alloyed.
The cylinder heads are usually manufactured with
cast iron . Pistons are often manufactured with light
metal.
The piston mass is very important with a high
number of revolutions, due to the acceleration and
deceleration forces working on the moving parts. The
lighter the piston mass, the lower the acceleration
and deceleration forces. A diesel engine with a large power output such as this
The piston of high - load , high -speed engines is often sixteen -cylinder MTU engine, which has high thermal- and
constructed from two components: the cast - iron mechanical loads has many high-alloyed parts in its
piston crown for the high thermal - and mechanical construction, for example, the crankshaft, the cylinder
loads, and the light - metal piston skirt enabling block and the exhaust valves.
a good piston conduction and absorption of the
lateral forces exerted on the piston by the crank and
connecting- rod mechanism . A high-speed Caterpillar
diesel engine for the
With a large power output , cylinder liners are of cast propulsion of an inland-
iron and water cooled . navigation tanker.
29.9.3 Engines of 500 to 30,000 kW,

medium- speed, four - stroke, fuel HFO:
category III, large industrial diesel
engines
Generally, these engines are highly powered and

are both mechanically and thermally highly loaded. A block of an in-line engine 1 engine block 5 bearing -cap bolts
HFO is also paramount in the decisions taken in , rotated 180° for the 2 crankpin 6 hydraulic nuts
3 counterweight 7 join t in ter face between
for instance, the choice of material for the exhaust mounting of the
4 lower bearing cap bearing cap and block
valves. underslung crankshaft.
The engine block is made of alloyed cast iron .
This is often nodular cast iron compounded with
magnesium creating a compound with a high tensile
strength.
Cylinder liners are made of special cast iron with

superior running properties and often have a
built - up upper collar for the absorption of the high
compression - and combustion pressures. The upper
collar contains bore- cooling and protrudes from
the engine block. This has the added advantage of
reducing the size and weight of the engine block.
163
The crankshaft is forged steel and as in all four-stroke

A cylinder liner with a built- engines ‘underslung’ The piston consists of a cast -
up upper collar with drilled- iron crown and a cast - iron skirt. Tri - metal bearings
out cooling ducts. are used for the crankshaft - and the crankpin
bearings. At present this is the case in virtually all
The liner is conserved after engines.
repair and partially wrapped to
prevent corrosion. The cylinder heads are made of cast iron or cast
steel. The exhaust valves in particular are heavily
loaded. Sodium and vanadium compounds in the
fuel can create a sticky deposit on the valve seat
and forms a very aggressive corrosive. This is called
high - temperature corrosion, HTC. Low- temperature
corrosion , LTC, is caused by sulphur in the fuel and
Assembling the forged- steel crankshaft must be done occurs at much lower temperatures, for instance, on
precisely and carefully. the cylinder liners at extremely low engine loads.
The engine block is rotated 180° for assembling the crankshaft Also see Chapter 8, Fuel , fuel - line systems and fuel
with bearings and bearing caps. cleaning.
Inlet valves are often made of high - quality carbon

steel. This certainly does not suffice for the exhaust
valves and therefore high - chromium steel with , for
example, a 8 to 12% chromium content and also
silicon is used.
The exhaust valve is often rewelded with so -called
armour steel, stellite. This is a very hard and wear-
resistant alloy containing chromium , tungsten ,
cobalt and carbon .
Sometimes the entire valve or the valve disc and
part of the valve stem are made of ‘Nimonac 80 A’,
an alloy with 80% nickel, chromium, titanium
and aluminium . This material is costly, but gives a
significant increase in the service life of the valve.
The exhaust- valve seat is ground.
To improve the resistance of exhaust valves against high-

Cylinder heads during maintenance at engine works temperature corrosion, they are often completely or partially
Bolier, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. manufactured with a high-alloyed steel type, Nimonac.
164
CH 29 > USE OF MATERIALS FOR DIESEL ENGINES
29.9.4 Engines of 1500 to 100,000 kW,

low- speed, two- stroke crosshead
engines, fuel HFO: category IV,
extremely large industrial diesel
engines
These are exceptionally large and heavy engines.

Today, they are the only engines that are constructed
from parts.
The cylinder head of a crosshead engine with in the

background the turbocharger.
The welded A -frame of a crosshead engine under

construction at MAN Diesel & Turbo .
A large number of these engines are built from The cylinder beam rests on the columns, which in
welded steel - plate constructions and a smaller larger crosshead - type engines consist of different
number from castings. parts bolted together.
The crankshaft of these large engines rests on Bedplates, columns and the cylinder beam are
the engine bedplate, a welded construction with linked by very long vertical, alloyed steel tension
incorporated crossbeams in which the forged - bolts, which run through the columns in bores. The
steel supports are integrated below the crankshaft bolts in the bores are fastened in some places with T
bearings. stay - bolts in order to prevent shearing vibrations Parts of crosshead engines
The A-shaped engine frame constructed from of the tie rods. These vibrations could cause cracks under construction.
welded steel plates is mounted on the bedplate. in the long term . These are, as in all other linkages,
The crosshead guides, used to convey the crosshead hydraulically pre-stressed . 1 forged crankshaft
and absorb the shearing forces of the crosshead , are 2 cylinder block with cylinder
liners and camshaft
welded or bolted against the columns of the A-frame. 3 crankshaft bedplate
The welded steel crankshaft bed of a crosshead engine; it is

of utmost importance that the crankshaft
is placed in line.
165
DIESEL E N G I N E S > B O O K I I I
The manufacture of a 1 camshaft 5 cylinder - head bolts

crosshead engine. 2 cylinder liners 6 exhaust-valve casing bolts
3 cylinder head 7 fuel injector
4 exhaust-valve casing
The scavenging- air space

around the cylinder liner The cylinder beams used to be made of cast iron . The pistons are made of forged steel or cast steel in
with the inlet ports. Today however, they are generally made of cast view of their high thermal and mechanical loads.
steel, which has superior mechanical properties.
A The bottom part of the cast - iron cylinder liners The piston rod , connecting rod and the crankshaft
Forged- steel connecting- is installed in the cylinder beam . The forged -steel are made of top quality malleable steel; special
rods with mounted cylinder heads are fixed to the cylinder beam by attention is paid to the crankshaft.
crankpin bearings and means of long bolts. For crosshead engines unalloyed carbon steel usually
crosshead-pin bearings for provides sufficient strength , which is in contrast to
a two-stroke crosshead The cooling of the cylinder liner and cylinder head engines with a higher load, such as medium - and
engine. occurs through drilled canals, known as ‘bore- high -speed engines.
cooling’.
The forged crankshaft,

manufactured in sections
and fixed together using
shrinkage joints.
1 crankshaft
2 crankweb
3 crankpin
4 weight economy
5 roundings
166
CH 29 > USE O F M A T E R I A L S FOR D I E S E L ENGINES
The mounted crosshead,

seen from above.
1 crosshead
2 guide shoes - four pieces
3 crosshead guides - four
pieces
4 location for the fixed piston-
rod; not mounted here
5 A-frame
6 step
A
The valve seat also has a
' Wave - cut' profile similar
Piston rings to the cylinder liner in a
These usually consist of fine - grained perlitic cast MAN B& W engine.
iron with flake graphite, which has excellent running
properties in the cast - iron cylinder liner.
The piston ring hardness lies between 2000 and
2400 N / mm 2 , hardness Brinell.
The cylinder liners are also made of perlitic cast iron
with flake graphite and therefore also have good
running properties. Often alloys are added in order
Lubrication here requires special attention . Unlike to improve wear and tear resistance. The hardness
four-stroke engines, two -stroke engines have no is considerably lower than that of the piston rings,
‘ rest’ revolution . Therefore the crosshead bearings namely 800 N / mm 2 , hardness Brinell.
are always subjected to great forces from the piston .
Without a lubricating-oil film , wear and tear of the Exhaust valve
bearings increases. All modern crosshead engines are equipped with
One of the measures taken to prevent premature one centrally placed , hydraulically controlled A series of exhaust valves
wear and tear at the boundary lubricating conditions exhaust valve. In large engines the valve diameter is manufactured from
is a surface treatment of the steel crosshead - pin . approximately 40 centimetres. Nimonac, a high- grade
Hard chromium plating, a grind or super- finishes are All material consists of a high - alloy type of steel material.
often applied . usually covered with a rewelded stellite layer.
Alloys such as Nimonac 80 A are also often used. The service life of these valves
Mso see Chapter 7, Driving gears. given by the factory is up to
96,000 hours!
A
The finished surface of a cylinder liner. Shown here is a
special finishing that deviates from the normal honing
cross-hatching, the 'ribbed' surface of diesel engines from
MAN B& W. Also called 'wave cut'.
167
Corrosion Protection
Running Layer
Intermediate Layer
Bearing Metal
Steel back
A A
The cast-iron exhaust-valve casing. The manufacture of a tri-metal bearing.
Most of the layers are very thin.
The exhaust - valve casing is made of high quality manufacturing unlike the previously used soft’
cast iron and is today the only remaining engine white - metal bearings.
component with cooling water ducting in the They generally consist of a steel bearing cap with a
casting. The remainder of the cooled components lead - bronze layer, a very thin nickel barrier and the
such as the cylinder liner, piston and the cylinder actual sliding material, a white metal. ‘The white
head are of course cooled using ‘bore - cooling’ metal is often primarily aluminium and tin in an
technology. 80% aluminium and 20% tin ratio. This material has
excellent properties, such as high fatigue strength
Bearing materials and good running properties. High loading can be
Due to the heavy load exerted on the bearings achieved with an aluminium alloy where either a
today, tri - metal typebearings are often used. These zinc or silicon element is added.
can bear high loads and do not require custom -
A complete exhaust
valve (1) and two spare
cylinder liners ( 2 ). Far left
cylinder-head bolts (3 ).
168
J
CH 29 > USE OF M A T E R I A L S FOR DIESEL ENGINES
A
The honing pattern on the running surface of a cylinder Shown is a very hard, wear - resistant layer sprayed on the
liner. valve stem, followed by very fine sandpapering.
29.10 Special finishes and heat After a certain glow’ time the work piece or the
treatments construction needs to be cooled slowly in order to
prevent development of new stresses.
29.10.1 Nitration
Application
Nitration is a thermal treatment in which the surface Welded -steel constructions in engines such as
layer of virtually all iron parts can be nitrogen bedplates, A - frames and air- inlet manifolds.
enriched at temperature ranges from 500 °C to Overhauled engine parts such as welded cylinder
600 °C. The nitrogen enrichment increases the covers, pistons and exhaust valves.
surface tensile strength , thus achieving a higher
corrosion and wear resistance as well as a higher 29.10.3 Surface hardening
oscillatory resistance.
The nitrate layer is a very thin outerlayer of some During this process, the parts are only heated and
thousandths of a millimetre ( micro millimetre ) with hardened at the surface resulting in only minor
a hardness of about 800 to 1200 N / mm 2 , hardness shape and size changes. Heating takes place by
Brinell. means of induction or with a gas jet, known as ‘flame
hardening’. The latter is sometimes applied when
Application overhauling small crankshafts. After grinding the
It is often applied in overhauling cylinder liners and valves to a smaller size, the ground surfaces must be
crankshafts. hardened .
There are many other surface treatments. Surface
29.10.2 Annealing hardening causes tensile stress on the surface, which
subsequently enables a higher load.
This occurs in temperature ranges of 450 °C to
650 °C. It reduces the internal stresses in the Application
constructions caused by the electric welding Crankshafts, piston pins and crosshead pins.
processes. Steel crankshafts of a 0.5 to 0.6% carbon content
are heated to approximately 720 °C and then
subsequently water cooled . The core of the
crankshaft remains fairly soft , but on the outside a
hard layer of approximately 0.9 to 2.0 mm is formed.
A cylinder cover in an electric oven for annealing.
The temperature and the timing of this treatment are very

/ important.
169
A chromed valve stem that is very wear- resistant and

resistant to chemical corrosion .
Forged- steel connecting

rods with above the 29.10.4 Applying surface layers Hard chromium plating or chromium hardening
crosshead and guide shoes; is the electrolytic plating of chromium on the
to the left and right; the Some engine components’ surfaces run either components. The plating is done with a chromium -
crosshead guides. continuously or discontinuously across another salt solution .
surface, such as:
1 A- frame 1 piston rings on the cylinder liner ; Plasma layer
2 step
2 the stuffing box on the connecting rod of two - A ceramic coating is applied to chromium - plated
3 crosshead guides
4 guide shoes
crosshead engines; parts such as the top piston rings. Ceramic has
5 crosshead 3 the bearings of crankshafts, camshafts and piston very good wear resistance properties under heavy
6 connecting rod pins. operating conditions.
Both the running - in of a piston in the cylinder liner,
Chromium as well as the great many operating hours that follow,
In order to make the surfaces harder and more show that the wear and tear of the cylinder liner and
wear resistant they are often furnished with a thin the rings is much lower.
chromium coating, which significantly increases
the operating life of the components. There are, for The rewelding of special material that has good
instance, chromium - plated piston rings, connecting corrosion and erosion resistance is called component
T rods and crosshead pins. cladding. This is mainly applied in combustion areas
This cylinder head is Chromium has also good resistance properties with with excessively high temperatures such as those
waiting outside for repair. respect to the corrosive substances in the combustion found in RTA- C Wartsila Sulzer crosshead engines.
products found on the piston rings. Furthermore, Here the material is attached to the inner wall of
The high-grade material is chromium has an extremely low friction coefficient the cylinder head in the direction of the fuel jet. In
clearly seen near the injector on the cast - iron cylinder liners. the latest designs the material temperature of the
nozzle; shown here a very cylinder head has been reduced to such an extent
strong welded layer of material that this surface treatment method is no longer
that is resistant to the high required.
temperature at the injector
nozzle.
Reconditioning the injector

nozzle by rewelding.
In a later phase, the liner is

machined resulting in the
original dimensions and the
injector nozzle is drilled out
and finished.
170
The honing of a cylinder

liner.
1 honing machine
2 cylinder liner
3 honing -stone holder
4 honing stone
5 drive shaft
6 oil supply
7 clamping strips
29.10.5 Grinding, polishing and lapping

A worn cylinder liner after
Grinding, polishing and lapping are standard thousands of operating
expressions used in the finishing of metal surfaces. hours.
They are general terms which give an impression of
the surface finishes. However, they do not provide a Stop shoulder for the upper
surface- roughness value. piston ring is clearly visible.
A ground and polished crankshaft journal can have
1 worn part of the cylinder liner
a very smooth surface.
with still visible honing cross-
Polishing is usually a finish which removes the final hatching
roughness. 2 wear edge
Lapping involves the use of two surfaces, which are reciprocating piston . The honing crosshatch pattern 3 non -worn part of the cylinder
rubbed together such as seal surfaces of the different is used to retain a certain amount of lubricating oil, liner with incrustation
4 vertical scratches in cylinder
parts of a fuel atomiser. which reduces the wear and tear of piston rings,
liner caused by damage, dirt
piston and liner. or metal particles (catfnes )
29.10.6 Honing Honing is done with a pivoting shaft - head on
which four honing stones are held under pressure
This surface finish is applied to the running surface against the cylinder liner using springs. With a
of cylinder liners in various engines. The objective specified pressure, peripheral speed and longitudinal
of honing is to improve the running surface for the movement of the liner, a rough kind of crosshatch
pattern is applied to the liner in which the scratches
are at an angle of about 60°. There are a great many
Honing. types of honing stones with a specified roughness.
The honing oil that is used is also important. Honing
The use of the correct honing stones, turning tension on the stones, pressure, speed and the process length are
stones, the number of revolutions and the horizontal movement crucial in order to achieve optimum results.
of the stones through the liner are important points in this
process. The choice of honing oil also plays a role.
With good honing cross-

hatching, the scratches
have an angle of roughly
50° tot 60°.
171
29.11 Examples of modern material

A honing machine with usage
rotating and forward and
backward movements. Competition in the engine - building industry
Both are adjustable. is fierce. Customers’ requirements are always
increasing therefore engine designers ( Research
and Development ) are continually looking for
materials that have better resistance to the thermal
and mechanical loads and the effects of aggressive
compounds.
29.11.1 Example 1:
Design requirements for Wartsila
Plateau honing Sulzer RTA- C crosshead engines,
This type of processing is used by some engine fuel HFO, engine category IV
manufacturers and reconditioning companies. It
takes place in two steps, namely pre - honing and fine-
honing. Construction
With pre - honing, coarse- grained honing stones - stiff frame.
are used resulting in a surface roughness of 8 to - gondola - type engine bedplate.
10 microns. - cast - iron cylinder blocks.

With fine- honing, fine - grained honing stones are
used and the roughness ‘peaks’ are ground off. Peaks Bearings
with finer structured profiles are obtained between - lower crankshaft bearing: thin white - metal
the deeper scratches from the pre- honing. bearings.
Using this method , the bearing capacity of - upper crankshaft bearing: thick, cast , white - metal
a cylinder- liner achieves the same level as bearings.
conventionally- honed cylinder liners after very few - crosshead bearings: thin white- metal bearings.
operating hours.
Simply put: plateau honing reduces the running - in Combustion chambers
time. This process also reduces the lubricating- oil - special forged steel with high resistance to
consumption without having a negative effect on the corrosion fatigue.
lubrication . - rewelding cylinder cover with heat resistant
material at the fuel nozzle tips to prevent burning.
Piston
- forged -steel piston crown with chromium - plated
Surface Condition piston - ring grooves.
Plateau honing.
Ra = 0.32 Ra = 2.83 Ra = 1.09
Rmax = 3.8 Rmax 25.2
“
Rmax = 10.2 Liner
Figure 1 : Shows an almost Mr = 97% Mr = 15% Mr = 71% - cylinder liner with high wear-and -tear resistant ,
smooth worn cylinder liner. + rigid cast iron.
This is known as 'glazing.' - honed cylinder liner.
Figure 2: the surface profile - piston rings with a plasma coating.
after a standard honing T
process. The surface is still Furthermore, all measures are taken to planish /
quite rough with deep grooves smooth bore the combustion room, as summed up
and high peaks. in the so - called ‘Tribo- pack concept’. This entails
Figure 3: the surface profile the following:
after plateau-honing. Very fine - isolated bore - cooling holes throughout the
-L I1
honing stones remove the combustion space in piston , cylinder liner and
high peaks resulting in a flat cylinder head;
running surface for the piston
rings.
+ m
Fig. 1
- multilevel cylinder lubrication ;
- mid - stroke cylinder -liner insulation ;
- a ‘deeply’ honed liner;
172
CH 29 > USE O F M A T E R I A L S F O R D I E S E L ENGINES
Liner Anti- polishing

insulation
fi
ring
r
Cr- ceramic o °c 7V
Multilevel pre- profiled
lubrication top piston
300
400
m
Lower rings 500
Mid- stroke pre- profiled
insulation and RC-coated
300 -
200
Thick
Liner fully chromium
deep- honed layer
TDC-
Top Ring
0 °C
Eight improvements in the combustion space of a Wartsila 100
Sulzer RTA 84 crosshead engine. 200
100 200 300 °C
- an anti - polishing ring, which prevents 29.11.2 Example 2:

combustion residues from settling in the ring Wartsila four - stroke engines, The material temperatures
packing; medium- speed, fuel HFO, engine in an improved combustion
a chromium - and ceramic - treated pre - profiled category III space of a Wartsila Sulzer
top piston - ring; RTA 84 crosshead engine.

applying a thin run - in layer to the other piston Wartsila has a programme with cylinder diameters of
rings; 20, 26, 31, 32, 38, 46 and 50 centimetres for this type Lower material temperatures
thick chromium - coated piston - ring grooves to of engine. The latter is also the largest four-stroke essentially means a lower load
prevent pitting and wear and tear. engine presently available in the market. on the parts around the
cylinder.
To designers the following elements are essential:
- reliability ;
- low user costs;
- low exhaust - gas emissions;
- simple installation at low cost;
- applied mounting methods need to be reliable;
- low, simple maintenance.
Power range for Wartsila medium-speed engines

DIESEL ENGINES The different cylinder
T
W 20 800-1,800 kW diameters of four- stroke
W 26 2,040- 5,440 kW diesel engines from
W 31 4,880-9,760 kW Wartsila.
W 32 3,660-8,960 kW
In 2015 a new engine type was
W 38 -
4,350 11,600 kW
T launched on the market
W 46F 7,200- 19,200 kW
by Wartsila, the Wartsila 31
DUAL-FUEL ENGINES
engine available in three
W 20DF |1 110 1,665 kW
, -
i alternative versions; diesel,

W 31DF 4,400-8,800 kW
dual -fuel and gas.
W 34DF 3,000-8,000 kW
The Wartsila 64 has been taken
W 46DF 6,870-18,320 kW
I off the market.
W 50DF 5,700-17,100 kW
I
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
173
D I E S E L ENGINES > BOOK III
Engine block The crankshafts are fabricated from high - quality

All lubricating- oil and cooling- water ducting is forged steel. The crankpin and the crankshaft are
integrated in the engine block, which results in case - hardened and subsequently very finely ground .
compact and safe operating-systems. The camshafts
have also been fully incorporated in the block which The crankshaft and crankpin bearings are
creates a very solid entity. manufactured from a tri - metal type using an
The engine block is made from special nodular cast aluminium / tin or antimonium / tin basis and work
iron , which is very strong and rigid and especially according to the ‘Thick- pad bearing’ principle.
suitable for casting complicated forms. The cylinder liner is made of fine, perlitic cast iron
with high wear resistance and excellent running
Crankshaft and crankshaft bearings properties.
Crankshafts are increasingly heavily loaded. When The thick high - collar type cylinder liner is very stiff
increasing the cylinder capacity, the pressure in the and therefore distortion is minimal. The collar has
cylinder rises, which results in higher forces on the bore - cooling for an optimum liner temperature. The
crankshaft. This means the size of the crankshaft and antipolishing ring prevents carbon particles from
the bearings must be increased. An optimum design ending up between the piston and cylinder liner,
of the crankshaft , such as a reduction of the cylinder which diminishes the wear and tear of these parts
centre radius and expansion of the bearing surface, considerably.
reduces the surface pressure in the bearings.
Cross- section of a cylinder

liner with bore- cooling in
©
the thickened upper collar
and an antipolishing ring
(1).
A cast- iron engine block of an in-line engine after

machining.
A crankshaft of a V- engine. A cylinder liner with a

thickened upper collar,
Note the two lubricating-oil holes in the crankpin for both shown in the partial
connecting rods. Crankshaft reconditioning at Mark van Schaick, cutaway. The antipolishing
Schiedam, The Netherlands. ring is visible.
CH 29 > USE O F M A T E R I A L S FOR D I E S E L ENGINES
Cylinder head
All modern cylinder heads have four valves: two
inlet valves and two exhaust valves. This allows for
the gas exchange to take place swiftly and completely.
The cylinder head is usually affixed with four
cylinder - head bolts.
The head is manufactured from special cast steel,
very stiff and heat resistant.
The supply of combustion air, the discharge of
exhaust gases and the supply and discharge of
cooling water takes place via nodular cast - iron
‘multi - ducts’, which remain in place when the
A modern cylinder head with four valves. cylinder head is dismantled.
Pistons
Throughout the years the thermal - and mechanical
load on the pistons has increased. Therefore all
pistons consist of two parts:
1 a cast-steel piston crown which contains the ring
packing. This has good resistance against the high
thermal and mechanical loads. This material has
good resistance against pitting of the piston rings
in the piston - ring grooves.
2 a nodular cast - iron piston skirt for guiding the
piston and absorbing the lateral forces caused
by the connecting- rod mechanism. The nodular
cast iron has a very low expansion coefficient and
retains sufficient tensile strength at high operating
temperatures.
Piston rings
A mounted piston with a cast steel piston crown and cast-
- A three- piston ring design has been made for the
iron piston skirt. sealing package. These are made of fine, perlitic cast
iron and both sealing rings are chromium plated.
Note the gaps for the valves in the piston crown for exhaust-gas The upper ring also has an extra plasma coating
scavenging. resulting in high wear and tear resistance.
29.11.3 Example 3:
Anti- polishing Four- stroke high- speed engines with
ring
high capacity at a relatively high
Water -distribution speed, fuel MDO, engine category II
ring
Chrome-ceramic
Marine engines of this type are always subdivided
piston ring
into two types:
Pressurised skirt
lubrication
1 High output, often used in the military services.
Additional characteristics are: complex designs,
Nodular iron skirt,
low- friction design few operating hours between big overhauls, costly
components, high effective mean pressures and a
low weight in relation to the output.
The piston rings as shown here are chromed and the top
ring has an extra ceramic layer.
175
Characteristics
A modern diesel engine, Blocks of cast iron, with integrated cooling- water
manufacturer Caterpillar. and lubricating- oil ducts. Nodular cast iron is often
used.
- An underslung alloyed forged - iron crankshaft
with tri - metal bearings.

- Cast fine perlitic cylinder liners.
- Light - metal cast pieces for pistons, covers, inlet
manifolds and other engine parts. This creates a

considerable weight reduction.
- Weight in general plays an important role in these
engines in that they are often used in relatively

light ships, such as catamarans, high -speed single -
2 Engines for heavy-operating conditions, such hull ships and mobile gensets.
as earth - moving equipment , gensets and other - Many V- engines of this type are built; the size is
gear- driven devices. Characteristics are a simple limited in relation to the power output.
and robust design with normal mean effective - Pistons often consist of two parts: a cast - steel
pressures and a fairly high weight in relation to piston crown and a light - metal piston skirt .
the output. - Cylinder heads are made with cast iron and
contain four valves.

The demand for the somewhat smaller high -speed
diesel engines for propulsion and other gear drives Further technical details in this type of engine are:
has resulted in designs that can be easily integrated - high mean effective pressures > 25 bar;
in high - volume serial production lines. The - high rpm up to 2100 per minute;
T following manufacturers are market leaders in the - high mean piston speeds up to 12 m / s;
A high- speed heavy loaded manufacturing of engines with a cylinder bore of - high power output per litre stroke volume;
twenty- cylinder V- engine about 170 mm: - combustion pressures up to 200 bar ;
for propelling a fast Caterpillar, Cummins, Deutz MWM , GMT, Isotta - power output / weight ratio high;
catamaran . Franchini , GE Jenbacher, MAN Diesel & Turbo, - state - of - the- art fuel - injection systems;
Perkins, Mitsubishi, MTU, MTU / DDC, Niigata, - high air charging with turbocharger groups up to
The engine rooms have been Paxman , SEMT Pielstick, Wartsila and others. 4 bar;
placed in both pontoons. The All manufacturers produce high -speed engine types. - optimised coolant temperature at varying loads;
fuel is diesel oil. Power output - improved lubricating - oil cooling for the piston .
and weight play an important

role. The operating speed of
this catamaran is 37.5 knots.
Two diesel gensets on board a container- feeder with a

Scania diesel engine.
176
29.11.4 Example 4: Steel is often alloyed with chromium and

Smaller engines actually in engine molybdenum.
category 1: 0 tot 100 kW, but also The journals are often hardened by means of
higher in capacity, high- speed, four - nitration . Flame hardening is also applied.
stroke, MDO
Also see Chapter 31, Reconditioning engines and then-
These engines are used for a large number of parts.
applications, such as the propulsion of smaller ships,
gensets, pumps and traction. A noticeable difference Timing belts ( also known as toothed-, notch- or
is that in general, many light metals are used. The cog belts )
main metal is aluminium alloys. These are increasingly used in this engine category.
Properties of light metal They require no heavy cog wheels between the
- low crystal density crankshaft and the camshaft. However, they must be
- good heat conduction replaced after a certain operating time.
- good corrosive properties
many machining capabilities and especially low Bearings
weight Usually hard steel tri - metal sleeve bearings are
used. The friction metal most frequently used is an
Cylinder heads can also be made of light metal, but aluminium alloy.
of course cast iron is also often used.
Generally, crankshafts are made of malleable steel,
although cast crankshafts still exist, especially in
older type engines.
A modern high- speed four-

stroke diesel engine in
V- form (manufacturer MTU)
ready to be placed in an
inland navigation tanker.
These fairly large ships with

a cargo capacity from 2000
to 4000 tons usually have
two propulsion engines.
In view of the strict emission

requirements; all inland vessels
run on diesel oil.
A Caterpillar high- speed

four- stroke diesel engine
with twelve cylinders in
V- form.
1 air filter
2 turbocharger ( not visible,
behind filter )
3 compressed air to intercooler
4 intercooler
5 cylinder head
6 control console
7 lubricating -oil filter
8 lubricating -oil cooler
177
Category Mahle 105 Mahle 109 Mahle 120 Mahle 121 Mahle 147 Mahle 226
Composition (%)
Si 4.5 - 6.0 9.0 - 10.0 10.3 - 13.5 10.3 - 13.5 16.0 - 18.0 7,5 - 9,5
Mg 0.5 - 0.8 0.2 - 0.4 0.06 - 0.12 0.1 - 0.3 0.4 - 0.7 < 0,3
Cu < 0.03 < 0.01 < 0.1 ± 0.1 4.0 - 5.0 2,5 - 3,5
Fe < 0.4 < 0.4 < 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.7 < 1,3
Mn < 0.5 < 0.4 < 0,5
Zn < 0,7
Al rest rest rest rest rest rest
Tensile strength
< 260 < 260 < 140 < 145 < 200 240 - 310
Rm (N/mm2)
Yield strength
< 240 < 200 < 67 < 80 < 160 160 - 240
Ro 0,2 ( N/ mm2)
Stretching at breaking
<1 <4 <5 < 3.5 < 0.5 0.5 - 3
load A (%)
Brinell hardness
< 90 < 80 48 - 60 50 - 70 90 - 120 80 - 110
(HB 2,5 /62,5)
Properties Rust proof; Rust proof; Ductile, rust proof, Ductile, rust proof, high wear and tear Die cast alloy for
and Alfin-cooling fin cylinder block of not heat cured; not heat cured resistance; cylinder cooling fin, cylinder-
applications cylinder water - cooled ship motor-car wheel rims without motor-car running surface -
engines wheel rims protection
SILUMAL- cylinder
A table for the light-metal blocks for diesel engines. The

main component is aluminium.
A Deutz high- speed
The table shows an aluminium cast alloy for cylinder blocks for propulsion engine for a
water- cooled marine engines, Mahle 109. small dredging craft.
9 to 10% silicon and 0.2 to 0.4% magnesium have been added.
The table also shows the aluminium alloy Mahle 147, which is In the foreground the gear box
applied to unprotected bores in cylinder blocks without separate for the propeller.
cylinder liners.
This material is highly wear-resistant due to the alloys:
silicon: 16 to 18%
magnesium: 0.4 to 0.7%
copper: 4.0 to 5.0%
A sixteen-cylinder high-
speed V-engine, make
Mitsubishi.
1 turbocharger
2 intercooler
3 cylinder head
4 block fuel pump
5 fuel filters
6 speed controller / governor
7 high -pressure fuel lines
8 lubricating - oil filters
9 engine supports
Io safety switch for lubricating -
oil level in sump
I I emergency stop
178
The mechanical load of engine parts is very

high. Also the use of heavy fuel increases
wear and tear of the parts.
An injector nozzle with

carbon deposits will lower
the injection quality.
Mechanical damage of the

cylinder head. A part of the
piston crown gets stuck in
the bore of the fuel injector.
The cylinder head is made of
nodulair cast iron.
The same cylinder.

The damaged piston with
the broken part of the
piston crown.
The piston crown is made
of forged steel.
The stuffing box of a

two-stroke crosshead engine.
Deposits of heavy fuel can

cause problems for the
stuffing box parts.
179
Casting, forging and welding
engine parts
30.1 Introduction 182 30.12 Checking for air inclusions and damage 194
30.2 Cast-iron parts for diesel engines 182 30.13 Dimensional checks 194
30.3 Advantages of cast engine -parts 183 30.14 Operations at the machining factory 795
30.4 Foundries 183 30.15 Forging crankshafts 201
30.5 Casting process 183 30.16 Forging gear parts for two- stroke crosshead engines 208
30.6 Casting location 187 30.17 Building a two -stroke crosshead engine A -frame 216
30.7 Moulds 187 30.18 Forging crankshafts, 2009 report 279
30.8 Filling the casting dies 187 30.19 Manufacturing pistons 234
30.9 Mould assembly 188 30.20 Manufacture of inlet and outlet valves 243
30.10 Cleaning the castings 193 30.21 Manufacturing cylinder liners 255
30.11 Costing stresses 194
A cast for a very large MAN four -stroke
V- engine, category III being hoisted out of
the casting pit. There is still a long road ahead
before this unfinished block is ready for the
assembly of the engine!
30.1 Introduction 30.2 Cast - iron parts for diesel

engines
From the very first trials with Otto- and Diesel -
engines, most parts, such as the cylinder block, the 1 Engine blocks
cylinder head and various other components, were These have been cast from the very beginning
made of cast iron. of the engine industry. Only in large two -stroke
This was a common manufacturing method in the crosshead engines, are the bottom half of the
middle of the nineteenth century. One hundred years crankcase and the A - frame manufactured from
earlier, steam engines were produced in a similar welded steel plates.
fashion from cast iron . In the past , this was also the case for two -stroke
Casting was already a common craft around 1750 for engines from Brons and Bolnes. All four- stroke
weapons, such as cannons! engines have as a rule, a cast engine block.
Many of the present foundries that manufacture
engine parts have a very long history, which often 2 Cylinder heads
goes back centuries. Customarily, these are cast .
The Caterpillar MaK

foundry, at Kiel, Germany.
T
The MAN Diesel AG foundry
at Augsburg, Germany.
182
CH30 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G AND WELDING ENGINE PARTS
3 Pistons
Many pistons are still cast . Moreover, pistons that
consist of two parts often have a cast - piston skirt.
4 Other components
Components such as the air- intake ducts,
integrated pumps, oil sumps, rocker arms,
air coolers, and governor seats are frequently
cast.
5 Gears
Due to ever - increasing interaction forces in the
engine, fewer connecting rods and crankshafts
are manufactured from cast iron . These cast - iron
parts are now only found in small, often older
engines.
30.3 Advantages of cast The topside of an electric

engine - parts oven. The liquid cast iron is
visible; temperatures are
Often engine parts such as the block and the cylinder reached between 1000 °C
head have a very complex shape. At present , the air and 1050 °C.
supply to the cylinders and the lubricating- oil supply
lines are placed inside these parts whenever possible.
Both the block and cylinder head have shapes that
are difficult to manufacture by welding steel plates.
For material properties, see Chapter 29, Use of

materials for diesel engines.
30.4 Foundries
Many engine manufacturers have their own foundry,

such as that at MAN Diesel AG in Augsburg,
Germany, where most of the photographic material High- tensile scrap iron, such as waste steel from the
in this chapter was taken. manufacture of beams, profiles and/or metal sheeting used
There are foundries that not only cast engine for ship manufacture is used as a base material for cast iron.
parts for engine manufacturers, but also for other
industries. Waste from the thin metal sheeting used in the auto- industry is
The very large shipyards in the Far East often also used. Every foundry has its own preferences. Some waste -
build complete ships and manufacture all the casts sheeting materials contain undesirable substances, such as
for their four-stroke- and two - stroke engines on copper.
location.
Parts that are forged, such as crankshafts, connecting
rods, pistons and cylinder heads ( two -stroke ) are
also manufactured on location.
30.5 Casting process

The steel liquefies at a temperature of approximately
In a smelting furnace, often an induction oven, 1050 °C. For every type of cast iron , a different raw -
relatively clean waste metals, such as steel used for material composition is required.
shipbuilding and metal sheeting used in the auto- Removal of impurities from the molten steel is of the
industry, are melted with the required alloys. utmost importance.
183
J
The smelting furnace at

MAN Diesel AG, Augsburg,
Germany. Shown here, just
before casting ladles are
filled.
The moment that a fully loaded oven reaches the

required temperature, the molten cast iron is kept
at this temperature and immediately distributed
equally over a number of large casting ladles; this is
dependent on the size and number of the casts.
The casting ladles are insulated against the very Transporting a casting ladle using an overhead crane
hot liquid cast iron ; this is done using special heat through the casting hall. Prepared mould-cast assemblies
resistant firebricks. These casting ladles are moved ready for casting are in various places.
through the casting hall to every casting location
with an overhead crane.
30.5.1 Casting moulds, the principle
T
Removing the slag from the smelting process.
All impurities that float to the surface are removed with a special
rake.
Adding alloys.
Special alloys are added during the filling of the crucibles to

improve the properties of cast iron. MAN B & W, Frederikshavn,
Denmark (2009).
184
CH30 > C A S T I N G , FORGING A N D WELDING E N G I N E PARTS
The casting ladle. A series of assemblies ready for casting.
Several ladles filled from the furnace are used to fill all the The assemblies are ready to be filled via the funnels on the left .
assemblies at once. The vent tubes can be seen to the right in the middle of the
picture.
A
The principle of casting with a horizontally partitioned
setup.
A The core like the surface consists of cured casting sand.

A cured mould consisting of two parts of a cylinder. Top right, the air can escape while to the left the cast is being
filled.
185
o fN
LO o o O
CO o Ln cr> ''f
Q Q Q S Q Q
< z
Mould Core boxes Runner pattern
1. Drawing 2. Moulds
weight
vent for air
and gases
Flask Filling sand

pouring basin riser
break out
m casting pin
or saw here
Moulding board Moulding sand

handle
parting line core
3. Model in moulding box 4. Mould ready for casting 5 . Rough cast

A
The manufacturing principle for casting.
1 The drawing of a to be cast coupling flange.

2 A wood model of the sand mould:
- the core box to make the runner;
7
3
- a model for both channels in the cope so that the sand mould
can be manufactured.
The sand mould is made in a moulding box.
t
6 I 1
6
4 The casting assembly ready for casting. 5

5 The raw casting before machining, the two channels are often JEL
removed manually.
m 4 „ CL
5
An assembly principle for casting an engine block without
paying too much attention to details.
1 free space in the casting basement

5 -
2 1 3 3 1 2
2 foundation casting hall
3 steel casting cabinet
4 support under / next to cast
5 liquid cast iron feed
6 risers/ air duct
7 hardened casting sand 4 4
8 machined surfaces I
186
CH 30 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
A mould-casting assembly
in a casting pit. The square
openings are casting
mouths so that this large
engine block can be filled
quickly.
30.6 Casting location 30.8 Filling the casting dies
Large casts, such as engine blocks are cast in the Small complex moulds are made by hand . The
floor of a casting pit. Square steel moulds on the casting dies are filled by hand with casting sand and
floor, built up in layers are used for smaller casts. intermittently compacted ( stamped down’) and
re - filled . When the die has been completely filled , the
casting sand is left to harden so that it can be used
30.7 Moulds under normal operating conditions.
Casting dies are partitioned in different ways so that
Throughout the centuries, casting has used moulds they can be taken apart easily.
manufactured from casting sand and a special Larger moulds are filled using filling machines that
substance that ensures that the complex and vibrate and therefore compact the casting sand at the
sometimes very thin shapes harden so that they can same time.
be transported either manually or by using a crane.
Casting dies are necessary so that the moulds can be
manufactured. These used to be made of wood but
are now manufactured from wood as well as plastics.
The manual process for manufacture of smaller moulds for

engine parts.
A mould- casting assembly in a moulding box. In order to Moulding sand is often used as a base material. There are two
take shrinkage of the cast iron into account during cooling, categories: clay-bound sand for small castings or chemically
a part of the funnel is also filled with the liquid cast iron. bound sand for large castings.
187
Filling machines for the

larger moulds.
In order to ensure that the

casting sand completely fills
the moulds, the casting sand is
'stamped down'.
Shown here are partitioned

wooden casting dies.
30.9 Mould assembly
.
30.9 1 Engine blocks
1 Almost all the space in the block must be filled It is therefore necessary to have large casting
with the prepared moulds, not only inside the openings, so that the molten iron can be poured
block but also on the outside. swiftly, filling the mould from ‘ below’, while the
2 Most blocks are cast in a square casting pit built air moves rapidly upwards!
into the work floor or in large steel moulding 4 It is also of the utmost importance that there
boxes. The space between the floor, sides and the are no air inclusions in the casting! This can be
top of the block must also be filled with moulds. detrimental , especially near the crankshaft , where
3 In order to obtain a uniform material structure, very large loads occur. This often results in the
casting must take place fast. The largest four- rejection of the block and consequently the loss of
stroke engine blocks are cast in 100 seconds. 100,000.00, the production costs!
The weight of the cast - iron block is 100 tonnes.
A casting speed of 1 ton per second!
Casting moulds for the

upper part of the engine
block, here the two cylinder
blocks are fitted after
casting and removal of the
casting sand.
188
One must ensure that the

construction for large
mould-casting assemblies
does not 'float' This is
prevented by the use of
heavy weights in large
mould-casting assemblies
and screwed bars for the
smaller moulding boxes.
Engine blocks for ABC

in- line engines ready for
machining.
The engines blocks are

cleaned after casting, finished
and ready for machining.
The blocks are paint- coated
in order to reveal potential
irregularities. White marks
indicate the areas where
measurements ought to be
taken prior to machining.
Part of the engine block in a

sand mould, ready to be
placed in the casting pit.
Air ducting for venting is
clearly shown in the
location where the
crankshaft will later be
mounted.
189
Casting moulds as part

of the cylinder heads.
The casting sand is
hardened by adding
binding agents allowing all
the casting moulds to be
prepared in a single casting
arrangement
All that remains of the sand in

a casting arrangement after
casting is open space: air!
A series of casting dies, suspended by hoists. They will later Casting. The caster is completely protected from liquid
be used to build the complete cast. cast -iron spatters.
30.9.2 Smaller parts, such as cylinder heads
Exactly the same procedure is followed for these and

similar parts, albeit less complicated in scope and
process.
The upper lid is still to be placed on this mould-casting

assembly. Before casting, every cast follows a very precise
procedure. Rejection of the cast is expensive.
190
J
CH30 > C A S T I N G , FORGING A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
30.9.3 Serial production
The lower crankshaft - bearing caps are cast in one die

containing, for instance, six pieces.
Castings ready to be filled with liquid cast iron at

1300 degrees Celsius.
Smaller engine parts are mostly cast in series. Left the funnel; the
stoppers are installed to prevent pollution of the casting.
The pipes on the right allow the air to escape. Also shrinkage
can be compensated by the iron in these pipes.
Part of a four stroke engine

after casting. Note the
razor- sharp edges created
by the clearances between
the various sand moulds.
Cylinder heads for

four- stroke engines
immediately after casting.
The superfluous material must

be removed so that
measurements can be taken in
order to ensure that the

component will have the
proper dimensions after the
various machining processes.
191
After casting, the casts must be allowed to cool for applied by immersion ( small moulds ) or lubrication
several days. Casts must not cool too quickly as they ( large moulds).
can crack. After dismantling the mould - casting assembly, the
Outside the casting pit or moulding boxes, small now black casting sand is collected , cleaned , and
flames can be seen for days on the coatings that are reused.
Unfinished engine parts

after casting.
Casting engine
components in series.
A V-engine block ready for

finishing.
192
CH30 > C A S T I N G , FORGING A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
30.10 Cleaning the castings
As shown in the images, casts must undergo various

processes before being machined at a different
location.
Procedure
- An initial superficial inspection is performed
to determine whether the casting has been
successful.
- The casting sand is removed .
- Protruding ‘icicles and ice sheets’, remnants of
molten iron that has flowed out of the splits and
air-vent drillings are removed by hand using
hammers, chisels and grinding stones.
A
'Icicles and ice sheets'. The
Finishing the cast, removal of all prominences
a seven-cylinder in-line is heavy and dirty work
engine block. requiring a great deal of
experience.
A cylinder head being finished. This is done with pick Just cast. The liquid cast
hammers, chisels and for the final finish, grinding stones iron is visible in the pouring
and brushes. basins. The non-stick
coating is on fire in some
places.
The block is then de- burred using de - burring discs

until all the sharp edges and protuberances have
been removed. The block is then ‘preserved’ ( cast
iron scarcely rusts ) with a coating of varnish or paint .
193
30.11 Casting stresses 30.13 Dimensional checks
Some engine manufacturers place their cast engine It is of utmost importance that the final engine block
blocks in storage for many months. In doing so, the can be machined from the roughcast block.
stresses formed during casting decrease. On the other hand , if too much material must be
At the Wartsila factory in Vaasa, Finland, they place removed, this can be expensive due to the extra
the cast blocks for the W 20 engine outside in the machining hours required .
snow during the winter months to reduce material Engine blocks delivered to customers are
stresses. re - measured on location to guarantee that they have
the correct dimensions.
30.12 Checking for air inclusions

and damage
This is carried out before machining, if possible. Of

course, certain discrepancies are more serious.
A finished and painted

casting, a block for a
V-engine. The block is
measured before
machining.
T
A block for a large V- engine, cleaned, painted, measured
and ready for machining.
Ultrasonic inspection at a location where the engine will be

heavily loaded, specifically around the crankshaft.
30.14 Operations at the machining

factory Before a cast is machined, it
is inspected for damage,
With a minimum removal of material, that is, shown here at the edge of
material that falls outside the dimensions’, the the oil sump, serious or not.
requisite part is manufactured from the roughcast at
the machining factory.
A rule of thumb: 15% of the cast material must be
removed before the part is ready for use.
Moreover, it is of utmost importance that no air
or other impurities are incorporated . The modern
heavily loaded parts, such as the engine block, can be
rejected for these inclusions.
An in- line- and a V-block

in storage before
machining at Wartsila,
Zwolle, The Netherlands
(2004).
An unfinished in- line

engine block is being
aligned on the processing
machine. Shown here, at
Caterpillar MaK, Kiel,
Germany.
195
CH30 > CASTING, FORGING A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
Moulds in storage with, amongst others, an engine block in

the centre left of the photo.
Wooden casting moulds with inside, the casting sand.

Note the casting- sand finish on the upper surface.
T
Working on unfinished four- stroke engine blocks at
MAN Diesel AG, Augsburg, Germany .
Engine blocks for in- line and V-engines.
They are finished, cleaned, re- measured and ready for
machining at Wartsila in Zwolle, The Netherlands ( 2004).
Line boring the crankshaft of a Caterpillar MaK in- line

engine at Kiel, Germany.
Firstly, the bearing caps are hydraulically fixed at the
normal pre -load.
Afterwards, the boring for all the crankshaft bearings is
completed in one operation.
A machine for machining engine blocks.

Washing in the washing machine is an important process executed before the block is
re- measured and assembled. All impurities, such as filings and other material, must be
removed.
Shown here, the block is placed on a trolley- cart.
Many washing machines now have a horizontal turning shaft with a flange to which the
engine flange can be bolted.
This means that the block can rotate through 360°, and so gravity assists in material
removal.
A final inspection is performed.
Using special tools and mirrors, the very last and minute particles can be removed.
Leaving any material in the block can cause major damage to an engine!
The new washing machine for cleaning machined engines

for Caterpillar Mak at Kiel, Germany.
All blocks of this Caterpillar Mak series can be placed in these

pivoting frames.
Gravity assists the cleaning process by allowing the block to
The construction of a four- stroke medium- speed V- engine rotate slowly in the wash street in the background. This facilitates
at MAN Diesel AS in Frederikshavn, Denmark. easy and complete removal of all the machining material from
the block .
After carefully cleaning the engine, it is extremely important that Cleaning and rotation is completely automatic. The cleaning fluid
dirt does not enter the engine during its assembly. is filtered and reused.
Clean and cover with plastic wrap. It is of paramount importance
that parts are inspected before assembly! (2010)
CH30 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G AN D WELDING ENGIN E PARTS
30.15 Forging crankshafts
30.15.1 Introduction
Crankshafts are the most heavily loaded parts in

diesel engines, subjected to torsional and bending
stresses. Crankshaft manufacturing must meet high
requirements due to the fluctuating loads on every
crank.
The forces on the crankshaft are impressive. Even on
the smallest Category I engines, there are forces of
hundreds of Newton being exerted on the crankpin
during combustion.
The combustion forces exerted on the piston and
consequently the crankshaft vary from 0.5 tons
up to as much as 1,100 tons in the various engine
categories!
Manufacturing the largest crankshafts for

medium - speed diesel engines, category III is very
Deburring of forgings. expensive.
The upper and lower dies specific to this crankshaft are placed on The crankshaft is forged from a solid piece of the
a heavy hydraulic press. approved material. Large crankshafts are forged per
The shaft is pressed into the dies with huge forces of thousands of crank. This is called ‘throw by throw’ or ‘Continuous
tons; the result is the rough crankshaft. Grain Flow’, as opposed to the manufacturing of
1 the forging smaller crankshafts, which are forged ‘in one throw’.
2 the cutting plate This is called closed die forging and is also a
3 the stamp ‘continuous grain flow’ method . This is followed
4 hydraulic press
by very meticulous machining and the shaft must
ultimately be approved by a Classification agency.
T
Roughly forged crankshafts stored outside before
machining. Every crankshaft undergoes approximately
45 machining steps. T
A large used crankshaft for a four- stroke in-line engine
The total production time from rough rod form to a ready too at Mark van Schaick, Schiedam, The Netherlands for
assemble crankshaft is on average six months. reconditioning.
201
1
In the crankshaft factory of Alfing Kessler, Aalen, Germany . A number of steel alloys with a certain tensile
strength can be considered .
In the foreground; the steel shafts, which after heating in an oven
are stamped in a hydraulic press to form the rough crankshaft. 30.15.4 Manufacturing crankshafts
Also in the picture, a number of crankshafts ready for inspection.
i They will be subsequently machined to the correct dimensions. Casting
Small lightly loaded crankshafts are often cast , for
instance, air- cooling and industrial air compressors
and small lightly loaded engines in Category I.
The liquid material is poured into moulds, where
it immediately assumes the rough shape of the
required crankshaft.
30.15.2 Crankshafts requirements The final shape is achieved by subsequent machining
processes, such as turning, milling, drilling and other
High requirements are set for: machining operations.
- The material used; As the required manufacturing equipment is
- The crankshaft design ; relatively simple, these crankshafts are comparatively
- The calculation of the maximum tensions inexpensive.
inherent in the material, such as the nominal The granular structure of the material resembles
tension , resistance to metal fatigue and the sand ; this is noticeable in crankshaft fractures.
ensuing acceptable maximum values; Casting has fewer positive properties than forging.
- The manufacture of the lubricating oil ducts in The material has a lower tensile strength and
the crankshaft; therefore is more prone to fractures.
- The finish and surface hardness of the journals;
- The shrink fit allowances of the crank web and Forging
crankshaft in two - stroke crosshead engines. Forging large crankshafts requires large heavy
hydraulic presses. Moreover, subsequent elaborate
30.15.3 Material used machining is required. The base material, a steel shaft
with the correct composition, is heated to almost its
A Manganese - carbon-steel Casting 400-550 N/mm 2
melting point ( 1100 °C to 1500 °C) and then placed
B Manganese - carbon - steel Forging 400-600 N/ mm2 between dies and stamped into the required shape.
C Manganese - carbon - steel Forging maximum 700 N/mm2 This requires presses that can exert pressure forces of
D Alloyed steel Casting maximum 700 N/mm 2 thousands of tons!
E Alloyed steel Forging maximum 1.000 N/mm2
Stamping produces a continuous grain flow;
continuous grain flow gives the crankshaft better
F Spherical or nodular graphite steel Casting 370- 800 N /mm2
fatigue resistance.
202
CH30 > CASTING, F O R G I N G A N D W E L D I N G ENGINE PARTS
This continuous grain flow is due to the reduced Forged crankshafts are stronger and more expensive
space between the molecules of the material; the than cast crankshafts. The price of a forged
molecules are more firmly joined together. crankshaft for small craft in Category I is two or
Subsequent to the forging, the material is stress - three times higher than that for a cast crankshaft.
relieved using heat - treating methods. The Large crankshafts are always forged.
crankshafts are then machined extensively.
The hydraulic presses used for forging are very 30.15.5 Material requirements and tests by
expensive. Moreover, each type of crankshaft Classification bureaus
requires a specific mould.
Companies producing crankshafts or cranks ( for There are many requirements, such as, the material
two - stroke engines) for engine manufacturers in composition , the heat treatment , the mechanical
Categories II , III and IV, who do not manufacture and non - mechanical tests; such as hardness-, tensile
their own crankshafts, have a series of crankshaft strength -, magnetic - and ultrasonic test methods.
dies in storage for each type with respect to As the engines discussed here seldom have cast
cylinder bore, in - line or V-shape and the number of crankshafts, only the manufacturing of forged -steel
cylinders. This is very expensive! crankshafts will be taken into account .
The approved inspection of

the crankshaft by Lloyd 's
Register using the
ultrasonic method. The
requirements that apply to
crankshafts are very
stringent.
The approved inspection of

the crankshaft by Lloyd 's
Register using the
magnetic- iron particle
method.
In order to achieve a sturdy

crankshaft, the dimensions of
the crankshaft parts must be in
a certain proportion to each
other.
203
Rough forged crankshafts

with an alloyed steel shaft
in the centre, the base
material.
The white marker paint is

applied in order to determine
if the final crankshaft can be
manufactured from the
material.
The procedure the oven to a temperature of 900 °C. The hydraulic

- Provide the forge with a drawing of the crankshaft pressing is carried out 25 times per cycle, so a rough
and material specifications, approved by the crankshaft is completed in 75 pressings! This is
Classification bureau. The drawings must be made performed for closed die forging, not for throw - by -
accessible in 3D so that all possible loads on the throw forging.
crankshaft can be established and calculated ! Larger crankshafts are forged per crank:
- Order a steel shaft with the correct dimensions throw- by- throw pressing.
and material composition . One crankshaft section of the rough shaft is
- Prepare the hydraulic crankshaft press with the heated to 900 °C and subsequently forged in a
correct dies for the crankshaft . series of throws.
- Heat the shaft in a gas or electric oven until the Here the cranks are also reheated . For the
correct temperature is achieved. following crank, the shaft is placed in the correct
- Place the heated shaft in the press. position for that crank.
- The shaft is usually pre - processed in a separate - Heat treatment techniques are performed , such as
machine: pre-forging. annealing and tempering.
- Press the entire crankshaft in a series of forgings - Machining the crankshaft to its final shape and
or, for smaller crankshafts, in a single throw. dimensions.
- Post - treatments, such as hardening of the journals
To ensure that the forged steel maintains the correct for crankshafts in Categories II , ( generally ) , and
temperature, the rough crankshaft is removed from III ( occasionally ) .
the press with a forklift three times and reheated in
For this cast crankshaft, the

roughly cast shape (the
crank webs with the fitted
single- throw
counterweights) is clearly
visible.
Other engine manufacturers

require cleanly machined
crankshafts.
204
A roughly forged crankshaft being placed in the oven.
The partially forged crankshaft is re -heated to 900 °C.
In the hammer forging (closed die forging) the crank gets

forged in one piece.
Forged crankshafts undergo heat treatments, such as

annealing, for stress relief.
The parts are placed in a gas-heated oven for a certain amount of

time, (in this case approximately 11 hours), prior to hardening. This
is the time required for the centre of the crankshaft to obtain the
same temperature as the outer parts of the crankshaft.
205
Quenching and tempering during the forging process.
This process is installed in order to receive the mechanical

properties as requested.
A finished crankshaft for an eight- cylinder in-line engine,

category III. The crankshaft is ready for transport to the
engine manufacturer.
These final finishes are followed by a number of treatments.

The crankshaft is washed in a special washing machine and
transported to a dust - free room. Here, a final inspection takes
place and the crankshaft is tested by a Classification bureau and
marked.
Most crankshafts are delivered to the client in corrosion-proof
packaging. The packaging is generally a strong case, with a dust-
proof carton lining and with sufficient supports to prevent
bending of the shaft during transport.
A new crankshaft is placed in a washing machine to

remove any dirt particles before the crankshaft is placed in
the engine block . Caterpillar MaK, Kiel, Germany.
206
CH30 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PA R T S
A forged crankshaft for a category II engine and a

connecting rod with a high division .
This connecting rod is forged in a single throw after which the

'small eye' and the 'big end' are milled.
It is then finished and both divisions are made.
Hair- crack inspection. When reconditioning, such as the grinding of journals, a

hair- crack test is always performed.
A small hole in the surface area of the shaft becomes visible after
removal of the red layer with a clean cloth and a solvent . The method using a white and red spray shows possible cracking
This is usually indicative of inexpert reconditioning methods, such of the journal after it has been cleaned; it is known as the
as the rewelding of a damaged journal. fluorescent test.
The cranks of large

engines, category IV, are

forged in a single throw
and then the crankshaft
parts are inserted in the
holes in the crank webs and
fixed using the shrink-fit
method .
207
30.16 Forging gear parts for two - - The constant firing and cooling of the white-
stroke crosshead engines hot steel has another advantage: It improves the
properties of the steel such as the tensile strength
30.16.1 Introduction and the impurities shift to the outside and can be
removed in the machining process. In particular,
Engines with large cylinder diameters have the negative elements of phosphorus and sulphate
tremendous forces being exerted on the piston , compounds.
therefore gearing for two -stroke crosshead engines
are also forged as is the gearing for four -stroke Cylinder covers, piston crowns, piston rods and
engines. connecting rods are always forged out of one - piece
The forces at the maximum combustion pressure of base material, steel.
are more than 1,000 tons for the largest cylinder Of course the exhaust valves are also forged from one
diameters from Wartsila, the RTA 96 engine, and piece and all the cranks of the crankshaft.
MAN Diesel & Turbo, MAN B&W MC 98 engine. Successive cranks are attached to the journals by
Only forged gear parts with large dimensions can shrink- fit’ connections.
withstand these enormous forces. All forgings are made from large cast - steel basic
Forged parts have the following advantages: shapes: the ingots ( blocks) . They are also known as
billets.
The naturally occurring bonds in the molecules These ingots are cast in an octagon shape for forging
and the crystal structure are not affected by heavy parts such as crankshafts and other gearing for
forging. two -stroke crosshead engines.
These bonds become even stronger with forging Steel bars have a square cross -section whereas sheets
as the molecules are pressed together’. This have a rectangular cross- section .
increases the resistance to metal fatigue.
The manufacture of ingots/

billets.
\
The liquid steel is poured into

a special mould, which is
placed in a separate insulated
chamber so that the ingot can
be cooled very slowly.
i
208
CH 30 > CASTING , FORGING AND WELDING ENGINE PARTS
Forging these large parts is done using hydraulic

presses that can exert very large forces on the Header die
work piece, which is heated to the correct forging
temperature. These large presses can exert forces of
more than 10,000 tons.
Forging processes are: Upsetting
Drawing out , extending the length of the material

at the expense of its cross- section.
Swaging, rotating the piece during the press [ ]

strokes. This is the case for amongst others, the
connecting rod between the big- eye and small - eye.
Upsetting is increasing the cross- sectional area

[ \
thereby reducing the length of the forging. This is
the case when forging a cylinder cover.
Flattening
Flattening, this is the flattening of the forging
giving it a greater width and reduced thickness.
Swaging takes place before flattening.
Impression die forging is used when part of a

forging has a much smaller cross-section than the
other part.
punch die
V
I Ii
I
)
t
Drawing-out Impression die forging
w
I,
i; ii
i
ii II Swaging
II !
!! II
ii ii
ii
:
i i-'
ll
II
I[I
pn
n Cooling water t
209
Roll forging is used in the manufacture of

crankshafts in one piece.
/
Closed die forging is used when parts of the
forging must have a circular cross-section .
Cleaving is a forging process in which a hot chisel

is used. This process is used to manufacture the
connecting rod big end . /.
die
i
1 A
Rolling
t
Closed die 0
Cleaving
T
The raw material obtained directly from the steelworks. The material composition is stated on the ingot.
These 'ingots' are available in all sizes. This is determined by the engine manufacturer and must be
The cylinder cover, piston crown, the crosshead, the piston rod maintained by the parts manufacturer. Towards the back and on
and connecting rod are forged from the ingots. the right of the image are large pieces of raw material.
The shrinkage cavities on the head of the ingot, formed during
cooling, have already been removed.
210
The ingots are sliced into parts so that they can be used as
raw material for forging cylinder covers.
A forging is removed from the gas- fired furnace so that it

can be forged into a certain form using a hydraulic press.
The high temperatures, often exceeding 1,100 °C are important

for forging because:
- At high temperatures, the drawing point of the metal is low
therefore the force required to deform the metal is small.
- At high temperatures, the elongation of a metal is high.
- At high temperatures, strain hardening of the metal does not
occur because of the operation.
Due to the deformation of the material during forging, heat is

generated in the material thus negating the necessity of
reheating the forging.
Forging a large connecting rod.
The entire connecting rod is forged from one piece of material.

i
The hydraulic press exerts a driving force between 8,000 and
12,000 tons!
i In this phase the material is stretched, the diameter is smaller.
211
Swaging.
This photo clearly shows that

swaging lengthens the forging.
The forging should be

reheated regularly. Shown
here, the rough shape of
the connecting rod is
already visible.
A smaller diameter is forged

for the section between the
'fork ' and 'foot ' of the
connecting rod.This is called

impression die forging.
The connecting rod has

been forged.
The planes which must be

measured are painted white.
If the dimensions are found to
be correct, machining of the
rod can start.
Connecting rods, partially

machined.
212
CH 30 > CASTING, FORGING A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
Rough and partially

machined forged piston
rods.
To obtain rounded bars, closed

die forging is used.
Machining a piston rod in a

Pistons complete with lathe.
piston rod and piston rod
stuffing boxes. The rough shape of forging is
clearly visible at the two ends.
213
Forging a cylinder cover:

first stage.
Place the forging in the forging

press. Shown here, a cylinder
cover is being manufactured.
In order to obtain the proper
shape, the mould ( 1 ) is very
important.
Obviously, every type of
engine has its own mould.
Forging a cylinder cover:

second stage.
Compared with the first stage,

it can be clearly seen that the
rough forging has been
flattened. Eventually the
forging will have a rather flat
shape.
This forging process called
upsetting.
These ingots were forged into the rough shape required for The moulds used in forging cylinder covers.
the cylinder covers. Now the machining process can start.
Each type of engine has its own mould. For example:
MC 50, a MAN Diesel two- stroke crosshead engine;
RT96C, a Wartsila two - stroke crosshead engine.
214
CH 30 > CASTING , FORGING A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
The machining of the rough

cylinder cover is ready: the
hole in the middle is for the
central exhaust- valve
housing.
The large holes are for the

cylinder cover bolts.
Forged piston crowns.
As with crankshafts, the "grain

flow " is very important here.
The force lines "run" along the
shape of the crown!
A finished piston crown for

a Wartsila RTA engine.
The cooling holes for the

lubricating-oil injectors are
clearly visible.
215
A
Test bars for testing the tensile strength.
Regular material testing is performed. Here a tensile testing

machine.
30.17 Building a two - stroke the weld , however, they may also occur across the
crosshead engine A- frame construction. They can be repaired simply by drilling
a hole at the end of each crack, grinding the fissure
Small two -stroke crosshead engines frames, such as and rewelding it . Occasionally reinforcement is
the MAN B&W, MC 26 and 35 are cast , (sometimes used , which has an adverse effect as it increases the
partially) , whereas all larger engines have welded possibility of crack formation .
steel A-frames. It is a light - weight and solid The main - bearing seats are usually manufactured
construction applied by all three crosshead - engine from thick- walled cast steel. They absorb the great
manufacturers. forces released during the combustion process.
Welding stress is partially relieved by heat treatment. As cast steel can be welded , they are entirely
In virtually all engines tearing of the A- frame occurs integrated in the A-frame.
during operation . Generally, the cracks run along
A cast steel bearing support

for a rigid and strong
structure under the main
bearing of a crankshaft .
Carbon steel can be welded

which allows easy mounting
of the steel frame. It can be
clearly seen in this photo
where liquid steel has been
supplied (1) and where the
air has escaped (2).
216
AND WELDING ENGINE PARTS
Welding the steel frame.
The lightweight and rigid

construction is ideal for
building the A-frame. Welds
create a great deal of tension
in the frame. The heat
treatment afterglow releases
these tensions. Often, an
insulated cap with electric
spirals on the inside is placed
over a large part. These
provide the correct, accurate
and adjustable material
temperatures for stress
relieving the welded A -frame.
To be able to carry out the

welding operations, a frame
can be tilted.
This allows for the proper

angle and a good working
position.
Automatic welder.
Long welds are often carried

out by by arc welding. Short
welds in difficult positions are

welded by hand.
217
CH30 > CASTING , F O R G I N G A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
30.18 Forging crankshafts,

2009 report
Alfing Kessler ( Aalen, Germany), one of world's

largest crankshaft suppliers
Crankshafts constitute a basic and costly part of

the diesel engine. They convert the up - and down
movement of the piston into a revolving motion via
the connecting rod. Crankshafts have to meet high
requirements, such as:
The crankshaft has to be sufficiently powerful
to convert the massive forces exerted on the
crankshaft by the connecting rod into a rotating
movement.
- The material should have good tensile strength ,
especially in view of the considerable torsional
stress.
- The material should be easy to machine giving the
numerous machining processes.
- The crank journals and the crankpin journals
require top - quality finishes.

- All four-stroke crankshafts are manufactured
from a single piece, which entails a complex and
time - consuming forging process. All larger four-
stroke crankshafts are forged throw by throw. The forged steel crankshaft, the heart of the diesel engine,
is the most essential and also most expensive part of a
diesel engine.
A crank shaft in the

assembly shop. The cog
wheel for driving the
gearing for, among others
the camshaft and most of
the counterweights has
already been mounted.
219
1
a
The simplified principle of
forging a crankshaft.
b
a The rough round or square
rod: the base material,
b The rough forged shape of
the crankshaft.
c —f
c The forged crankshaft in the K=rx \—
final machining process,

\
d The complete crankshaft
after all machining e
d
processes,
e The first forging ,
f The second forging ,
g The third forging.
The basic raw material:

round or rectangular steel
rods.
The client, generally the

engine manufacturer,
determines the composition of
the material.
The so- called

pre- machining of the
raw base material.
In the background, a large

lathe. In the foreground, the
rod for a seven- cylinder diesel
engine.
220
CH3 0 > C A S T I N G, FORGING AND WELDING ENGINE PARTS
The lower mould for

forging the crankshaft.
The material is very hard so
that distortion cannot
occur.
Machining such a hard

material takes time.
The complete upper and

lower moulds. The moulds
have holes ( 1 ) so that they
can be positioned correctly
relative to each other.
The new hall at the firm Alfing Kessler in Aalen (Germany )

in 2009. The gas -fired ovens are operational. A forklift is
removing a large crankshaft from the oven. Only the last
part is heated, a forged flange will be attached here.
221
The oven is open. Again,

only the last part of the
crankshaft is heated.
A flange will be 'pressed ' in
the hydraulic press from
this bar shape.
A series of six crankshafts

undergo the same
processes, so that the
moulds can remain in the
hydraulic press. This is
much faster than finishing
one crank shaft at a time.
Steel moulds for the

various processes in the
manufacture of large
crankshafts that are forged
'throw by throw '
222
Every type of crankshaft has its own series of moulds.
This means that a large number of moulds must be in stock for

customers who each have their own type of engine construction!
Many thousands of moulds are stocked in the larger crankshafts

forges. This is very expensive, since all moulds are made of a very
hard and durable material.
The moulds must be solid to prevent deviations and must be able
to be used often.
Hydraulic presses for forging crankshafts can exert from

5 ,000 to 10,000 tons of pressure force!
The forging of the flange on the crankshaft for power

transmission. By holding the crankshaft in the press and
exerting two opposing forces horizontally in the
longitudinal axis, the flange is formed.
223
DIESEL ENGINES > B O O K I I I
A A
The shaft is clamped. The shaft is pressed together using very large forces. Here,
the distance between the restraints is reduced whereas the
diameter increases.
A A
The coupling flange is formed. The crankshaft is removed from the hydraulic press.
Roughly forged crankshafts

of the same type, ready for
further processing.
1 crankshaft .
2 crankshaft web.
3 crankpin.
224
By forging the crankshaft out of one- piece of steel, the

force lines in the material run along the shape of the
crankshaft.
Red - force lines natural grain- flow.
In forging smaller crankshafts in a complete mould, part of

the base material is pressed between the upper and lower
moulds. This excess material is later removed by a hydraulic
press.
Circle: The transition between the lower and upper moulds is

visible by the sharp edge.
To prevent adhesion of the very hot forging material to the The excess material removed. This is recycled by the steel
moulds, a layer of sawdust is applied to the inner surface of supplier for the production of new base material.
the moulds. This is burnt off during forging.
225
After forging, certain parts of the crankshaft are painted so

that the dimensions can be recorded. They are used to
check whether the crankshaft can be manufactured from
the raw material.
The first machining operations, such as determining the

centre line and the rough turning of the crankshaft, are
carried out.
A A
Heat treatment to reduce for the material tensions that A heat treatment to harden the surface. This makes the
occur as a result of forging. shafts (crankshaft and crankpin) harder and more wear
resistant.
This is called 'stress- relieving'. The crankshafts are heated in
an oven to ± 850 °C and then set aside so that they can cool The crankshaft is again heated to ± 850 °C and then rapidly
slowly. Most of the forging stresses are relieved. cooled in an oil bath. This changes the composition of the outer
skin to a depth of ± 2 mm so that the material is much harder and
therefore more durable.
226
Smaller cranks often undergo heat treatment 'surface

hardening'. Here a series of surface -hardened crankshafts
waiting for further processing.
The crankshaft taps, crank pins and the sides of the crank
webs are machined roughly. Most of the material is
removed here. This is followed by a precise finish of the
shaft and to a lesser degree, the crank webs.
The rough milling of the end of the crankshaft at the

crankshaft flange location.
Here the journals are not machined to truly round, but to 16- or
32-sided using an external router. Importantly, most of the excess
material is quickly removed in this process.
227
Machining the crankshaft in

a special crankshaft bench.
Note the many supports to
ensure that the shaft is kept
true.
A series of fully automatic

CNC machines that carry
out the many operations on
the crankshaft.
228
CH 30 > C A S T I N G , FORGING A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
The setted crankshaft in the CNC machine, the supports

ensure that the crankshaft remains true during the
operation.
The custom grinding of the crankshaft and crankpin to

their true dimensions. The machine can be moved
horizontally so that the crankshaft can be positioned to
both the crankshaft axis and crankpin axis.
Horizontal red arrow - movement.

1 grindstone.
2 crankshaft.
3 supports.
229
A grinding bench with manually adjustable supports (1).

Each journal is supported.
After all the machining processes, very small burrs are

removed by hand and roundings applied. Also, all the
machining processes are checked, amongst other for
defects.
The rotating crankshaft is polished in a wooden mould

with very fine emery cloth for a true smooth finish to the
crankshaft and crankpin. Each shaft has a special wooden
mould.
230
30.18.1 Material analysis of crankshafts:

steel's natural grain- flow
A slice of a crankshaft crank, which has been machined,

polished and finally undergone an acid etching treatment.
Alfing Kessler in Aalen, Germany.
This allows the structure of the material to clearly emerge.

The lines offeree (grain flow) run along the shape of the forged
crank. It can also be seen that the forged steel structure on the
outside of the crank is closer together. This is caused by the
enormous forces exerted on the forging by the steel moulds
during forging.
Forged parts have the following advantages.
The natural bonds of the steel molecules and the crystal structure
remain intact during forging. The natural bonds are stronger: the
molecules are pressed tightly together during forging. This
increases the fatigue resistance.
The constant white-hot firing of the steel followed by the cooling
processes have another advantage: it improves the steel
properties such as tensile strength and the impurities move to the
outside of the forging and can then be removed in the machining
processes. This is relevant especially for the harmful elements
such as phosphorus and sulphates.
A surface hardness test at the crankpin location with the depth of the Crack Examination using ultrasound.
hardened layer given.
The crack is approximately 31 cm from the crank web and has a length of
The crankshaft is hardened by the induction method. The hardening depth varies approximately 9 millimeters.
from 9.2 to 19.7 mm.
GWS
A n i 4 50C 'Mo4 «Nt V

*
1504 10 Kjmm
8.2 110.1 j
231
The crankshaft is guided through an electromagnetic coil

in order to check for hairline cracks.
Any hairline cracks can also be detected using the

ultrasonic method.
Crankshaft measuring assembly.
It is essential that the crankshaft have the correct dimensions

after all the machining operations have been completed.
All dimensions are accurately measured and recorded; these are
exclusive to this particular crankshaft . Measurements must be
recorded for every crankshaft even for two identical engines with
the same crankshaft . These crankshafts always have very small
deviations with respect to each other!
232
Once all the processing and

inspections have been
carries out, the crankshaft is
wrapped in a plastic foil so
that oxygen cannot come
into contact with the
crankshaft. This prevents
rust, which can damage the
running surfaces.
A very rigid wooden frame

is made to ensure that the
crankshaft is not deformed
during transport ( 1 ).
Finally, the crankshafts are

shipped in specially
constructed crates, in which
the crankshaft is firmly
supported so that it
remains aligned. The wood
used to construct the crates
must now meet different
requirements: for example,
it may not contain insects
or woodworm.
233
30.19 Manufacturing pistons - The movement of the piston rings in the ring
grooves should cause minimum wear.
A piston design is rather complex: pistons have to - The friction between the piston ring and piston -
meet various requirements. ring grooves and cylinder liner should be
- Must withstand the large forces generated by the minimal. The largest friction losses in a diesel
combustion - process pressures. Pressures from engine are the friction losses due to the piston
30 bars up to 250 bars, depending on the engine rings.
category, translate into forces of several tens of
kilonewtons to over 1,000 tons in two - stroke
crosshead engines.
- Must resist material temperatures of as much as
350 °C to 450 °C. Therefore, the dimensions have
to be geared to compensate for a given expansion
coefficient.
- In four -stroke engines, the lateral forces produced
by the crank- /connecting- rod mechanism must
be transferred to the cylinder liner by the piston
skirt.
- The piston , in conjunction with the piston rings,
lubricating oil and cylinder liner, should provide
optimum sealing for a large number of operating
hours.
- The forces exerted on the piston must be
transferred to the crankshaft via the piston pin
and the connecting rod.
- The piston material must be impervious to
aggressive and abrasive substances produced by
the combustion process.
- Piston distortion as a result from the combustion
process should be minimal.
- The piston parts should be effectively cooled Pistons for four stroke diesel engines have a long piston
by lubricating oil to avoid overheating of the skirt to absorb the lateral forces. These forces are led via the
materials. piston skirt to the cylinder liner and absorbed by the
engine block.
The piston rings, piston,

connecting rod and
crankshaft are the heart
of each diesel engine:
the drive gears bring about
a reciprocating movement
of the piston and a
rotational movement of the
crankshaft .
This has been the case from

the invention of the steam
engine in ± 1700. Shown here,
an assembly of the complete
gearing in front of the Mahle
headquarters in Stuttgart,
Germany.
234
CH 30 > CASTING , FORGING A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
Two-stroke crosshead
diesel engines have short
pistons. This is possible
because the lateral forces
generated by the crank rod
mechanism are absorbed
by the crosshead, the slide
shoes and bars and then
the engine frame. Not by
the piston skirt as in
four -stroke engines!
A piston manufactured by Mahle in Markgroningen,

Germany. The piston comprises two parts: the forged steel
crown and forged aluminium skirt to give enough
clearance for the values when the piston is in top dead
centre ( intake stroke) .
All the piston rings are mounted on the piston crown.

The piston crown has pockets for the inlet and exhaust valves.
Note the cooling channels of the cooling lubricant .
i piston crown
2 piston skirt
3 piston -ring grooves
4 pockets for the inlet and exhaust valves
5 cooling galleries
6 fixing bolt piston crown/ piston skirt
7 tap hole for hoisting the piston
8 bronze bushes in the piston pin bore
9 oil groove for cooling oil inlet
1 o drain channel for cooling oil
235
Various types of pistons, manufactured by Mahle.
In principle, the smaller pistons, engine category I, are made of

light metals, an aluminium alloy.
Many pistons in category II engines are also made of light metals.
The larger the diameter of the piston, the greater the ratio of the
forces exerted on the piston. Often because the compression and
combustion pressures are much higher: currently more than
200 bars!
The mean piston speed will also increase, so also the acceleration
and deceleration forces on the piston.
In larger medium- speed engines, the piston comprises two parts:
the forged steel piston crown and the nodulair cast iron or forged
aluminium- or forged steel piston skirt.
Pistons in two-stroke crosshead engines are now all made of
forged steel.
30.19.1 New techniques
New techniques are being developed continually to has higher durability than its light - metal and cast -
process the enormous forces exerted on the piston iron counterparts, it has better wear resistance. This
with increased combustion pressures. increases piston life.
Mahle has developed the Ferrocomp piston, in ®

Furthermore, light - metal piston skirts have been
which the piston skirt is manufactured from forged used in the last years. These are forged and some are
steel. Apart from the fact that this type of piston welded together ( Electron Beam Welding ).
Figure left:
The development of materials and construction of Mahle Vertical; the combustion pressures up to 300 bars (in the future).
pistons. In the figure: The various types of pistons with the specific and
patented Mahle pistons®.
300 0.9
FERROCOMP ® / forged steel skirt ST
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Shaker cooling/ bore cooling 0.8 - NF =
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status 2004
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Piston diameter D ( mm )
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236
CH3 0 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G AND WELDING ENGINE PARTS
The storage of roughly

processed, forged piston
crowns.
The piston crowns are made in

separate forges, as are piston
rods and crankshafts.
Machining piston skirts.
Measuring a piston crown.
237
-
The forged piston crowns after the last machining process.
Note the low position of the piston rings relative to the top of the
piston.
Measuring a piston skirt.
The dimensions are very important: the interplay offerees are in

fact very large and complicated. All the dimensions of the piston
skirt are measured and recorded using a 3D probe.
Roughly forged piston crowns.
Forged piston crowns are much more resistant to high

combustion pressures and temperatures than cast -iron piston
crowns.
238
CH 3 0 > CASTING , F O R G I N G A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
Piston skirts before final

machining.
Using the finite element method, the forces on the piston,

piston pin and connecting rod can be calculated in the
design phase.
Red: the piston crown, blue: the piston skirt, yellow: the piston pin
and white: the connecting rod.
In this manner, the piston design is verified and optimised before
manufacture.
A
The automatic processing
The automatic forging of of the piston crowns.
piston crowns using a
robot: in the past, this was
done by a blacksmith!
239
30.19.2 Electron Beam Welding
This is a welding process in which two components Advantages

are joined using large amounts of energy, supplied - Single weld for thick- walled joints.
by a beam of electrons. This takes place under high - - Optimum welding conditions due to the vacuum .
vacuum / low- pressure conditions. - Minimal distortion .
- Aluminium alloys can be welded up to a depth of - Minimal contamination of the weld .
200 mm . - Narrow weld.

- The advantage of the vacuum - welding process - Only partial heating of the material.
is the lack of atmosphere during welding in the - Parts consisting of different materials can be
melting bath. Consequently, the aluminium parts joined.

can be joined simply using cold welding. - No filling material required for weld.
- The width of the electron beam varies from 0.1 to
0.01 mm, thus allowing for a very accurate weld. Disadvantages

- This welding method is distinguished by a narrow The following problems may occur:
and deep weld. - Tearing.
- The entire welding process is automated and - Insufficient fusion of both components.
performed under high - vacuum conditions. - Porous weld .
- During the welding process, electron beams are

fired at the work piece at 3/ 4 the speed of light .
To protect the operators from the radiation
emitted during this process, welding machines are
equipped with lead shielding.
High Voltage Cable

The principle of electron
beam welding. Incandescent Cathode
Bias Cup
Primary Anode
Telescope
^
for viewing ^
Electron Beam
Prism
1 Focusing Coil
Deflection Coil
Work Piece
Vacuum Chamber
240
Aluminium pistons for

high-speed diesel and gas
engines are often of a
welded design; where a
lower piston body of high
strength forged aluminium
is joined by welding with
an upper casted part of
aluminium that contains a
cooling gallery as well as a
ring for the tap ring.
Here, the arrangement for

welding in the vacuum
chamber.
A Mahle piston with an oil

cooling gallery insert for
the top piston ring. The
piston consists of two parts.
Welded by the electron
beam method.
241
A cast- iron piston skirt

during magnetic particle
crack detection.
The inside of a piston crown

being machined.
i
A
•*
fit
A
A multi- axis drilling
machine does all the oil
drillings in one setup. Material testing is essential in manufacturing diesel -
engine components. The material requirements
for moving parts such as the piston , piston pins,
connecting rods and crankshafts are particularly
high , as breakage could result in total engine loss.
Three types of material testing:

Materials research is - Standard material testing of the base material.
essential to ensure quality This is performed prior to machining.
of engine components. - Material testing during manufacturing.
- Material testing following manufacturing.
Generally, this consists of periodically sampling

certain engine parts.
242
CH30 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G A N D WE LDING ENGINE PARTS
30.20 Manufacture of inlet and .

1 The end of the valve stem is
outlet valves hardened to prevent
deformations (pitting ).
Despite the smallest possible
valve clearance, the rocker
arm strikes the head through
the adjusting bolt when the
valve is opened.
2. The valve stem must be true
in the valve guide. The
> running surface should be
very durable. The clearance
between valve stem and valve
guide must be such that there
is always a thin film of
1 lubricant present between the
two components.
Furthermore, the centre-axis
of the valve stem and the
centre- axis of the valve guide
must be aligned in true.
<
Finally, the valve must seat
itself cleanly around the valve
seat!
3. The most wear takes place on
this part of the valve stem.
2 The material temperature is
high here due to the exhaust
gasses, and the lubricating -
oil film can be affected by
exhaust fumes and dirt from
the combustion process.
4. The valve should seal at all
times when closed. The high
exhaust - gas temperatures
cause the material
temperature of the valve and
seat to reach up to 550 °C.
Furthermore, hard carbon
particles and wear particles
>
(combustion process )
between the valve and seat
can cause damage to the
sealing surface. The valve
striking the seat is a common
3 phenomenon that ultimately
can cause the valve to leak.
5. The valve must have
adequate resistance to
deformation because of the
high pulsating pressures
above 200 bars found in
four -stroke medium - speed
diesel engines. If not, the valve
M
would not close tightly on the
> ^
seat.
.
6 When using heavy fuels, high
temperature corrosion can
occur. It can damage the
valve very quickly.
5 6
View of a valve.
Exhaust valve.
243
Inlet and exhaust valves

allow gas exchange in the
cylinder for the combustion
process.
Note the small space between

the valves and piston crown at
top dead centre!
A modern cylinder head with two inlet and two exhaust

valves for optimum gas exchange.
The exhaust valve is especially heavily loaded. The maximum

material temperature is more than 700 °C and during the
combustion process, products are produced that can cause
chemical corrosion such as high temperature corrosion, HTC.
Contamination and wear are caused by the unburned carbon
from the fuel.
Two cylinder heads in a Caterpillar high- speed four- stroke

diesel engine.
All modern four- stroke engines have four valves in the
head. In particular, the exhaust valves wear out quickly.
Since this diesel engine runs on diesel oil, the valve wear is
slight in comparison to the wear and tear caused by heavy
fuel- oil used in categories III and IV.
The two inlet- and exhaust valves of a Caterpillar Mak

four- stroke medium- speed diesel engine operating on
heavy fuel-oil. The service life of this engine compared
to engines operating on diesel is almost halved!
244
30.20.1 Manufacturing valves
The alignment is followed by elaborate machining - Machining, rough - turning.

processes consisting of up to thirty steps. - Weld seat with stellite alloy.
- Weld valve seat.
These are executed by specialised firms. - Fine - turn valve.
- Heat treatment to improved material properties.
Most of the following photos were taken at - Harden valve-stem end.
Maerkisches Werk in Halver, Germany - Test hardness.
- Machining, turn to size.
Procedure - Polish valves.
- Saw the selected bars to size. - Ultrasonic testing of the material.
- Upsetting process creating a tulip shape by means - Material survey/ sampling.
of a conduction method. - Chrome plating, if required.
- Forging process with a die under the forging - Final check for hair-line cracking using ultraviolet
hammer. light.
- Attach the upper part of the stem using friction - Packing of valve in polystyrene boxes treated with
welding. an anti - corrosive.
- Straighten valve and stem.
Bars that are cut to size and ready for the first step:
upsetting.
Inlet and exhaust valves are forged from steel bars. The
composition of the steel including the alloys of chromium, nickel
and silicon is determined by the client, usually the engine
manufacturer. Naturally, the thermal, chemical and mechanical
loads on exhaust valves are much higher than inlet valves;
therefore exhaust valves are always alloyed. The bars are cut to
size.
Electro Upsetting.
The bar is tensioned before being heated by an electric current.

The bar is heated to the required temperature of, for example,
1200 °C so that the hydraulic press can forge the tulip shape.
Actually, this is called swaging: thickening of the material by
forging.
245
The complete electro- upsetting machine. Forging the valve.
1 Tensioning. The rough tulip shape is now placed in a mould in the forging
2 Bar to be forged. press so that the true shape of the valve can be forged. With a
3 Hydraulic press, both above and below.
press exerting a pressure of ± 1 ,200 tons, the valve is forged in
4 Heating the valve with a current loop between 7 and 4.
one movement into shape. The forging press hits the rough shape
valve and turns the valve in a very rapid movement into its correct
shape.
The rough valve shape is

forged to its correct shape
for further machining.
246
CH30 > CASTING, FORGING A N D W E L D I N G ENGINE PARTS
The forged valve can now be removed with a pair of large Removing the valve from the forging press is done
tongs. manually.
Cooling of the valves.
Three valves cooling after forging. Note the short valve stem.
The section of the stem that runs in the valve guide has yet to
be attached; this is performed using friction welding.
Friction welding, Markisches Werk GmbH in Halver,

Germany.
The upper part of the stem is attached to the valve by friction

welding. The upper part of the stem should have good running
properties and be wear resistant . The stem end is hardened so
that deformations caused by the valve drive striking the tip can
Valve production at Caterpillar Mak . be avoided. The lower part of the stem with the valve head must
be able to withstand very high temperatures, corrosive acids and
Roughly forged valves. They are manufactured at a separate, the impact of hard particles such as carbon and other
external foundry. contaminants.
247
Valve production at
Caterpillar Mak .
A series of roughly forged

valves during the rough
machining process at the
engine plant of Caterpillar Mak
in Kiel, Germany.
Valve production at
Caterpillar Mak.
Rough machined valves,

arranged in a buffer/carousel
for automated finishing.
Valve production at
Caterpillar Mak.
The triangular granules are

made from a special synthetic
material, which is very hard.
Valve production at Caterpillar Mak, Kiel, Germany.
The surfaces of the roughly-turned valves are compacted in a

process using triangular plastic granules. This makes the surface
harder and more wear resistant. The valves are placed in holders
and moved through these granules, which compact the surface.
248
CH 30 > CASTING, F O R G I N G A N D W E L D I N G ENGINE PARTS
Example of a trajectory of the valve stem in Trajectory per second 2 x 8 x 0.01 metre =
guide 0.16 metres.
Valve - disc diameter 40 mm. This means 0.16 x 3600 x 18,000 = 10,368,000 metres
Lift valve lA x D = 10 mm. or 10,368 km per 18,000 hours.
Number of revolutions four -stroke 960 rev/ min. During this period , the seat must make a gas
Valve life 18,000 hours ( HFO). seal with the valve disc 8 x 3600 x 18,000 =
51,840,000 times!
Valve stem trajectory: This is a considerable accomplishment considering
960
Number of engine revolutions 16 per second. the circumstances, such as, high pressures and
60
temperatures, chemical corrosion, contamination
Work process every second revolution. resulting from the combustion process and a
Therefore, valve moves 8 times per second. moderate lubrication of the stem .
Straightening the valve stem.
After friction welding, the valve stems are straightened so that the
centre line of the valve stem is almost in line with the shaft . Then,
a special machine straightens the stems before machining can

take place. The stem is bent past its elasticity boundary so
creating a lasting change in the stem.
Heat Treatment.
A series of valves ready to be annealed in an electric furnace.

As they are then cooled very slowly, almost all the material
stresses disappear.
Heat Treatment.
The swaging, forging and induction hardening process cause

many stresses in the material. These are largely removed by
annealing. This is carried out in a valve holder here at a
temperature of 800 °C. The valves are annealed in the holder and
put to one side to slowly cool, or they are oil cooled. The material
properties can be established by using different temperatures
and times.
249
Machining.
The machining processes are

carried out after forging and
friction welding. After
pre -turning the stem, the valve
head is roughly turned. The
groove where the hard stellite
layer will be welded can be
clearly seen. This groove is
formed during forging.
A
Welding the stellite layer. Stellite welding in the picture.
This is a very hard and heat wear resistant material widely used in The good adhesion and weld quality are essential for a long
exhaust valves. It has very good properties: operating life of the valve.
- Very hard surface: pitting by striking carbon particles is almost
impossible.
- Resistant to high material temperatures.
Induction heating has occurred. Cooling the end of the

valve stem tip quickly with water creates a very hard and
durable tip.
Annealing.
Welding the stellite layer

creates heat stresses in the
valve material. Heating and

then slowly cooling largely
removes these stresses.
250
C H3 0 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G AND WELDING ENGINE PARTS
A series of valves showing the welded stellite layers.
An exhaust valve before

and after the welding the
stellite layer on the valve
seat. The discoloration
occurred during welding.
251
D I E S E L E N G I N E S > BOOK III
Apply contact fluid.
After application of the

contact fluid, the entire stellite
layer is checked with a probe.

Every valve is checked.
USG x + 3s x x - 3s OSG
35
- 20
Measurement of the value. 30 -
*
At the final inspection, the
S 25 i - 15
c
QJ
valves are measured using 5 20 i 3

cr
a;
cameras. This data is recorded I^

QJ
15
- 10 iZ
QJ
3
>
8
A
and immediately processed. ts 1 0 -
o5
cc -5 5
5-
0 T r I T 0
T
368.7 368.8 368.9 369.0 369.1 369.2 369.3
LGGS [ mm ] NV ->
Measurement results.
The measurement results are displayed on a screen.

If the values are too high, the valve is rejected.
Controlling the material quality.
A valve is taken from every batch in order to control the material

properties.
252
CH 30 > CASTING, F O R G I N G A N D W E L D I N G E N G I N E PARTS
Chromium plating the

valves.
At the customer 's request, the

valves are chromed. The
sections that should not be
plated are protected by pieces
of flexible plastic tubing, as
shown here, the valve - stem
end.
Valve holders for chromium

plating.
The valves are placed in these

holders so that they can be
cleaned in immersion baths.
This ensures the adhesion of
the chromium plating. After
cleaning, they are immersed in
the chromium plating bath.
The thickness of the chrome
layer is dependant on, among
other things, the time the
valves are immersed in the
bath.
The various immersion

baths for cleaning the
valves.
253
Polishing the valves.
Valves are always polished for

their appearance.
The detection of cracks.
The detection of cracks in the

welded stellite coating on the
valve seat. The cracks are
visible in ultraviolet light. This
valve is therefore certainly
rejected!
Rejected valve.
An irregularity in the valve

disc is clearly shown here
under an ultraviolet light
source. This valve was rejected.
254
30.21 Manufacturing cylinder liners - Allow for applying good honing patterns on the
inside of the cylinder liner.
Both four-stroke - and two -stroke diesel -engines - Allow for machining processes, such as boring
cylinder liners must meet strict requirements, such cooling- water ducts.
as:
- Be sufficiently strong to absorb the pulsating, 30.21.1 Centrifugal casting of cylinder liners
extremely high pressures of up to 250 bars
produced by the combustion process. This method is applied widely. The material quality
- In four-stroke diesel engines, be sufficiently using the centrifugal casting method is superior in
strong to absorb the lateral forces generated by comparison to the traditional sand - casting method.
the force exerted on the connecting- rod crank Generally, cylinder liners in four-stroke diesel
mechanism by the piston . The horizontal forces engines are cast using this technique, as are smaller
the piston skirt exerts on the cylinder liner and cylinder liners in two -stroke crosshead engines.
therefore the engine block are of a similar order In larger two -stroke crosshead cylinder liners, the
and may amount to approximately 2000 kN. masses of the rotating parts, such as the moulds
or 200 tons in large four -stroke engines with partially filled with iron , are too large.
cylinder diameters of 400 mm or over.
- Have good running properties as the cylinder These illustrations were made on the occasion of a
liner should be able to supply a proper seal in visit by the author to Jurgensen, in Sorup,
conjunction with the piston , piston rings and Germany. A large manufacturer of cylinder liners
the intermediate lubricating- oil coating of for, among others, high-speed- and medium- speed
approximately 0.04 mm. diesel- and gas engines
Have the correct dimensions, concerning both the
inner diameter and the outer measurements of
the cylinder liner.
T
Cylinder liners.
Cylinder liners should meet very high standards as the diesel

engine must operate problem free for many thousand hours.
Cylinder liners.
Cylinder liners are essential

parts of the engine as they
form the combustion chamber
together with the cylinder
head and piston with its high
pressures and temperatures
and residual products from the
combustion process, which
can cause contamination and
wear.
30.21.2 The material utilised
Generally, cylinder liners are manufactured from

fine, perlitic cast iron allowing for excellent running
properties. The base material comprises residual steel
from shipyards and construction firms, the plating
industry, for instance, manufacture of automobiles,
and residual material from the company itself.
In order to acquire the correct properties for the
cylinder liner, materials such as chromium, titanium,
nickle, copper and other metals are added.
The required composition of the cast iron is supplied

by the client, usually engine manufacturers such as
Wartsila, MAN Diesel & Turbo, Caterpillar Mak,
MTU or Rolls - Royce.
The composition of the cast iron varies for each A
manufacturer and may depend on the engine type. Ingots.
One of the basic raw materials for the production of cylinder

liners, pieces of cast iron, called ingots.
Basic raw materials. Basic raw materials.
Excess steel from shipyards and engineering works, a good basis Also chips from the machining of cylinder liners are a good raw
for cast iron. material.
Adding alloys.
Alloys are added to many

high- quality castings. They
create new material properties,
such as a higher tensile

strength and wear resistance.
The alloy elements are

precisely weighed and
placed together with the
base material in the
electrical furnace.
256
CH30 > C A S T I N G, F O R G I N G A N D WELDING E N G I N E PARTS
30.21.3 The melting process Cooling and storing roughly- cast liners
The castings are extracted from the mould and
The base materials are heated to approximately stored in calm air to cool to ambient temperature.
1300 °C in an electro- oven . The slag is skimmed and The roughly- cast liners are stored inside a hall or
the casting ladles are filled with a liquid cast iron outside.
that has a low viscosity once the centrifugal cast
machines are assembled with the moulds suitable for
the cylinder liner concerned. To achieve high - quality
casting, the number of kilograms of material
required for each liner is predetermined. A sample
is taken from each liner in order to ascertain the
composition and material properties quickly and
automatically.
The slag, a collective
30.21.4 Casting name for impurities must
be removed.
The cylinder shaped liners are especially suitable
for centrifugal casting. This method produces a
( homogenous) structure superior to that produced
by sand casting. The cylindrical cast -steel mould is
placed in the electromotor- driven casting machine
and attains high speeds. Due to centrifugal forces,
the liquid cast iron is pressed against inner side of
the casting mould. The low viscous, liquid cast iron
is poured using a funnel , which can be easily moved
into the casting mould.
The advantages of this method:

- No core.
- The mould can be utilised numerous times.
- High - quality casting.
A special mould and end cover are manufactured for

each liner type.
The electric furnace, the

heart of the foundry.
The cover of the furnace has

been raised. In the foreground,
some ladles.
257
The cast- steel cylindrical

moulds.
r ,
ft
35
o Witt
II 111 u
I
V
.1
'
>
Fc = m x u2 x R
4
</ > r sand mould with
metal jacket
11
liquid metal
The basic principle of the centrifugal casting of cylinder Principle of centrifugal casting.
liners.
The low viscosity iron is thrown outwards due to the large
1 ladle with liquid iron, temperature ± 1300 °C. centrifugal force. This creates a high quality and homogeneous
2 pour spout, the caster moves during the casting process.
material composition.
3 mould, clamped in the casting machine.
4 end cover, is in reality also found to the right with a large hole for
the funnel.
5 casting machine drive.
The cylindrical cast-iron

end covers for the
cylindrical moulds.
Separate cylindrical moulds

and end covers should be
made for each type of cylinder
liner.
258
The casting of the cylinder

liner.
A ladle ready to pour liquid

iron for casting a cylinder
liner, the ladle is suspended
from a weighing scale and
is filled to the correct
weight for this cylinder
liner, 204 kilograms.
Casting the cylinder liner.
The casting of the cylinder

liner, the correct flow rate is
important. The speed of the
casting is performed manually:
a matter of considerable
experience.
T
Pouring liquid iron into the funnel of the casting machine. The casting of the cylinder liner.
Due to the centrifugal force, the liquid cast-iron is thrown very fast Casting machines are electrically driven and have very high
and at a great force against the outer wall of the mould, so rotational speeds. The speed is dependant on the size of the
creating the symmetrical cylinder shape of the roughly-cast cylinder liner.
cylinder liner.
Lower speeds are kept for

large cylinder liners as the
centrifugal force depends
primarily on the radius of the
rotating apparatus.
2
Fc = mxoj xR
Fc = force in Newton
m = mass in kilograms
co = angular velocity in m/s
R = radius in meters
259
A A
Test specimen. Cooling after casting.
During casting, a test specimen is cast. This is used to analyse the It takes a long time for cast iron to cool. This is intentional as fewer
material properties. stresses are then found in the casting.
A A
The rough castings. The rough castings.
The cooled cylindrical mould with the rough casting after cooling. The rough cast-iron cylinder liners prior to machining.
The end covers with the central hole have been removed.
Pre - machining cylinder

liners for four- stroke diesel
engines.
260
CH30 > CASTING , FORGING A N D W E L D I N G ENGINE PARTS
Unfinished cylinder liners.
Unfinished cylinder liners in

the 'waiting room' for further
processing. Often a whole
series of the same cylinder
liners are finished in a single
action.
Design.
The final design is already

visible in these roughly
machined cylinder liners.
Sand- casted cylinder liners

for smaller two- stroke
crosshead engines.
The roughness of the casting is

clearly shown: The liner-wall
thickness varies considerably!
Sand- casted cylinder liners
have a low quality compare to
centrifugal casted cylinder
liners.
261
The finished surface of a cylinder liner of MAN Diesel that

deviates from the normal honing, called ' wave cut' must be
machined in a special way.
30.21.5 Rough machining
Firstly, most of the superfluous material from the

outer flange is removed from the roughly- cast liners.
Next, a material sample is taken from the outside
of the liner flange. Subsequently after approving the
quality of the material properties, the fine machining
can be started.
30.21.6 Annealing
The liners are annealed in an electro - oven prior to

the final machining of the pre- machined cylinder
liner. After heating to approximately 600 °C, the
liners are cooled gradually, thus relieving casting
stress.
Rough cylinder liners with a thickened upper collar.
Complete cylinder units

with the complete cylinder
head, cylinder liner,
connecting rod and piston.
262
-
_j
CH30 > CASTING , FORGING A N D W E L D I N G ENGINE PARTS
30.21.7 Honing the cylinder liner
Subsequent to turning the liner to its custom size

with tolerances under 0.01 mm, the cylinder liner
running surface is honed: the mesh of shallow
grooves retains the lubrication oil required to create
a thin lubrication film between the piston and piston
rings, and cylinder.
A cylinder liner for a diesel Rough machining of the inside of the cylinder liner.
engine with bore cooling
and an anti-polishing ring 1 cylinder liner
during processing. 2 tensioners
3 cutting tool / shaft
A setup with a large

number of CNC machines
for precision finishing.
After the cylinder liner is

clamped to the work table,
these machines carry out
many of the operations fully
automatically.
263
Stored parts such as anchor

bolts, cylinder head bolts,
a complete connecting rod
and a cylinder liner for a
MAN four-stroke medium-
speed diesel engine, type
9L58/64, power output
12.6 MW. M.V. Elyssee,
J.R. Shipping, the
Netherlands.
A honing machine hones the cylinder liner using a special

operating program.
1 Cylinder liner
2 Clamps for holding the liner
3 Shaft honing machine
A honing machine.
1 Shaft honing machine

2 Honing stone
3 Nozzle lubrication
The honing pattern on the

cylinder wall.
264
CH 30 > C A S T I N G, FORGING A N D W E L D I N G ENGINE P A R T S
30.21.8 Quality Control
Subsequently, a detailed and accurate control of

the dimensions and finishing follows. The cylinder
liners are then given an anti - corrosion treatment and
stored for transport to the customer.
Quality control.
The dimensions and finishes are all checked in this conditioned

room before the liners are released for shipment to the customer.
A large number of cylinder

liners ready to be packaged
before shipment.
A large warehouse for the

storage of new cylinder
liners.
A stock position is sometimes

built at regular customers
requests.
Pulling the piston.
When servicing diesel engines,

the cylinder liner is often
measured after the piston has
been 'pulled'.
Shown here, pulling the piston
on the The Pride of Rotterdam .
Pulling cylinder liners.
The cylinder liner is 'pulled'

when it has been rejected due
to excessive wear. It is
imperative that the spare liners

on board are suitable as
replacements. This will avoid
unnecessary delays. Spare
parts should be in good
condition at all times!
265
Reconditioning engines and
their parts

31.2 Four -stroke engines 277
31.3 Two -stroke engines 308
31.4 The Swedish Club: Main Engine Damage 332
31.1 Introduction
Mechanical, thermal and chemical factors cause

wear in engines. The worn parts must be either
be replaced or reconditioned within a certain
time span . Several examples of parts that require
replacement are:
- cylinder heads, especially the exhaust valves;
- pistons and piston rings;
- cylinder liners;
- shafts and shaft bearings;
- supercharging groups;
- pumps;
- governors;
- starting motors;
- fuel pumps and injectors;
- spark plugs;
- ignition coils.
An exhaust valve affected by high- temperature corrosion,

HTC.
Engine manufacturers supply specifications

concerning the normal service life for the various
parts, and the engine proprietors or operators
put together a maintenance plan based on this
information.
Worn parts.
After a certain number of operating hours, or after having

established that a particular part no longer functions normally,
it must be inspected.
Shown here, a disassembled turbocharger.
A A
A filthy turbocharger casing. After cleaning, soiled exhaust valves are checked for wear,
hair cracks and size.
268
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N E S A N D T H E I R P A RTS
Exhaust-valve seats are

heavily loaded.
AFK HAARS = scrapped after a

hair-crack test. Hair-cracks
result in valve leakages or
fractures.
Various engine parts

wanting maintenance.
This is referred to as
'overhauling' or
'reconditioning'.
Connecting rods; bores in

the big end for the crankpin
and in the eye for the
piston pin often require
truing.
269
A
If repairs are postponed for too great a length of time, A microscopic view of an exhaust valve on the combustion-
an exhaust valve may start to leak severely, known as chamber side, which is seriously affected by high-
blow-through. temperature corrosion.
Regular maintenance is performed at the most Reconditioning:

favourable time: during dry- docking, surveys or - cylinder heads including inlet - and exhaust
while the ship is in port. valves;
Diesel - power plant maintenance is performed - pistons and piston rings;
preferably when there is a reduced electricity - cylinder liners;
demand, for instance, at night or in weekends. - crankshafts and bearings;

- camshafts and bearings;
In the case of failures or damage, action must be - geared wheels;
taken immediately. - fuel pumps and injectors;
In the discussion regarding reconditioning of engine - turbochargers or supercharging groups;
parts, the following subjects arise. - governors;

- engine blocks;
- coolers;
- pumps;
- connecting rods and piston rods.
Four-stroke engines will be initially discussed and

subsequently two-stroke crosshead engines.
Component Time between overhauls Expected lifetime [h]

The service life of parts may Fuel quality FIFO MDO HFO MDO
vary considerably. Fuel Piston 12000 - 20000 20000 - 24000 24000 - 40000 40000 - 48000
quality is a deciding factor. Piston rings 12000 - 20000 20000 - 24000 12000 - 20000 20000 - 24000
Cylinder liner 12000 - 20000 20000 - 24000 60000 - 100000 60000 - 100000
The expected service life of
Cylinder head 12 000 - 20000 20000 - 24000 60000 - 100000 60000 - 100000
gas - engine parts is 1.5 to
Inlet valve 12000 - 20000 20000 - 24000 24000 - 40000 40000 - 48000
2 times the service life of
Exhaust valve 12000 - 20000 20000 - 24000 12000 - 20000 24000 - 32000
engine parts in engines fuelled
Injection valve nozzle 2000 2000 4000 - 8000 8000
by maritime diesel oil (MDO).
Injection pump 16000 16000 16000 - 24000 32000
Main bearing 16000 - 20000 16000 - 20000 32000 - 40000 32000 - 40000
Big end bearing 12000 - 20000 20000 - 24000 12000 - 20 000 20000 - 24000
270
CH31 > RECONDITIONING EN GI N ES A N D TH El R PA RTS
31.2 Four - stroke engines
31.2.1 Cylinder heads with inlet- and

exhaust valves
Valves
Perfect fuel combustion (100% ) is purely theoretical.
In practical terms, total fuel combustion is
approximately 96 to 98%. This means that a small
amount of the fuel either does not burn or does not
completely burn.
Uncombusted carbon particles are hard and cause
damage in the combustion space.
Other heavy- oil components can produce high -
temperature corrosion, ( HTC). The Vanadium in
fuel is chemically bound with sodium from ( sea ) Cylinder heads after disassembly of the valves and valve
water and forms a sticky slag, which can affect the drives; ready for cleaning.
oxide coating on the valves.
Mso, see Chapter 9, Fuel - injection systems. of 15,000 operating hours, this amounts to
750 x 60 x 15,000 = 750,000,000 times!
Moreover, the slag is oxygen - rich and therefore
forms an extra oxide coating. This process repeats Key points for exhaust valves
itself continuously in an aggressive, rapid fashion. Valve seat: pitting due to the impact of solid
Special valve materials may be able to prevent this particles. Blow - through, wear and tear.
process. Seat in the head: as above, pay attention to cracks.
Valve disc: corrosion of material by HTC, usually
Also, see Chapter 29, Use of materials for diesel visible through porous surface material.
engines. Valve stem: damage to the surface; crumbling of the
chromium top layer if present; top of the valve stem:
At a rpm of 1500, 750 complete processes in a four- crater formation due to valve drives.
stroke diesel engine are performed , one every second
revolution . Therefore, valves are opened and closed Key points for inlet valves
750 times! With the service life expectancy for valves Obviously, these do not experience as high a pressure
as the exhaust valves. The airflow is cool and
uncontaminated.
Valve seat: check for pitting and wear.
High-temperature corrosion frequently occurs in engines Seat: as above, pay attention to cracks.
running on HFO. Valve stem: check for wear, pitting and damage to Two cleaned multi-cylinder
the top of the stem . heads for Caterpillar
The valve material exhibits craters and cracks. engines.
271
A conveyor washing
machine for cleaning
engine parts at Engine
factory Bolier, Dordrecht,
The Netherlands.
Carbon deposits and other

solids are removed effectively.
Procedure for reconditioning valves

- Cleanse in a special washing machine, tank or
other device with a carbon - and degreasing agent. A dry-blast cabinet for cleaning parts.
- If required , scrape off the hardened layers or
blast - clean them in a blasting box with an 1 entry hatch
abrasive. 2 viewing window

- Check for surface damage, burns and cracks.
3 gloves for handling the parts inside the cabinet
- Check the quality of the sealing surface. Often
a thin layer of valve material has peeled off; this

occurs in , for instance, rewelded valves.
After cleaning, inlet- and

exhaust valves are
inspected for hair -line
cracks and the dimensions
are checked.
Installing inlet- and exhaust

valves in reconditioned
cylinder heads for
Caterpillar MaK 32 medium-
speed heavy-fuel engines.
The valves are hand polished

in their new seats.
272
CH 3 1 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES A N D T H E I R PARTS
Trueing up the valve seat

Essentially, two methods are used .
1 Grinding the seat with a grinding machine. 2 Turning the seat with a chisel housed in a
cutting device.
HUNGER
i
^
7C
A 'Hunger ' valve - grinding machine. The valve seat is reconditioned using a chisel in this
machine from 'Hunger '
The valve seat is ground at the correct angle until it is smooth and
clean. Shown here, a seat is overhauled using a rotary cutting machine
with a chisel mounted on the new valve guide that used as the
centre line.
Grinding a valve seat using

a grinding stone mounted
on a special grinding
machine.
The accuracy of the grinding

angle is crucial. Grinding takes
place using degrees and
minutes where one minute is
1 /60th of a degree!
273
Trueing up the valve- seat casing

The machining is similar to that used for the valve
seats:
1 grinding
2 turning using a small chisel.
A valve- seat grinding

machine from Chris-Marine.
Small grinding stones are used. Correct angle setting accord- Precision-built grinding motor with a
ing to the engines designer's specially designed bearing arrange -
specifications. ment for vibration-free grinding.
Proven grinding wheels, selected for

each type of metal alloy, surface finish
and workload.
Accurate and clearance -free

bearings in the machine
body.
Robust attachment of the

grinding machine to the
engine component. Accurate
centering provided by
precision-made spindles
Chris-Marine Valve Seat Grinding Machine type MSD on a 4- stroke cylinder head
£
S
S is the maximum burn depth for a valve before scrapping. Cylinder heads after thorough reconditioning; ready to be
mounted on an engine.
The cardboard envelope contains a complete packing set. Each

head is provided with a data label.
274
CH31 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES AND THEIR PARTS
Drives Cylinder heads

Obviously, a general overhaul of the cylinder head Due to increased pressures in the cylinder, the
includes inspection of the valve drives and the valve mechanical load on the cylinder heads is constantly
lever mechanisms. increasing. Most four -stroke engines with individual
cylinder heads have four head - bolts, which in large
Procedure cylinder bores are hydraulically tensioned . The
- Degrease the parts. cylinder- liner seal is heavily loaded necessitating a
- Inspect for damage, cracks and pitting. precise fit of the surfaces.
- Measure the pivot clearances. They can be machined in various ways. The cylinder
- Repair excessive clearances. head on the cooling- water side must also be cleaned
and meticulously inspected .
Bushes of, amongst others, valve levers are usually The heads are submerged in a cleansing tank, for the
renewed . removal of deposits. Prior to inspection , they are
Valve springs are checked for fractures and the rinsed with clean water for the removal of residual
relaxed spring length is measured . If the springs have solvents.
become too short due to material fatigue, they are The freeze plugs are re-fitted.
scrapped and replaced.
The cylinder - head flame plate is checked for burning,
Push rods must be straight . Rolling them along a corrosion and cracks.
level surface shows if they are bent.
Valve springs and the entire

valve movement require
thorough inspection for
damage and corrosion.
Cylinder heads of a
Caterpillar MaK engine
under construction.
1 freeze plugs
275
The cylinder-head flame

plate.
1 inlet valves
2 exhaust valves
3 bore for s tarting-air valve
4 bore for fuel injector
5 bore for relief safety valve
6 bore for indicator cock
A damaged cylinder head.
A piece of material is clearly

visible, probably part of an
exhaust valve, lodged between
the cylinder head and the
piston.
The cooling- water spaces inthe heads are ‘pressure

tested’ with clean tap water to check for leaks
through covers or freeze plugs caused by tearing.
Pressure testing the cooling- water space containing the

cylinder liners for a newly built medium- speed four- stroke
HFO engine.
The yellow glands are used to place the cylinder liner under the
same pressure that the cylinder heads will exert on them when
assembled. For 24 hours, the cooling-water pressure is checked
for pressure loss. Above a certain pressure -reduction percentage,
it can be concluded that leaks have occurred.
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A N D T H E I R P A R T S
Valve seats are cooled in liquid nitrogen to a temperature

of 180 °C below zero to facilitate their assembly in the
cylinder heads.
When the seats are at ambient temperature, they are firmly fixed.
Top right; the starting-air supply bore. In the centre of the head;
the fuel-injector bore.
Valve seats are usually nitrogen - cooled and then

fitted. When the seat is heated, it expands to fit Levelling a cylinder head
snugly onto the cylinder head. with a portable planing
machine.
An insulated liquid-nitrogen drum.
In multiple- or multi - cylinder heads, the sealing Together they must seal the cylinder liner at
surface is often refaced to achieve a true seal on the increasingly higher pressures.
block. Furthermore, the piston must transfer the pressure
This is done using a grinding stone on a surface - in the combustion space to the crank- connecting rod
planing table. mechanism .
Piston - and piston - ring wear is caused by:
The safety valve and indicator cock, if present, - abrasive combustion products and particles;
must be removed and cleaned. The sealing surfaces - metal- on - metal contact between the piston rings,
inspected and re - assembled after renewing gaskets piston - ring grooves and the cylinder liner. This
and refacing the sealing areas. Safety valves should mainly occurs at the beginning of the combustion
be tested; they must open at the correct pressure. stroke.
- corrosion, chemical damage at low engine loads;
31.2.2 Pistons and piston rings low temperature corrosion occurs when sulphuric
acid is formed.
These parts are particularly heavily loaded in diesel Sulphur is found in heavy fuel oil.
engines.
277
Light - metal pistons in smaller engines are cleaned

and inspected . When the recommended service life
for the pistons has been reached , they are replaced
together with the piston rings.
Pistons of larger engines are dismantled , cleaned

and inspected. If the dimensions are correct and the
service life inside recommendations, both parts are
re - used.
The three - part piston - ring package is usually
replaced .
When the top piston - ring groove is chromium -

plated , it is plated with a new chromium coating. It is
imperative that the inside of the piston is adequately Damage to engine parts can be extensive.
cleaned and checked during inspection. Cooling the
piston using lubricating oil is vital. A piston (1) from a four- stroke trunk-piston engine, which has
seized in the cylinder is shown above. The camshaft (2) is bent.
31.2.3 Cylinder liners A connecting-rod bolt probably sheared resulting in free
movement of the connecting rod in the crankcase, which
Pistons, piston rings and cylinder liners all have damaged the engine.
a certain ‘service life’: the number of operating
hours between major overhauls they should achieve
without failure.
Abrasion by combustion products and chemical
damage resulting from low - temperature corrosion T
which occurs at low engine loads are the main causes Pistons manufactured in two parts, such as those found in
of wear. medium- speed engines, are disassembled, cleaned,
inspected and, if necessary, repaired.
Foreground: pistons without a piston crown.

Background: the piston crowns.
1 piston skirt
2 piston crown
New piston, assembled 3 bolt holes for attaching the crown/ skirt
from two parts. 4 cooling -oil bores for piston-crown cooling
CH31 > RECONDITIONING ENGIN E5 AN D TH ElR PARTS
Honing-stone holder with

honing stones.
1 honing stone
2 holder
Cylinder liners prior to honing. There are many premises regarding proper honing,
subjects such as honing patterns, honing times,
Procedure honing liquids and honing movements are just a few
- Decarbonise, degrease and clean the entire liner. of the many.
- Inspect rim at the top of the cylinder. Generally, plateau honing is performed after coarse
- Inspect the honing pattern on the cylinder wall. honing, creating a polished honing pattern so that The honing pattern after
- Inspect the sealing areas. ‘running in the liner surface is no longer necessary. honing in a used cylinder
- Check the cooling bores. liner.
- Measure the liner diameter at various heights and
at a 90° angle.
- Wear of the rim .
- Plateau - honing of the cylinder liner.

- Measure the liner diameter, see above.
Glazing
After a certain operating time, cylinder liners can
show signs of glazing. The honing pattern completely
disappears and the surface area shows signs of being
polished by carbon particles produced during the
combustion process. Honing can completely remove
this glazing.
Honing gives a precise

finish of the cylinder- liner 's
running surface.
279
Also rounds off edge wear
'
/
/
y
y
y
\y .
//. /1
/
y.
c
/
/
Cylinder honing set with four honing stones. Cylinder-

honing sets for the larger cylinder diameters may have as
many as eight honing stones resulting in a true 'round'
honing, also for very large cylinder diameters.
This mobile honing machine allows cylinder liners to be

honed without disassembling the engine. It can also
Honing a cylinder liner in remove the glazing.
the engine.
Several features of correct honing ( Mahle )
1 Uniformity of the honing pattern

In general, the cylinder wall must be shiny,
uniform and true.
2 Honing groove shape

Cutting edges must be clean and sharp, uniform
groove width with a maximum width of 0.1 mm.
3 Honing groove position

Uniform cutting pattern for the reciprocating
stroke.
4 Honing angle
Must lie between 30 and 60 degrees.
CH 31 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES AND THEIR PARTS
Used liner After 3 minutes of basic honing

The overall condition of a liner may not be The surface exhibits marks, ovalty and
apparent until after a few honing strokes. imperfections.
Normal honing angles lie between 30 and 60 degrees.
An overview of cylinder- liner honing, the procedure

followed by Chris Marine, known as plateau honing.
After 8 minutes of basic honing After 14 minutes of basic honing
The full extent of material to be removed The imperfections are beginning to disappear. The entire procedure of transforming a 'glazed' cylinder liner to
becomes clear. one with an optimal running surface takes approximately one
hour.
Plateau honing; the ideal running surface is obtained in

three phases.
After 22 minutes of basic honing After 3 minutes of plateau honing left picture: worn and almost completely glazed surface,
Roundness has now been restored and surface The plateau honing has removed the coarse centre picture: roughly honed surface with deep grooves and
marks removed. peaks, providing a good running surface for high peaks (Rmax ).
the piston rings. right picture: the third finish hones down the peaks and creates
an ideal honing pattern, resulting in an ideal running surface for
5 Honing pattern the piston and the piston rings, yet leaving sufficient groove
Sharply cut, neither blocked nor flattened and no depth and width for the lubricating oil.
burring.
Ra = 0.32 Ra = 2.83 Ra = 1.09
6 Plateau - honing max = 3.8
Rmav Rmax = 25.2 Rmax = 10.2
By pre- honing as well as post- honing. Mr = 97% Mr = 15% Mr = 71 %
7 Roughness of the honing pattern.

+
The guide values for diesel engines are:
:
Rz = 4 - 8 pm ( microns)
Ra = 0.8 - 1.2 pm ( microns) T
A 1.5 pm
TR-value plateau - honing pattern
normal honing pattern

B 83%
A 2.5 pm
i
B 91%
(Core Roughness)
T U
Rk = 0.5 - 1.3 pm
R k < 0.3 pm ( Peak Roughness )
Rvk 1.0 - 4.0 pm ( Valley Roughness)
Ra < 1.0 pm ( Average Roughness )
( Peak / Valley Roughness )
+1
Rz = 4 - 8 pm
281
Examples of correct
cylinder -liner honing
methods from
Chris Marine.
C -M RESULT INFERIOR RESULT C -M RESULT INFERIOR RESULT

C-M Result = Chris Marine. Oval cylinder liners are a common problem Under certain circumstances, a four -leafed
that should be regularly dealt with. Round clover wear can occur in a cylinder liner. To
cylinder liners can be achieved by using restore good roundness requires a machine
machines that have: that has:
• adequately designed 4 or 8 - armed honing • adequately designed 8 - armed honing head
head with a rack and pinion system with a rack and pinion system
• a totally reliable mechanical stone pressure • a totally reliable mechanical stone pressure
adjustment system adjustment system
Offl C -M RESULT INFERIOR RESULT

Scuffing marks may be caused by worn piston
rings, carbon deposits or fuel-borne contam -
inants. Such a condition can be difficult to
C -M RESULT INFERIOR RESULT
As cylinder liners usually wear at the top
sooner than the bottom, a trumpet shape
can sometimes occur. This needs to be re -
improve and therefore requires a high moved leaving a long transition that reduces
capacity machine that : the load exerted on both the piston and the
• comes with a variety of tested and proven piston rings. A cylindric or slightly tapered
honing stones geometry can best be achieved with a
• has a suitable stroke length to fit the machine that:
cylinder liners • is specifically designed for demanding
• provides for effective operator control of cylinder liner maintenance work
the honing work • provides for the correct honing methods for
different kinds of cylinder liners
Inspection methods
1 Visual inspection, finger nail and coin tests 3 Surface measurement

These are frequently employed . Experienced The cylinder surface is probed by an electronic
technicians can give assessments in combination device and the roughness ( in Rt , Rz or Ra ) is
with other tests. These methods are inadequate measured according to a certain scale.
and indefinable. Furthermore, it is advisable to use a profilometer,
which registers the roughness on a profile
2 Fax-film diagram . Preferably, a roughness measurement
An imprint is made of the cylinder surface using according to Abbott’s bearing curve.
a plastic cellulose acetate film of approximately
0.2 millimetres thick. This imprint is magnified Important aspects for the achievement of good
which allows for precision assessments of the results in surface processing for cast - iron cylinders
honing features as detailed in points 2, 3, 4, 5 and - Only use suitable machines and accessories.
6. - Take note of the following when tensioning,
Procedure: Clean the test surface with acetone tensioning regulations drawn up by the engine
( a degreaser ), re - treat with acetone and press factory, levelling, equal tension forces and prevent
the sheet of fax - film on the surface until the twisting of the part .
acetone has evaporated ( 10 to 15 seconds ). - Precision drilling to approximately
Remove the film , and place the imprint of the 0.04 - 0.006 mm , dependent on the diameter.
cylinder running -surface under a microscope or a - Hone for a minimum of 0.03 mm material
microfiche reader and assess. removal, dependent on the diameter. This is
required as the groove depth and the resulting
hard zone can reach this depth during precision
drilling.
282
CH3 1 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES A N D T H E I R PARTS
- Do not hone dry.

- Hone cylinders throughout the entire surface so A worn cylinder liner.
that the thickened rim is completely removed. The thickened rim is clearly
- Use the prescribed honing oil ( correct viscosity ) visible.
for the honing stones and material. Cool, if
required .
- The honing oil must be sprayed under pressure
against the cylinder wall. Material and honing-
stone residues must be flushed away immediately
so that they are not pressed into the cylinder wall
or honing- pattern grooves.
Re - used honing oil must be thoroughly filtered. Assembly of a
Filters must be cleaned or replaced on a regular re-conditioned diesel
basis. Honing oil must be refreshed regularly. engine. The engine has new
- Use ceramic honing stones, if possible; these allow bearings, cylinder liners,
a sharper cut than diamond stones as they have pistons and re-conditioned
self-sharpening properties. cylinder heads.
- When selecting honing stones, the hardness of the
cylinder material must be taken into account.
- Rule of thumb: the harder the material, the softer
the honing stones.
Perform a visual inspection after honing: all the The cylinder liner of a large
cylinders should have a uniform shine and a incorrectly dismantled four-
glossy-silver finish. stroke engine for repair.
After honing, clean the cylinder block and
cylinder liners thoroughly.
Machining
Cylinder liner shapes.
- Taper
Stroke is too long.
Stroke is set too high .
Honing stones and guides are not trued up.
Honing stroke on the wide side is too high and
too low on the narrow side.
- Bell mouth ( top and bottom too wide )

Stroke too long.
Honing stroke on both sides too small.
- Barrel (top and bottom narrower than in the

centre )
Stroke too short.
Honing stroke on both sides too small.
In used cylinder liners, a spray coating can be applied on

the liner above the highest position of the piston. This has
the same effect as an anti-polishing ring.
1 running surface of the cylinder liner

2 coating
283
31.2.4 Crankshafts and bearings The crankshaft drives the camshaft via the geared
wheels, which in turn drive the fuel pumps and inlet -
and exhaust valves.
In many four-stroke engines, the main lubricating-
oil pump, fresh - water pump and untreated cooling-
water pumps are also driven by the camshaft via the
crankshaft.
The camshaft of a four-stroke engine rotates at half
the speed of the crankshaft , it makes one revolution
for every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
The entire process takes 720 crank degrees.
If the engine is started using starting-air systems

connected to each cylinder, additional control- cams
are mounted on the camshaft .
Today, an increasing number of larger engines are
started via a starter on the flywheel.
Also see Chapter 13, Diesel -engine starting systems.
New crankshafts made from a single forging ready for Together with the engine frame, the crankshaft is the
their final finishing, this includes the bolt holes for the most expensive part of the engine.
counterweights. MAN Diesel, Hamburg, Germany. Crankshaft damage necessitates elaborate and
expensive repairs. In large engines, damage to, for
instance, the journals can sometimes be repaired
In four-stroke engines, the engine - driving gear without dismantling the crankshaft. This is also
consists of the crankshaft , the connecting rod and referred to as in - situ reconditioning.
the piston . Crankshaft damage or damage to the drive gearing
often means severe damage to the entire engine.
Classification agencies have very detailed regulations

with respect to material use, size and manufacturing
methods for crankshafts.
Also, see Chapter 33, Regulations for propulsion

engines , classification , repair and damage.
The drive gearing of an

engine, such as the
crankshaft, gears,
the camshaft, connecting
rods and pistons, must all
be precisely installed in the
engine.
The centre lines of the

crankshaft and the camshaft
must run parallel. The centre
line of the pistons must be

perpendicular to the centre
line of the crankshaft. Gear
alignment is important .
284
CH3 1 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES ANDTHEIR PARTS
1 Damage in the crankcase

usually means damage to
the crankshaft itself. Shown
here, a case of total engine
loss.
T
A large crankshaft lathe at
Mark van Schaick,
Schiedam, The Netherlands.
The running surface of this crankshaft journal is damaged.

It is possible to grind this journal to the next possible
'undersize'.
Damaged crankshafts for re -conditioning.
Usually, the crankshaft journals or crankpins are damaged. After a

thorough inspection entailing measurement inspection, surface
hardness check and a hair- crack test amongst others, the shaft is
ground to an undersize. 'Thicker ' bearing shells must be installed.
31.2.4.1 Common crankshaft damage. Warming a heated crankshaft. Sometimes an

overheated journal is reheated in an attempt to
1 Overheating reduce the hardness. This is performed in situ with
Mostly a result of inadequate lubrication between electric ‘heat strips’. The results vary, but the original
the crankshaft journal or crankpin and the hardness is not usually achieved and the hardness
bearing. All crankshafts that overheat are bent . remains high. If the engine supplier accepts the
Generally, crankshaft beds or engine blocks are acquired hardness, approval from the classification
rigid and the crankshaft is ‘limp’. The lubricating- agency usually follows. This method avoids the time -
oil pressure in the bearing keeps it ‘afloat’, that consuming and expensive dismantling of the engine
is, the crankshaft is supported by the oil film to remove the crankshaft.
in the bearing so it is not in contact with the
bearing material. If the bed or block as well as the Hard crankshafts ( categories I and II ) turn ‘soft’
crankshaft are too rigid , the rotating crankshaft when the crankpin or the journals overheat .
will not be supported by the lubricating- oil film Flame hardening is a surface- hardening process
resulting in wear and increased friction . applied to the journal.
2 Fractured connecting-rod bolts Method: The material is heated with a high -
By overloading or poor assembly of the temperature gas flame to approximately 600 °C
connecting- rod bolts, the connecting rod can followed by quenching using jets of water resulting
become detached from the crankshaft and cause in rapid cooling. The structure of the material
extensive damage. surface is transformed and acquires a significant
Connecting- rod bolts can lose their strength if increase in hardness.
re - used too often . The technical manual should
always be consulted in order to check how often T
the bolts may be used ! Changing the crankshaft in a diesel engine onboard.
3 Dilution of lubricating oil
The lubricating properties of lubricating oil can This is an expensive and time - consuming procedure.
deteriorate considerably due to, for instance, In four- stroke engines, the entire block must be hydraulically
either ageing of the lubricating oil or fuel and / or supported, so the crankshaft can be 'dropped' out from below the
coolant leaks. engine. All partitions or doors must be removed so the crankshaft
Diluted lubricating oil results in a reduction of can be transported out of the engine room.
the hydrodynamic lubrication of the bearings Often a large hole is cut in the hull closest to the engine room
resulting in metal on metal contact between the using cutting torches.
shaft and the bearing.
31.2.4.2 Crankshaft hardness

The hardness for ‘soft’ crankshafts is measured
according to the Brinell scale. For ‘hard’ crankshafts,
the Rockwell C scale is used .
For spray coatings, such as chromium , the Vickers
scale is used , the base coat of thin coatings is
often also measured , thereby giving incorrect
measurements!
Large crankshafts for engines in categories III
and IV are generally ‘soft’. The material hardness is
approximately 150 to180 Brinell for C 45 crankshafts
and 220 to 260 Brinell for 42 Cr crankshafts.
Smaller crankshafts in engine categories I and II are
usually ‘hard’. They have been surface - hardened . The
hardness is approximately 45 to 65 Rockwell C.
Soft crankshafts (categories III and IV ) can become
‘ hard’ when the crankpin or the crankshaft journal
overheats. The hardness can rise from 200 to
600 Brinell.
286
CH31 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES ANDTHEIR PARTS
Surface hardening can also be achieved with a

nitrogen process: induction hardening. A hard
plated chrome layer with a maximum thickness of
approximately one millimetre can also be applied.
Tearing of the journals often occurs because

of material fatigue, torque and overloading.
Microscopic tears deepen resulting in crankshaft
fractures and total engine loss.
Inferior vibration dampers may be the root cause of
the problem . Vibration dampers should be regularly
inspected.
The filling found in dampers usually contains
a highly viscous silicone fluid ( jelly or oil ) . It is
therefore advisable to test the vibration dampers.
A special testing device is used that introduces
vibrations into the coupling. The extent to which the Grinding the crankshaft starts from the centre axis to Grinding a large crankshaft
vibrations are damped indicates the effectiveness of the left and then right and then to the middle. at Mark van Schaick,
the vibration damper. In the centre of the crankshaft , the value given on the Schiedam, The Netherlands.
dial gauges must be 0.000 mm!
Heat - induced cracks are generally superficial and 1 supports
can be removed by polishing on a ( crankshaft ) Clearance of journals and crankpins 2 grinding stone
grinding machine. If the crack cannot be removed by 1

Rule of thumb: mm or 0.001 times the diameter
polishing or grinding, the crankshaft is scrapped . 100
clearance per 10 mm shaft diameter.
The material used in crankshafts can always be
traced via a database. The hardness is particularly A shaft with a diameter of 250 mm:
important . The undamaged section always has the the clearance of the bearings may not exceed
initial base hardness. 250 1 _ 25
To x 100 loo mm.
" "
Renewing bearing shells

It is imperative that the selected bearing is 31.2.4.4 Crankpin wear
manufactured from the same material as that of Crankpins and crankpin bearings are heavily loaded.
the original shells. Bearing shells have standard Hydrodynamic lubrication is not optimal as the
‘oversizes’. forces fluctuate in both size and direction . This
The engineer operating a crankshaft - grinding often causes boundary lubrication where insufficient
machine knows precisely how much material can be lubricant -film thickness allows surface contact
removed in order to obtain the first oversize. Only between pins and bearings. Localised wear occurs
OEM -shells should be used resulting in an oval -shaped shaft. This occurs more
( OEM = Original Equipment Manufacturer ). often in certain types of engines from certain engine
manufacturers.
Straightening / trueing up an overheated crankshaft An absolutely round shape with a smooth surface
Crankshafts with a crankpin or main journal that has area can be obtained by grinding the shaft .
overheated are always bent . They can be straightened
hydraulically or by hammering around the radius
with hammering tools and a heavy hammer.
A large crankpin for a
31.2.4.3 Grinding the crankshaft medium- speed diesel
The crankshaft is positioned at ‘zero’ in the centre of engine.
the grinding machine.
Depending on the size of the crankshaft, stays An attempt to straighten the
are placed underneath the journals to prevent crankshaft by hammering has
crankshafts from bending under their own weight. only been partially sucessful.
They also absorb the pressure exerted by the This crankshaft is irreparable!
grinding process.
287
The crankpin must be true. After repairs, the crankshaft must be approved according
to the classification bureau regulations. This is referred to
Measuring the roundness is important after a large number of as the 'release' of the crankshaft.
operating hours. The pin often assumes an oval shape, which is
then ground down to a smaller diameter.
The main - and crankpin journals of the crankshafts After this machining process, a protocol is drawn up
are manufactured with a certain oversize and may be with the new dimensions of the crankpins and the
ground - down several times without dimensioning journals. This practice is referred to as acceptance’:
problems. Obviously, oversized ( thicker ) bearing the crankshaft meets the classification agency
shells must be used. standards.
Standard sizes are normally used so the shaft can be
ground to a certain diameter ( undersize ). Grooves in the running surface of crankpins and
journals
A damaged crankshaft on a
crankshaft lathe, a type of
grinding machine.
The grinding stones ( 1 ) have a

large radius and varying
hardness and grit sizes.
Grinding a small crankshaft.

A
A worn crankpin .
These grooves are often a result of overheating, caused in part by

insufficient lubricating oil. Moreover, dirt particles in the
lubricating oil may have come into contact with the shaft, for
instance, via a damaged filter or as a result of certain activities that
have contaminated the cooling system.
If the grooves are shallow, the shaft or pin can be ground.
288
CH 3 1 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES ANDTHEIR PARTS
31.2.4.5 Modification of the material structure

Overheating and groove formation cause a
temporary temperature increase of the material. The
running surfaces often turn blue. This usually means
that the running-surface temperature has risen to
approximately 700 °C.
This changes the material structure.
Unalloyed carbon-steel crankshafts harden .
Local soft areas occur in alloyed hardened

crankshafts.
These phenomena cause a tension increase in the A magnetic field is used to detect superficial cracking.
surface layers of the material. This can result in the
formation of hairline cracks, ultimately resulting in a A coil is placed on the shaft and this generates a magnetic field. A
shaft fracture. contrast liquid is applied to the shaft and the surface is inspected
These areas’ can be located simply by performing with a lamp. A crack can be discerned by an interruption in the
a hardness test on location . Dependent on the colour of the shaft. This process is called 'Magnafluxing'.
difference between the hardness of the areas and
the hardness of the shaft , a decision can be made as
to whether the shaft or crankpin should be ground
to a certain undersize so that there is no or very Crankshaft cracks are a result of material overload.
little discrepancy between the hardnesses. Clearly, The excessive load may be produced by torsional
the shaft must be ground to below the minimum stress, generated by torque and torsional vibrations.
prescribed shaft diameter. Under normal operating conditions, this need not
be a problem . Often torsional vibrations are at
31.2.4.6 Cracking of crankshafts the core of the problem . When the engine speed
approximates the number of natural vibrations of
the crankshaft , the torsional stress can increase to a
point where the crankshaft cracks.
These fractures are generally easily recognisable. The
cracked surface is often at an angle of approximately
45° to the centre line of the crankshaft.
Extremely large bending stress may also cause over-
all damage to the crankshaft when the crankshaft is
not aligned.
The most important causes are:
- wear of the main shaft bearings;
- loading of the ship;
- distortion of the engine bedplate due to extreme

weather conditions or the ship running aground;
A - incorrect bedplate design in diesel - power plants
Check the journals for hairline cracks. and power barges;
- temperature influences.
The shaft can often be repaired by grinding when the cracks are
superficial. 31.2.4.7 Damage to the crankshaft by a seized
If the cracks are too deep, the shaft is written off. piston
The crack depth can be established using a small grinding stone. If piston rings seize in the cylinder because of
Some second- rate firms weld the cracks. insufficient cooling or poor lubrication, extensive
This is obviously pointless and the shaft is then scrapped! damage often follows.
289
The piston crown seizes at the top of the cylinder 31.2.4.8 Damage caused by counterweights
liner. The piston skirt with the piston pin is torn detaching from the crankshaft
from the piston crown , and the moving connecting When the engine speed far exceeds the maximum
rod severely damages the frame and the crankshaft . allowable speed, the counterweights may detach
The connecting rod is often detached from the from the crankshaft because the bolts attaching
crankpin when the connecting- rod bolts break and the counterweights to the crankshaft break. In this
the counterweight bolts on the crankshaft detach . All case, the maximum allowable bolt tensile stress is
these fractured parts cause denting in the crankshaft. exceeded. Severe damage to the crankshaft follows.
These are irreparable resulting in the crankshaft
being declared a total loss. 31.2.4.9 Crankshaft damage as a result of
If the seized piston damages the frame irreparably, incorrect installation of the main
the engine is a total loss. bearing shells
This can occur when technicians do not know how
to install the bearing shells or where special attention
is required.
Key points: the bearing shells must be clean and
show no signs of damage. During fitting, grease or
oil must not be applied to the back of the shell to
facilitate insertion of the bearing shell. The thickness
of this grease or oil layer is often greater than the
The bolts of the counterweights must be tightened and clearance between the shaft and the bearing shell!
secured with the utmost precision . Detached When installing the bottom bearing, the bolts for
counterweights can cause irreparable damage to the the bearing- cap on the bottom bearing shell must be
crankshaft. equally tensioned. In accordance with the regulations
of the manufacturer, the vertical and horizontal
It can be determined if the crankshaft has undergone an bearing- fixing bolts can then be attached.
'overspeed' even when the counterweights are still attached to
the crankshaft properly. Furthermore, it is important to know if a crankshaft
After removal of the counterweights, the crankshaft faces and the is equipped with the originally fitted bearings or if
counterweight faces exhibit smooth friction spots. This is caused one or several oversized bearings have been used
by stretching of the fixing bolts to the extent that the faces of the after crankshaft repairs.
crankshaft and the counterweight are no longer in contact, thus
allowing for micro -movements independent of each other.
290
CH 31 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES AND THEl R PARTS
31.2.4.10 Acid damage to the journals and

crankpins
Sulphur found in fuel can form sulphur dioxide in
the combustion space and can move past the piston
rings and be found in the crankcase if maintenance
schedules are not kept, for instance, lubricating-oil-
cleaning and changing.
Subsequently, sulphuric acid may be formed with
water vapour. Under good operating procedures,
the acid is neutralised by an alkaline additive in the
lubricating oil and therefore no damage can occur to
the crankshaft.
Also, see Chapter 18, Lubrication of engines.
If no or little attention is paid to the quality of the

lubricating oil, for instance, failure to sample and
test the lubricating oil, the alkaline additive could be
exhausted, thus allowing sulphuric acid to damage
the crankshaft. Black stains or pitting will appear on
the journals, which damage the running surface.
Corrosion of the crankshaft may also occur when
there is leakage of cooling water or coolant,
although this is less aggressive than sulphuric-acid An in- line engine frame 'on its head' The crankshaft
corrosion. counterweights must still be fitted.
This problem is averted by taking samples at regular
intervals!
Damaged bearings
Bearings in an engine have a short life span as they the state of engine maintenance. Inadequately
are heavily loaded; corrosive and mechanical wear in functioning piston rings and exhaust -valve
particular are significant . stems whose clearances are outside normal
In four-stroke trunk- piston engines, the quality of parameters lead to an increase in lubricating- oil
the fuel plays a decisive role. consumption.
Obviously, the service life of bearings is largely
.
31.2 4.11 Key points for an extended operating dependent on operating conditions and varies
time from manufacturer and engine type.
These are:
- suitable lubricating - oil treatment , such as Modern trimetal bearings, mainly used in both
filtration, separation and sampling; high -speed and medium - speed four-stroke engines,
- preventing external contamination of the engine are not reconditioned.
during maintenance; They are usually replaced with a new bearing after a
- capping lubricating - oil bores in crankpins during certain number of operating hours.
repairs, and capping all openings leading to the The total thickness of the bearing shell can be
lubricating- oil system; measured in order to establish the extent of wear.
- pre- lubrication of the engine ensuring all vital
engine parts are properly lubricated prior to start; After a certain number of operating hours, the lead -
- check lubrication during operation by monitoring bronze base coat or the emergency- running coating
lubricating - oil pressures, lubricating-oil gradually emerges. This means that the actual
temperatures and the lubricating- oil level friction material, an aluminium alloy, has been
in the crankcase. Monitoring lubricating- oil worn away. The criterion for scrapping a bearing is a
consumption is important as this indicates certain percentage of visible lead - bronze surface.
291
31.2.5 Camshafts and bearings T

Re- welding steel engine parts is a meticulous and complex
The cams on the camshaft are heavily loaded when procedure.
driving the high - pressure fuel pumps and inlet - and
exhaust valves. The quality of reconditioned engine parts does not always match
that of new engine parts. Shown here, a section of a camshaft .
A camshaft with, from left The cams are often damaged by grooves and
to right, the fuel cam, the indentations.
inlet cam, and the exhaust Small camshafts manufactured from a single forging
cam. are usually replaced .
In large camshafts, which consist of separate sections
for each cylinder, only the damaged section will be
replaced .
In separate hydraulically mounted cams, the
damaged cam can be replaced.
On occasion , cams are rewelded using a wear-
A finished engine block as resistant material. The original dimensions are then
seen from the front. The restored by grinding.
location of the crankshaft,
the camshaft, the Camshaft bearings are replaced by new ones when
scavenging-air ducting, scrapped.
and the internal pipes is
clearly visible. 31.2.6 Gears
Gears are subject to wear.

An older type camshaft for The shaft bearings of the gears are of primary
a four- stroke high- speed importance.
diesel engine. When the valve clearance is too large, the gearwheels
mesh differently causing wear.
This is made from a single The running surface must be checked for damage
forging, as opposed to modern and wear.
camshafts which are usually This normally only occurs with insufficient
manufactured in sections. gearwheel lubrication , contaminated lubricating oil
or an irregular load on the teeth.
Generally, when reduction gears are correctly
aligned , the wheels mesh smoothly and few problems
can be expected.
292
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A N D T H E l R PA R T S
The camshaft driven by the

crankshaft via gears.
This is a MAN four-stroke

medium- speed diesel engine
with a separate camshaft for
the fuel pump, and inlet - and
exhaust valves.
1 fuel cam
31.2.7 Fuel pumps and injectors
Fuel pumps
Pressures and temperatures in the fuel pumps can
rise considerably.
Peak fuel- pressures of 1000 to 2000 bar and fuel
temperatures of 140 °C are common when running
on HFO.
Extreme pressures also occur when running
on diesel oil; however, the fuel temperature is
significantly lower, 15 to 30 °C.
The camshaft drive with fuel cam, cam and plunger
are also heavily loaded.
A
Honing a fuelpump
Fuel- pump casing in the cylinder at MAN Prime Serv,
reconditioning workshop. Schiedam, The Netherlands.
During the honing process,

very little material is removed.
The running surface is finished
so that the seal between the
fuel-pump plunger and the
cylinder is restored.
293
Honing the pump cylinder.
1 honing machine with honing

stones (not visible)
2 pump cylinder
3 fasteners
4 mechanical rotating drive,
the reciprocating movement
is done by hand
A variety of honing tools

and honing stones.
Reconditioned fuel pumps.
All the openings are sealed to

keep out moisture and dirt.
Each pump is labelled.
294
Procedure
The fuel pump is disassembled and cleaned in a
washing machine.
Visual inspection is performed on parts subject
to wear, such as plungers, casings, pressure valves,
cavitation bolts and the driving mechanism.
The dimensions of, in particular, the plunger and
cylinder are measured.
Fuel pump and parts.
1 worn fuel plunger

2 reconditioned fuel plunger
3 cylinders or 'barrels'
4 reconditioned fuel pump
Plungers and barrels ( cylinders).
A polishing machine for

Disassembled fuel pumps, trueing up parts for
cleaned and ready for atomisers and fuel pumps.
inspection .
The parts are trued up by
1 plunger applying a fine sanding paste
2 barrel to the vibrating plate.
3 pump casing
4 gear rack
5 springs
6 buffer plate
7 adjustment sleeve
8 cap with locking gasket
295
J
Injectors
Adequate fuel - injector performance is essential
for a perfect combustion process in the cylinder.
The injectors must atomise the fuel at the correct
pressure.
Also, see Chapter 9, Fuel - injection systems.
Injectors must be removed from the cylinder head

after a prescribed number of operating hours and
tested by an injector- testing device. These are simple
manual test pumps, or mechanically- driven test
devices used by specialised firms.
During the test , the opening pressure and fuel
atomization is checked , including possible injector
leaks after the needle valve closes. Fuel atomisers require regular and meticulous
Injectors for large diesel maintenance. They are essential for optimum engine
engines. The contact faces operation.
have been buffed,
a fine -sanding process.
The latter is indicative of poor sealing of the needle

valve.
Furthermore, the injector casing and connection to
the fuel line is inspected for leaks.
When the injectors are inspected by specialised

companies, the entire injector is disassembled; the
various parts are cleaned , measured , repaired or
renewed.
During inspection , the following is checked:
- the sealing surface of the injector needle;
- the length of the relaxed spring;
- the shape and dimensions of the injector
perforations;
- the wear of the plunger and the casing;
- the pressure valve or the residual pressure valve,
if present;
- the shape of the nozzle and possible corrosion .
High temperatures may cause distortion of the

nozzle.
After assembly, the injectors are tested.

The spray patterns are also checked by placing
special paper or cardboard underneath the nozzle.
The nozzles. Every diesel engine has its own nozzle type.
296
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A N D T H EIR P A R T S
Fuel pumps for all the

Wartsila four -stroke
engines. The injectors are
tested at varying speeds
and loads.
The pumps are mounted on

an actuating machine
attached to a camshaft, which
measures injector
performances at varying
speeds.
An injector -test machine.
1 injector
2 fuel-supply line
3 test machine
A cutaway section of a
turbocharger.
1 turbine shaft
2 bearing on the exhaust - gas
side
3 thrust bearing
4 seal
5 exhaust - gas turbine
6 centrifugal compressor
7 turbine casing
31.2.8 Turbochargers or supercharging

Blades of an exhaust- gas groups
turbine for a turbocharger
are irreparably damaged. Supercharging groups are essential in the operation
This is most likely caused by of the diesel engine.
fragmented exhaust valves. Sufficient air supply for complete fuel combustion ,
cylinder scavenging and cooling of hot engine parts
in the combustion space, are important for efficient
engine operation and for its operating life. The
turbocharger must supply sufficient air at a certain
pressure.
Optimal turbocharger performance requires the

following:
The degree of contamination and damage to the
exhaust -gas turbine.
Damaged exhaust- gas

rotor, possibly caused by
fractured piston rings.
A piston- ring catcher is

sometimes placed before the
exhaust - gas turbine inlet
(two-stroke).
298
Combustion products such as carbon deposits may 31.2.8.2 Rotor- shaft bearings
settle on the blades and interfere with the flow of The speed of extremely large turbochargers is
hot exhaust gases, thus causing loss of turbocharger high, approximately 4000 to 6000 rpm. Very small
speed and consequently the capacity and the supply turbochargers for high -speed diesel engines can
pressure decrease: the engine receives less air. reach speeds from 60,000 to 120,000 rpm.
The pump impeller and the turbine wheel are
31.2.8.1 Contamination and damage to the air attached to a rotating turbocharger shaft. Correct
compressor balancing of this shaft is essential for the service life
Obviously, this occurs less frequently. The air- inlet of both bearings.
filter captures virtually all solid particles and the Therefore, the turbocharger is always dynamically
air temperature on the suction and delivery sides is balanced after turbocharger maintenance.
relatively low. The diffuser, the stationary section of Both bearings are disassembled , cleaned and all
the air compressor that converts the high air velocity the dimensions measured . The rotating parts are
generated by the impeller to pressure, is usually in replaced.
good condition.
Appropriate and regular maintenance is essential for

diesel- engine performance.
This air-inlet filter for a turbocharger is heavily contaminated. It

impedes the air supply to the engine -.
A complete rotor ready to

be used.
T
A cross- section of an ABB
VTC 254 turbocharger.
Note the large air filter with
sound damping, to the left
in the picture.
A contaminated exhaust- gas turbine reduces the capacity

of the turbocharger.
A
Bearing casings are cleaned, inspected and measured, then
re-assembled and mounted with new bearings.
A
All the moving parts of the turbine-rotor bearings, such as
ball bearings, spring packings and bushes are always
renewed with major turbocharger overhaul.
T
Each rotor is dynamically balanced at approximately 15% After arrival at the reconditioning workshop, the
of nominal speed. Subsequently as shown here, the other turbochargers are taken apart, cleaned, and measured.
parts are assembled.
A new compressor-impeller
is heated and then shrinks
to the compressor shaft.
ABB in Rotterdam,
The Netherlands.
300
CH 31 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES A N D T H E I R PARTS
A new design of a bearing-

casing.
The connection between the

outer ring, attached to the
casing and the ball-bearing
support ring is flexible. This is a
self-aligning bearing.
Exhaust- gas turbines for

the larger turbochargers
are equipped with
individual blades; these are
attached to the turbine-
wheel rim using blade feet.
1 turbine shaft
2 labyrinth seal
3 turbine wheel
4 turbine blade
5 lacing wire to dampen
vibrations
Casing
The materials used in the manufacture of the
exhaust - gas section are exposed to exhaust -gas
temperatures from 300 °C to 600 °C. Until recently,
the exhaust - gas section was double- walled and
large turbochargers were cooled with cooling water
circulating through this section. This is still common
practice in some new types of turbochargers
and , naturally, in older types. Corrosion and
contamination of the casing are the most frequently
occurring problems. There is also the possibility
of tearing at high temperatures, particularly of
uncooled parts or turbine casings.
Turbocharger casings after painting.
301
A A
A blade-attachment system for an exhaust- gas turbine Polishing the bearing position on a spray-coated built-up
on the turbine wheel. This is called the 'Christmas tree shaft section.
configuration'.
Spare impellers and nozzle

rings in a stock room.
1 impellers
2 nozzle rings
31.2.9 Governors
A small but vital part of a
diesel genset is the engine - Minor maintenance to governors is performed when
speed governor. they are mounted on the engine.
This maintenance comprises refilling or changing
1 governor the lubricating oil, lubricating the shaft system to the
2 fuel pump fuel pumps and inspection of the governor during
3 fuel - adjusting spindle
4 supply- line for the fuel pump
operation .
5 delivery- line for the fuel pump Reconditioning is performed by specialised
companies, such as Woodward and Europa.
The governor is disassembled , cleaned and inspected.
Worn parts are replaced and the governor is tested
prior to assembly.
Also, see Chapter 12, Speed control
302
CH3 1 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A N D T H E I R P A R T S
The governor is essential for speed adjustment .
A defective or poorly operating governor results in engine over -

speed, which can cause engine damage. Proper maintenance and
the correct settings are important. The mechanical connections
between the governor and the fuel pump, a lever system, must
move freely.
1 fuel - block pump

2 drive from the crankshaft
3 emergency stop
4 adjusting spindle for the fuel - block pump
31.2.10 Engine blocks

A fractured crankshaft and
The engine block or frame of an engine may vary engine block .
with respect to construction and size from a small,
compact , light - metal cast block to a large, heavy cast When a small dredger sunk,
iron block or a built - up frame such as those in large water was sucked into the
two -stroke crosshead engines. engine above the pistons
Generally, the following damage occurs in engine causing the crankshaft to
blocks. break .
Seized pistons resulting in fracturing of the crank-
connecting rod mechanism.
This often produces severe damage to the engine
block, frequently leading to scrapping, especially in
four-stroke engines.
The block is irreparable.
A fractured cylinder liner

due to a seized piston.
Insufficient lubrication of the

piston is the cause.
303
Cooling- water corrosion Damaged alignment edges

This occurs in small engines with ‘wet’ cylinder These are often dented or corroded if two engine
liners as well as in larger engines. Most modern parts have micro - movements between one another,
four-stroke medium -speed diesel engines have a such as cylinder liners in the engine block. In blocks
dry block. Here the cooling water flows through the without protruding cylinder liners, this may also be
thickened upper rim of the cylinder liner protruding the case between a cylinder head and engine block.
from the block. The supporting edge of the frame, for instance, may
be damaged at the same height as the cylinder liners.
Cooling- water corrosion of This occurs regularly in large built - up frames for
the cylinder liner. This is pit two -stroke crosshead engines, especially near the
corrosion, a localized, deep bolted connections.
corrosion.
A heavily- oxidized cylinder

liner. This is caused by
ftJ T (
inadequate cooling- water
treatment.
A
^
A cross- section of a Wartsila 46 diesel engine, category III.
O Supports
304
The crankshaft must be

aligned to prevent bending
or fracturing of the shaft.
The shaft centreline is
constantly checked, from
casting to assembly in the
diesel engine.
Misalignment of the crankshaft and bearings water. The oxygen is chemically bound by additives
After a certain time, the crankshaft may no longer to the cooling- water.
be aligned due to deformation of the engine block.
This may be due to a seized part , such as, a seized Also, see Chapter 17, Cooling of gas-, dual - fuel - and
crankshaft due to an overheated bearing. diesel engines.
Furthermore, problems related to the attachment
of the engine block to the bedplate or the bedplate Damaged alignment edges in the block can be
itself may cause the misalignment of the frame and trued up by machining processes such as boring,
consequently the crankshaft. milling, grinding and sanding. In large engines,
the alignment edges in blocks can be trued up 'Meta- lock' a method of
Tears in the cast frame in four- stroke engines in -situ with special equipment. When performing putting fragments together
This occurs at excessively high material temperatures machining operations, dimensions are altered due to using stainless-steel clips.
or with mechanical overloading of the material.
Rapid temperature fluctuations and exceeding the
maximum operating temperatures may produce
tearing in a cast block.
Problem solving
A damaged cast - iron block can sometimes be
repaired provided no essential parts have been
damaged. This is referred to as ‘meta - locking’, a
method where the ‘fragments’ are put back together
with stainless steel clips.
Corrosion of the block is indicative of inadequate
cooling- water treatment.
If the corrosion is superficial and shallow, cleaning

and intensive cooling - water treatment is sufficient.
Many cooling - water treatment methods leave a film
on the cooled part and therefore protect the parts
from, for instance, oxygen found in the cooling
Special attention must be

given to the position of the
centre line of the
crankshaft. This is valid for
new engines, inspection
during operation and
during major engine
repairs.
Trimming the top alignment edges of an engine block with

a reaming machine.
the removal of material. At present , alignment edges lower bearing cap to the next undersize, a standard
of older parts are repaired with a synthetic resin . dimension for larger bearing shells.
In smaller engine blocks, misalignment of the Tearing of the cast frame

crankshaft may be fixed with line boring: the Generally, this cannot be repaired . In cases of serious
block is machined with line -boring equipment in a tearing, scrapping of the block must be considered .
specialized workshop or in -situ . During this process, Occasionally the start of the tear is ‘drilled’ to
material is removed from the block and the mounted prevent further tearing. This is done by drilling a
hole in the direction of the crack.
Line boring. The cylinder block has been turned 180°. An installation that allows mounted bearing caps to be
made in an oversize so that the oversized bearing shells,
1 engine frame and ultimately the crankshaft can be aligned.
2 bearing cap
3 pre-tensioned bearing -cap bolts
1 engine block
4 drive shaft of line- boring machine
2 mounted bearing caps
5 cutting section with small chisel near the bearing cap, barely
3 line- boring tool
visible
4 drive
306
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E NGIN ES A N D THEIR PA RTS
Reconditioning a
connecting rod. Line boring
the connecting- rod big
end/crankpin (in the
background) and (in the
foreground), the line boring
of the connecting-rod
head/piston pin.
31.2.11 Connecting rods - Subsequently, the crankpin - bearing bore is

machined to its original dimensions using a
A common problem is oval shaped crankpin rotating chisel.
bearings. - The complete connecting rod is labelled and
lubricated to prevent corrosion .
This excessive ovality may cause damage to the
crankshaft. Connecting rod with cracks
- The cracked serrations are machined until the
Inspection cracks disappear.
- The connecting rod is cleaned. - After pre- heating the connecting rod in an oven,
- Visual inspection of the parts. the machined section is rebuilt with an alloy
- Hair- crack test . certified by the manufacturer and according
- Thereafter, the connecting rod with cap is to a strict welding procedure. The rod is then
mounted and the bolts are tightened to the immediately stress- relieved by gradually cooling.
normal starting tension . The final process is machining of all teeth and
- Then the crankpin - bearing bore is measured in bores to their original dimensions
various positions.
- The pitch and position of the teeth are measured.
- The top angle of the teeth is found.
- The position of the locating piston pin is
measured.
- The straightness of the connecting rod is checked .
- The distance between the centre line of the piston All the faces that require
pin and crankpin is measured. inspection and possibly
- The total weight of the rod is measured for trueing up during
balancing purposes. reconditioning a four-
stroke engine.
There are two repair methods
Connecting rod without cracks

- The teeth are skimmed on a milling machine.
- Both toothed sections of the connecting- rod parts
are refitted and mating faces checked with blue
paste, bolts are tightened in accordance to the
engine - manufacturers’ instructions.
307
Two- stroke crosshead

engines have various parts
manufactured from steel or
steel alloys, for instance, the
A - frame, scavenging-air
space, drive gearing, piston,
cylinder cover and exhaust
valve.
Many of these parts can be
reconditioned by welding.
Top right: a disassembled cylinder cover ( 1 ) is cleaned for

inspection.
Reconditioned parts are

supplied with a certain
code, fortracing the
31.3 Two - stroke engines reconditioning company.
General
The pistons and the cylinder covers are
T manufactured from forged steel or cast steel ,
Several cracks in an older which can be welded. Therefore, the surface can be
type cylinder cover for a rewelded after removal of the damaged material. Visible cracks are often found in the section adjacent
crosshead engine with This is also valid for the exhaust valve. to the central exhaust valve.
inlet- and exhaust ports. The exhaust - valve casing containing the valve seat
31.3.1 Cylinder covers in the cylinder cover is also heavily loaded. The seat
The injector bore is positioned is frequently damaged so that the entire valve seat
in the centre of the cylinder, The section of the cylinder cover, which forms the requires replacing.
surrounded by large starting- top of the combustion chamber, is heavily thermally
air- and safety-valve bores. This loaded . Crack formation is often a result of this T
cylinder cover can be thermal loading. Cracks in a cylinder cover. These are known as thermal
reconditioned. cracks.
308
CH3 1 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A ND T H EI R P A R T S
A
Machining a cylinder cover. Rewelding a cylinder cover using fully automatic arc
welding. Note: the edge closest to the exhaust valve has
been damaged.
1 welds
Procedure cylinder cover 2 powder suction
After cleaning in a washing machine, the cover is

inspected for:
- hair- cracks in the thermally loaded parts; Welding methods for
- irregularities of the alignment edge with the various types of cylinder
cylinder liner; covers.
- contamination and cracking in the cooling - water
bores; The hatched or black section
- impurities in: the sealing faces of the exhaust - of the cylinder head is first
valve casing, injectors, starting- air valve, the removed and rewelded, and
safety valve and the indicator cock. then machined so that the
Cylinder cover B& W L GBE
original size is restored.
After careful analysis of the above, the decision
is made whether it is technically possible and
economically viable to recondition the cylinder
cover.
Reconditioning
- Machine all the cracks by grinding until they
have disappeared.
- Weld the cracks according to the ‘Plasma
Cylinder cover B&W L MC

Transfer Arc' process.
- Annealing in an oven at a temperature of
approximately 620 °C for 24 hours.
- Polishing or metal removal of all welding
irregularities to the original dimensions.
- Trueing up all alignment edges of the various
parts.
- Registering all data and numbering all the parts
of the reconditioned cylinder cover.
- Anti-corrosion treatment and preparation for
Cylinder cover Sulzer RTA standard repair
transport.
method
309
The slowly turning cylinder

cover is kept warm for
further machining by
heating with a large flame.
This is important for
adequate adhesion.
After the piston has been «0
drawn, it is cleaned, i
inspected and measured.
i
When the piston is severely
damaged, it cannot be
I
replaced and will be I
reconditioned on shore
I
1 piston with ring package
2 piston rod
3 spare cylinder liner
Finishing a reconditioned
cylinder cover, grinding the
faces, trueing up the bores
and threaded holes
followed by a visual
inspection. Finally, if so
requested by the customer,
the various parts are
assembled.
Van West Holland,
IJmuiden, The Netherlands.
310
31.3.2 Pistons and piston rings
New pistons with piston rods and the piston-rod stuffing

box, ready to be installed in a crosshead engine.
Piston crowns for a

crosshead engine from a
A piston, which has been inadequately cooled by the MAN Diesel MC and a
lubricating oil circulating through the piston. Wartsila Sulzer RTA.
The entire centre section of the bottom of the piston has torn to Notice the different cooling
such an extent that a conical shaped 'cover ' has been formed, only arrangements. After cleaning,
the overpressure above the piston kept it in its place. they are inspected and a
During inspection at the reconditioning company, one tap of a reconditioning report is drawn
hammer was sufficient to remove the 'cover '! up.
The piston crown for a

engine.
This damage was caused by a

leaking fuel injector. The piston
bottom has been torn in a star
shape.
/ /
/
/
/
r
If the piston-ring grooves are worn to the extent that they
must be scrapped, rewelding is an option .
The piston-ring grooves and rims are removed, and then the
space filled by arc welding. The piston-ring grooves are machined
to their original dimensions.
Blue = rewelding
311
Piston crowns
Arc welding the bottom of As a result of high mechanical- and thermal loading,
a large piston. The side has the piston crowns with the piston rings require
been removed and will be replacement or reconditioning after a certain
rewelded. Subsequently, number of operating hours.
new piston-ring grooves
are machined.
A disassembled piston prior

to cleaning .
The carbon deposit above the

piston-ring package is clearly
visible. All the piston rings are
intact and able to move.
A piston after a large number of operating hours. The rewelding is finished. Now the piston is machined to its
original size on a lathe.
The piston crown shows signs of carbon deposits. The piston rings
are in good condition and can move freely. There is no carbon
build-up behind the piston rings.
Arc welding the bottom of

a large piston.
This is an automatic process.
312
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A N D T H E l R P A R T S
The piston crown has been

deformed to such an extent
during rewelding that the
connecting-bolt holes are
no longer aligned.
This is the reason that they are

plugged in when the piston is
rewelded and then re -bored.
Drilled cooling bores in a piston crown with tears, marked Deep craters formed by corrosion of the piston material.
in chalk.
The following is often established: A piston crown showing signs of burning at the location of
- Internal crack formation. These cracks must be the fuel injection.
located , removed , and rewelded.
- Cracks in the piston crown . The piston crown
may be rebuilt using a special rewelding process.
- Crown burning. All damage and cracks must be
removed; the crown must subsequently be rebuilt
to the original height using a special rewelding
process. A special protection coating may be
applied if required .
- Severe crown burning and cracking. All cracks
deeper than 10 millimetres must be located and
removed, the crown must be rebuilt to its original
height and profile. In the latest types of crosshead
engines, crown burning can be so severe that it
must be replaced.
Measuring piston-crown burn with a piston-crown mould. Reconditioned pistons for two- stroke crosshead engines.
The piston-ring grooves are usually worn to such an extent that
A the complete surface must be removed, rewelded and machined.

94366
As the bottom of the piston is usually partially burnt away, this is
also removed, rewelded and machined. This results in a
completely rewelded piston!
0 Piston ring
A piston crown and measuring tool used to measure the

i
[ extent of crown burn.
B A for a drawn piston

B for a piston in the engine, the measuring mould is suspended
from the inlet ports
94366 a
(
After arc welding, the piston is machined to its original

X
dimensions.
A
Cylinder covers ready for repair at QuantiServ, Kruiningen,
The Netherlands. The covers are manufactured from forged
steel and almost solid.
314
31.3.3 Cylinder liners - Glazing of the running surface because of

polishing’ by abrasive particles, which are
Obviously, cast - iron cylinder liners wear out during produced from wear as well as during the
usage ( see four-stroke engines). Inlet ports are fitted combustion process.
to the bottom of the cylinder liner. All the large two - - Contamination of cylinder- lubricating oil supply
stroke crosshead engines have cylinder -lubrication bores. This mainly occurs due to problems with
bores in the liner wall and lubricating - oil grooves in cylinder- lubricating devices or an inferior quality
the running surface. cylinder- lubricating oil .
The upper thickened rim has bores for cooling- water - Contamination of the cooling - water bores,
circulation. and / or spaces, and corrosion of the bores.

Conditions in the combustion chamber cause - Damage to the alignment edges of the cylinder
considerable wear and tear of the cylinder liners. block with the cylinder head.
KEY POINTS
31.3.3.1 Wear of the running surface

- Normal frictional wear of the piston rings.
Boundary lubrication is often inevitable.
- Abrasive wear by hard carbon - and ash particles.
- Corrosion , especially from sulphur found in
fuel. The latter is referred to as low -temperature
corrosion , ( LTC ).
At present , the sulphur content of HFO lies between

2 and 3.5%.
\ lso, see Chapter 9, Fuel-injection systems.
T
Modern cylinder liners with inlet ports.
A spare cylinder liner.
The cylinder - lubrication

distribution on the
circumference of the
cylinder liner.
315
31.3.3.2 Procedures If a dimension is outside the prescribed limits or if

After cleaning the cylinder liner, its geometry is the wear and tear is such that after replacement of
measured . the liner, the number of remaining operating hours
is too small, the liner is scrapped.
If the dimensions are within the prescribed limits,
the following procedures are performed:
- rehoning of the running surface. Firstly, the
rim
of the liner is removed by grinding;
- cleaning of the cooling - water bores in the
thickened upper rim;

- machining the liner - alignment edges with the
block and cylinder head;

- trueing up the cylinder lubricating - oil bores.
31.3 .4 Crankshafts and bearings
Large two -stroke crosshead engines have heavy,

bulky crankshafts.
A crankshaft from a Wartsila Sulzer FLEX, a
fourteen - cylinder diesel engine with a bore of
960 millimetres and a stroke of 2500 millimetres is
27 metres long and weighs 155 tons.
A Damage to the crankshaft for this type of engine
Measuring cylinder- liner wear. requires extensive and expensive repairs, which can
take several months. The entire engine frame must
The diameter of the cylinder liner is measured using a calliper be lifted hydraulically and the scrapped crankshaft
gauge. This is done side to side at various heights. One person removed through a hole in the hull.
takes the measurements and a second person records all the
values. These are then compared with the original values of the
liner and a decision taken as to whether the liner can remain in
place until the next overhaul or if the liner must be replaced. A crosshead engine with a cylinder diameter of 500
millimetres, a MAN B& W, in manufacture.
T
A large damaged Note the large diameter of the journals and the very small
crankshaft is removed from distance between the crank webs. In order to reduce weight, the
the engine and replaced by crankpin has been hollowed out.
a new crankshaft. This 1 crankpin
procedure takes more than 2 crankshaftjournal
3 web
two months.
CH 31 > RECONDITIONING ENGINES AND THEIR PARTS
A very large crankshaft

lathe.
A very large crankshaft lathe

that has a distance of 12,000
millimetres between the
centres, large enough to grind
nearly all the crankshafts for

four-stroke engines at Mark
van Schaick, Schiedam, The
Netherlands. Note the large
supports (chucks), which
prevent the crankshaft from

sagging.
1 chuck
The new crankshaft must be carefully hoisted into For damaged crankpins and journals, an in- place
the engine room and positioned in the crankshaft technological approach is often used: the in- place
bed’ rounding and finishing by grinding the journals.
This is done by various companies worldwide.
The damaged crankshaft is stationary while the
grinding device is in operation . Removal of several
tenths of a millimetre of material can take more than
half a day.
A new method for reconditioning a crankpin in- situ using

a manufacturing machine from the company Goltens,
Spijkenisse, The Netherlands. This is known as 'in- situ'
reconditioning of crankpins.
1 crankpin dummy
2 manufacturing machine with:
- guides on the crankpin radius
- chisel holder with cutting tool
- adjustment
3 the manufacturing machine is chain- driven by an
electromotor
Operation: The machine runs on the radius between the crankpin

and the crank web. After trueing up in relation to the heart line of
the crankpin, the crankpin is machined at high-speed. 5 to 15 mm
of material is removed in three to four days. Using the older
method, this could take several weeks ! Another advantage is that
there is less fine residue in the crankcase. The clamps for the chisel
are relatively easy to remove. In this procedure, the crankshaft is
stationary and the machine rotates around the crankpin.
317
In the crankcase, also

known as a 'carter,' of a
large crosshead engine.
1 the A-frame columns

2 crankshaft
3 crankweb
4 connecting- rod big end
5 main bearing cap
6 bearing - cap thrust bolt
7 steps towards the crosshead
8 main lubricating -oil supply to
the main bearing
9 crosshead
Io crosshead guide
II hydraulic jack
A
The hydraulically tensioned cams on the camshaft. Manual finish of a camshaft bearing.
Modern exhaust valves

often have a long service
life. The use of materials
such as 'Nimonac' results in
an service life of 40,000
hours or more.
A
This exhaust-valve seat has been partially worn away by
high-temperature corrosion.
The exhaust - valve casing containing the valve seat ,

situated in the cylinder head is also heavily loaded.
The seat is often damaged to the extent that the
entire valve seat must be replaced.
318
CH 3 1 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N E S A N D THEIR PARTS
All the sealing faces are

checked and, if required,
trued up during
reconditioning of a
engine.
Exhaust valves during reconditioning.
13
0
ETL >
19
A
A cylinder cover. In the middle, location of the central
exhaust valve.
front left: the bore for one of the two injectors Tears in the welded A -frame
It is important that all the sealing faces close properly. They are in a two - stroke crosshead
usually machined with special equipment, which can be delivered engine .
with the engine.
Tears can also occur in welded
A-frames for two - stroke
crosshead engines due to high
material stresses. These
problems can often be
Welded A- frames resolved on location to the
A- frames manufactured from steel plate are light and client 's satisfaction. Long-term
strong. However, they can sometimes cause cracking. testing is often too costly and
This occasionally occurs in engines from all of the time-consuming. Most bugs
three engine manufacturers. are solved in the 'field' so at
The power play in these large, up to 32- metre the customer.
engines, is enormous. Usually, the dimensions are
measured in trials to investigate the behaviour of
these welded constructions.
Therefore, regular checks for cracks are
imperative.
Most problems can be solved by grinding away the
cracks and rewelding.
319
31.3.5 Examples of damage to four- stroke-

and two- stroke engines
A dirty turbocharger,
exhaust- gas section.
Clearly, the air capacity is

significantly reduced and the
engine contaminated.
A seized piston in the

cylinder liner.
A torn piston bottom in

a two- stroke crosshead
engine.
An attempt to weld a
cooling- water jacket.
In this case, the cooling-water

jacket should be replaced as
quickly as possible.
320
An overheated and
distorted cam.
A large exhaust valve for

a two-stroke crosshead
engine.
Fragments from the broken

valve can cause enormous
damage in the combustion
space and to the turbocharger.
A split piston.
A damaged piston with

A damaged engine block. connecting rod.
The cast iron block is severely

damaged. The engine block
can be reconditioned if the
block has not torn and new
cylinder liners can be inserted.
321
A damaged crankshaft.
The damage is so severe that

it will be scrapped. Note the
blue mark on the crank pin;
this is the most probable
position where it overheated.
Line-boring the crankshaft bearings in an engine block.
This is the convential procedure. A modern method is with laser

alignment.
A 'folded ' connecting-rod

big end caused by poor
lubrication.
The discolouration and

distortion shows that
extremely high material
temperatures were reached,
most probably caused by poor
lubrication of the crank pin.
A broken piston; these

fractures usually occurs at
the bores through the
piston pin.
322
CH3 1 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A N D T H E I R P A R T S
A connecting rod has come

loose and perforated the
block.
Damaged blades in the

exhaust- gas section of a
turbocharger.
A corrosion hole in the

cylinder liner, viewed from
inside the cylinder.
A hole in the casing of the exhaust- gas section in a

turbocharger. At present, turbochargers are manufactured
in such a manner that the fragments causing holes remain
inside the casing.
Cracking in various places

in a welded steel A -frame
for a two- stroke crosshead
engine.
In this case, the engine is

operational. If the cracks
become larger, they will often
be repaired.
323
1
Tearing on the inside of the
piston crown in a
two -stroke crosshead
engine.
A A
A heavily worn crosshead-pin bearing in a two-stroke Tearing at the top of the piston crown in the same type of
crosshead engine. two - stroke crosshead engine.
The valve seat can be easily

removed when it has
cooled down after being
electrically heated.
324
Tearing between the

cooling bores on the inside
of the piston crown in a
engine.
A visible hairline crack in a

crankpin seen during
inspection.
The depth of the fracture can

be determined by grinding
down the surface around the
hairline crack . This crankshaft
will be scrapped if the crack is
too deep for the largest
(thickest) bearing shell.
A damaged cylinder liner.

The piston has not yet
seized!
325
Measuring cylinder-liner wear.
The diameter of the cylinder liner is measured using a calliper

gauge. This is done side to side at various heights. One person
takes the measurements and a second person records all the
values. These are compared to the original values of the liner. A
decision is then taken as to whether the liner can remain in place
until the next overhaul or if the liner must be replaced.
A cracked block in a four- stroke engine.
When the cracks in the upper edge of the cylinder block were
detected, the cast iron was ground down to such an extent that
the crack disappeared. Eventually, this block was scrapped.
A broken crankshaft. A crosshead pin in a

Thecrankpin broke near the engine.
bore for the lubricating-oil.
Probable cause: An extremely Insufficient lubrication has
high load on the crankshaft damaged the pin. Measuring
caused by a seized piston. the hardness can show
whether the pin overheated, a
pin subjected to extreme heat
has an increased hardness.
326
CH3 1 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A N D T H E I R PA R T S
A Rottler machine for

trueing up valve seats.
This machine is installed at

Noord-Hollandse Motoren
Revisie Company, Winkel,
The Netherlands. It can
machine worn seats quickly
and effectively.
This exhaust valve for a

two- stroke engine is badly
damaged and has been

scrapped.
Total loss of a medium-

speed four- stroke diesel
engine.
After a piston seized, the

connecting rod with gudgeon
pin broke away from the
piston and damaged the
engine block to such an extent
that it had to be scrapped. The
connecting rod is still
connected to the gudgeon
pin.
327
Repairing a fuel pump for a Caterpillar diesel engine at

Pon Power, Papendrecht, The Netherlands. The correct
measurements and settings are important.
Horizontal
The process.
A Rottler machine for line-boring engine blocks installed in

high- speed four -stroke diesel engines from Caterpillar and
Cummins.
Line boring is far less time - consuming than traditional processes.

Shown here, at the premises of Mark van Schaick, Schiedam, The
Netherlands.
328
. j
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E NGINES A ND THEI R PA RTS
A broken exhaust valve caused severe damage to the flame

plates in a cylinder head.
329
1
A fractured exhaust valve has pierced this piston in a four-

stroke engine.
The valve seat in an exhaust valve for a two- stroke

crosshead engine.
This seat is severely heat damaged. The decision as to repair or

scrap will be taken after inspection for cracking.
Arc welding visualised.
Right; the gas supply and the electrode. Left; the powder suction.
The slag to the left is manually removed with a hammer.
1 Electrode wire supply

2 Gas supply
3 Suction of the powder sealant.
4 Hard slag layer.
Shown here, a piston crown is being welded.
330
.
An oven used to anneal the welded parts Shown here; two
piston crowns.
After heating, the welded parts are allowed to cool gradually. By

gradual cooling, the stresses introduced in the welding process
are mostly relaxed. Wartsila, Kruiningen, The Netherlands.
w|
Testing a vibration damper for a diesel engine, category III .
The vibration damper is mounted on a revolving table driven at a

certain speed. A measuring instrument is connected to the table
that can measure the vibrations in the shaft. The vibration damper
is then hit with a hammer; the measuring instrument shows the
gradation of damping of the vibration damper.
Koedood Dieselservice, Hendrik Ido Ambacht, The Netherlands.
% 100
A
The test graph for the vibration damper.
90 -
80 -
70 -
60 -
50 -
40 -
30 -
Good condition
20 - Critical condition
Disapproval of the damper
10 -
Critical area
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
time in sec.
331
1
31.4 The Swedish Club: Since 2011, the average cost of main engine damage
Main Engine Damage has decreased from USD 634,000 to USD 545,000
( -14% ).
This Swedish insurance company issues an annual Container and dry cargo ships have a
report specifying marine - engine damages. disproportionately large claims cost in relation to
This report includes both the main - and auxiliary fleet.
engines and includes subdivisions for four-stroke Korean built vessels make up 31% of the club fleet
trunk- piston engines and two -stroke crosshead but amount to only 12 % of main engine claims cost .
engines. China on the other hand is over - represented with
30% of the club entries and 36% of the total main
31.4.1 Introduction engine claim costs.
In 2012, The Swedish Club presented the findings Four- stroke main engines experience 2.5 times
from a seven - year study of main engine damage more claims than two- stroke engines.
( 2005- 2011 ). Four- strokes in V configuration have an average of
This report sets out the results of a follow- up study, 42% higher claims costs than inline configuration.
spanning the three year period 2012- 2014.
The objectives of this report are to update the Bearing failures are the most expensive main engine
analysis published in 2012; identify new claims claim categories with an average cost of nearly USD
trends: and to review and reinforce the Clubs Main 1.6 million per claim . The cost for bearing failures
Engine Damage Loss Prevention Program. is high due to consequential damage to crankshafts,
The fundamental aim is to reduce the frequency/ etc.
severity of main engine damage. Lubrication failure is still the most expensive cause
Only claims exceeding USD 10,000 or more of damage.
( deductibles included ) have been considered.
However, it should be borne in mind that the costs .
31.4 3.2 Cause of damage
cited understate the true scale of the problem , as - Contaminated lubrication oil.
claims falling below the deductible tend not to be - Experts not in attendance at major overhauls.
brought to the Club’s attention . - Using contaminated bunkers.
Other costs that surround a claim such as loss of - Purifiers not operated as per manufacturers’
hire, cost for closed ports, loss of reputation etc. are instructions.
not considered in this report. - Engine components not overhauled as per
manufacturers’ instructions.
31.4.2 Overview - Crew with insufficient experience/ training.
The Swedish Club provides members with a range 31.4.3.3 Repair of overheated crankshafts
of cover, including Protection and Indemnity ( P&I ); Loss of a crankshaft or other rotating shaft due to
Freight Demurrage and Defence ( FD &D ) and high hardness values is a costly, time consuming
Marine & Energy and Ancillary ( Marine) covers. and extremely disruptive occurrence. Goltens,
The Swedish Club has always had a proactive policy, Spijkenisse, the Netherlands, provides expert
directed at raising awareness of main engine damage crankshaft failure analysis and heat treatment /
and encouraging manufacturers to respond with annealing around the globe coupled with in -situ
new and more effective measures for reducing the machining solutions that minimize downtime.
frequency of engine damage.
31.4.3.4 Annealing of the crankshaft
31.4.3 Executive summary Heat is applied to the shaft in a tightly controlled
manner above its critical temperature but well below
.
31.4 3.1 Findings the austenite range where the crankshaft could be
Main engine claims account for 46% of total permanently damaged. This temperature is held for
machinery claims cost with an average claim per a time period related to shaft diameter and extent of
vessel of USD 545,000. damage before being cooled in an equally controlled
The frequency trend for main engine claims is stable manner.
at 2 % of the vessels entered with The Swedish Club
experiencing main engine damage. Metal characteristics
During annealing, once the metal reaches the
critical temperature, the molecules are allowed to
332
CH31 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N E S A N D T H E I R PARTS
A damaged crankshaft for a medium- speed diesel engine

has crankpin bearing damage; the crankpin overheated.
Goltens, Spijkenisse, The Netherlands.
A crankshaft for a medium- speed diesel engine with a damaged

crankpin.
De crankpin journal is ground in situ to a smaller diameter
(undersize) that still meets regulations.
Crankshafts are often manufactured with a larger diameter than

that calculated which allows for reconditioning.
This avoids the very valuable and time consuming dismantling-
and refitting activities required for crankshaft reconditioning. f
Annealing.
i
Annealing is a heat treatment process commonly used to remove
the stress and hardness within a metal and to increase its ductility.
Hardness is a measure of how resistant solid matter is to
permanent shape change under application offeree, and ductility
is a material's ability to deform under stress.
Unhardened crankshafts generally have a hardness in the range of
250- 350 HB, Hardness Brinell.
During a bearing failure, a crankshaft absorbs an incredible
amount of heat. Emergency stopping of the engine introduces an
uncontrolled cooling or quenching that often results in areas of

excessive hardness in the range of 600 to 700+ HB
f
recrystallize ( realign ) to a state consistent with its limits for acceptable journal diameter, there are
original ductility and hardness when it was delivered only two options - costly crankshaft replacement or
from the factory. Hardness levels are reduced to removal of the hardness.
within acceptable parameters and within maker Goltens has demonstrated the effectiveness of
tolerances. the in -situ annealing process and has received
Germanischer Lloyd and Lloyds Register Marine
Post annealing Class approvals. Over the decades, Goltens has
Once the shaft is cooled , the surface of the journal refined its process for annealing crankshafts and
is rough with scale from oxidation of the metal other shafting and can do this successfully In - Situ
during the annealing process. The shaft must then be as well as in our workshops around the world. A
machined to finish diameter and machine polished deep understanding of the metallurgy, expansion
to the required finish . characteristics and safety precautions has been
developed and refined over the years into a safe,
Metal characteristics repeatable, highly controlled process.
The journal now has an acceptable hardness across Experience shows that hardness can be successfully
the entire surface of the pin and the surface has been removed via heat treatment of crankshafts and
polished to a finish generally of 0.03 Ra or better. that minor finish grinding / cutting can restore the
Oftentimes, this hardness can be machined away by machinery to service with significantly less loss of
In - Situ teams. But when the hardness is so severe shaft diameter as well as the avoidance of costly
that cutting it away extends below the manufacturers shaft / equipment removal and replacement.
333
An example of total loss of

a connecting rod.
An example of total loss of

a piston, a section of the
connecting rod is still
attached to the gudgeon
pin.
A torn cylinder liner and a

damaged piston.
Source: A tool was left in the

crankpin during installation.
334
C H 31 > RECONDITIONING E N G I N ES A ND T H E l R P A R T S
A tool attachment left

behind in the crankpin
(see arrow ) .
31.4.3.5 Recurring issues Claims type Number Average cost Change ( %)

- Insufficient planning. (USD) Machinery claims,
- Insufficient experience/ training. Main engine 118 545,000 -14% 2012-2014. *
- Non - compliance with company procedures. Aux engine 79 326,000 -7%
- Procedures which are unclear, not comprehensive Turbocharger 79 335,000 -8% * Propeller, shaft, gearbox etc.
enough or have not been implemented. Propulsion* 109 442,000 -37% ** Machinery such as electrical
- Experts not in attendance at major overhauls. Rudder/Steering gear 22 321 ,000 -48% equipment, cranes, cargo gear,
- Not having adequate follow - up methods after Boiler 22 247,000 - 22% deck equipment.
maintenance work. Other** 91 235,000 -21 %
Total 487 385,000 -19%

31.4.4 Machinery claims
The Swedish Club experienced 487 machinery claims tanker vessels are underrepresented in the hierarchy -
in the 2012- 2014 period, costing a total of USD 187.6 of total main engine damage claims costs. Dry cargo !
million . vessels have the highest claims per insured vessel
Main engine damage remains the most expensive value.
category, contributing 34.3% of total machinery When comparing the relation between number
claims cost ( 30.4% in the earlier period ) and 12.7% of club entries and claims cost as well as claim
(10.9 % ) of the total &M claims cost. frequency by vessel builder, country, it is shown
Despite the rise in claims cost share, the average cost that Korea, which accounts for almost 31% of club
of a main engine claim has reduced by 14.0 % entries, only shares 12 % of the total main engine
compared to the previous survey period. claims cost . Conversely China is overrepresented by
The average cost of main engine damage between a large margin , with almost 30% of club entries and
2005- 2011 was almost USD 634,000. The latest 36 % of the total claim costs for all engine types.
survey records 118 main engine claims averaging
USD 545,000 which is a 14% decrease.
Crankshaft damage
31.4.5 Main engine claims particularly in for- stroke
engines is the largest single
31.4.5.1 Overview of main engine claims by cost item .
vessel specifics
Container vessels account for more than 47% This is usually caused by
of the total cost of main engine damage claims problems with the bearing
but only 37% of the fleet. This trend has broad shells which cause damages to
similarities with where container vessels are also the crankpin journal or the
overrepresented . It can be concluded that container crankpin. Average cost of
vessels are therefore particularly exposed to main bearing failures nearly
engine claims. Conversely, shows that bulker and USD 1.6 million per claim.
335
1
Damaged parts Number Average cost Change (%) * Includes crankshaft damage
The seven most common types of claims, 2012-2014. (USD) ** Damage where multiple
Bearing* 4 1,601,000 110% engine parts are involved and
Damaged parts Camshaft 13 1,050,000 -23% the proximate cause could not
This table focus on the seven most common damaged parts in Cylinder/liner 12 486,627 -18% be established.
the main engine claims category. The tables show numbers and Cylinder cover 5 193,000 na
costs per damaged parts for claims for the 2012-2014 period. The Fuel pumps 5 410,000 na
latest survey shows that bearing damage now constitutes the Piston 6 528,000 33%
part with the most expensive damage, with an average cost of Multiple parts** 15 509,000 -20%
USD 1.6 million.
31.4.5.2 Cause of damage 31.4.6.3 Prevention

- Contaminated lubrication oil. - Implement on board fuel management and fuel
- Experts not in attendance at major overhauls. system audits.
- Using contaminated bunkers. - Verify that the various parts, including
- Purifiers not operated as per manufacturers’ purifiers are tested for proper function and are
instructions. operated in accordance with manufacturers’
- Engine components not overhauled as per recommendations.
manufacturers’ instructions. - It is imperative to monitor the quality of the
- Crew with insufficient experience/ training. lubrication oil. Samples of lubrication oils should
be sent ashore for analysis at least every three
.
31.4 6 Maintenance months.
- During major overhauls it is highly recommended
The latest survey has shown that most main engine to have experts in attendance.
claims are as a direct and indirect result of incorrect - It is important to only use spare parts approved by
maintenance. Numerous cases have been noted the engine manufacturer.
where damage occurs shortly after the engines - Invest in employee training.
have been overhauled by ship or shore staff. This - Carry out comprehensive audits and inspections.
emphasizes the importance of correct maintenance. - Replace diaphragm sealings at crank case luboil
outlets at recommended intervals.
31.4.6.1 Recurring issues
- Insufficient planning. 31.4.7 Management
- Insufficient experience / training.
- Non - compliance with company procedures. An in - depth investigation of machinery claims
- Procedures which are unclear, not comprehensive shows that a great deal of engine damage is related to
enough or have not been implemented . insufficient management systems. In order to reduce
- Experts not in attendance at major overhauls. machinery claims a well - implemented and proper
- Not having adequate follow - up methods after management system is important.
maintenance work. It is essential that crewmembers have the necessary
experience to ensure that ordinary daily work and
31.4.6.2 Limited experience maintenance is performed in accordance with
Shortage of seafarers with experience has been company procedures. However it is of utmost
highlighted before in Club publications, but it is importance to carry out comprehensive audits and
worth repeating. inspections to prevent management plans from being
This fact emphasizes the importance of monitoring compromised.
by shore staff. There is a significant risk that officers Insufficient reporting and follow up work is a major
are being promoted before they have acquired the problem at the management stage. It is highly
necessary experience for senior command. recommended that members have a PMS which
It is also important that the maintenance of all is approved by a classification society and well -
engine components is included in the PMS implemented both on board and ashore, with annual
( Planned Maintenance System ) . controls put in place by the classification society to
achieve best possible results.
336
Installing a cylinder head

on a MAN diesel engine.
It is always difficult to
assemble or disassemble the
engine parts of a V-engine.
These procedures can be
successfully managed by using
the correct tools.
MAN Diesel & Turbo AG,
Augsburg, Germany.
IM
337
Maintenance and repairs

32.2 Types of maintenance 340
32.3 Instruction manuals/ Maintenance manuals 340
32.4 Engine maintenance 342
32.5 Maintenance for small engines, category I 346
32.6 Examples of maintenance for engines, category III 348
32.7 Some examples of maintenance for large two -stroke crosshead engines,
category IV 356
32.8 Excessive wear or 'scuffing' of the cylinder liners in a two - stroke crosshead
engine 367
32.9 Trouble shooting excessive cylinder liner wear 388
32.10 Damage report Wartsila Vasa 4R 32 392
32.11 Sleeve bearings, theory and damage 398
f
The engine -control room with left,
the main switchboard and in the middle,
amongst others, the remote control and
monitoring of the main engines.
32.1 Introduction of operating hours can either be increased or

1
decreased. This is a matter of experience.
Engines in operation wear and require maintenance Engine suppliers often provide spare- part lists
to remain in good condition. and information regarding the maximum number
Obviously, engines that are faulty or poorly of operating hours. The prescribed number of
maintained cause problems. operating hours is often chosen so maintenance
Diesel engines for shipping and electrical- power activities for different items can take place at the
stations have to be in an excellent condition . They same time.
must be capable of running at full load for most of
the year.
Nowadays, ships have short periods in dock; there 32.3 Instruction manuals/
is barely time to perform major maintenance. If Maintenance manuals
required , engine - repair and - maintenance companies
are hired that either with or without the ( now small ) These must be thoroughly read in order to have a
crew, perform the activities. good understanding of the operation , maintenance,
It is of utmost importance that engine manufacturers repairs, and settings of diesel engines. All too often
maintain a worldwide service network so that they instruction manuals are not consulted before
can provide a good service standard for their clients. starting various activities.
Quick delivery of spare parts is also essential. Often , the smallest details are decisive in executing
Major ship maintenance is scheduled, if possible, to successful maintenance.
coincide with the planned dockings.
In certain circumstances, more time is available for It is advisable to follow the procedure below.
the maintenance of diesel - generated power stations, 1 Read the instruction manuals and maintenance
but here there is demand for electricity at a full- load procedures carefully. This includes the drawings.
and ever - increasing operating hours. 2 Find out which special tools are required and
The mean percentage for the operating hours in a collect them .
good quality power plant at full - load is between 3 Determine the required period for maintenance.
90 and 95%. Sometimes higher : per year between 4 Discuss the activities with workers and exchange
7500 and 8500 operating hours! In addition , the information.
maintenance must be first - rate and well organised . 5 Ensure the working environment is clean and well
lit.
6 Use approved hoisting equipment and well -
32.2 Types of maintenance maintained tools.
7 Check the oil in the hydraulic tensioning
There are in general terms three types of equipment and ensure that the various hoses are
maintenance. not damaged. Make sure that the couplings are
clean .
1 Preventative maintenance 8 Avoid getting dirt in the engine when open .
This is planned maintenance aimed at preventing 9 Store all disassembled spare parts neatly ;
breakdowns and failures. Often , parts that are not preferably on white cardboard, use clean cloths
worn or in need of replacement are exchanged in and place heavy parts on wood, never on steel.
accordance with a schedule. In the latter case, cylinder- head covers may be
damaged .
2 Corrective maintenance 10 Hoist heavy parts whenever possible; do not lift
This is maintenance performed to restore an item them. Be careful with your back!
to its working order when it has failed or worn 11 Most engines have special attachments to
out. facilitate disassembly/ assembly, use and keep
them in good condition.
3 Condition -based maintenance 12 Work methodically and do not rush . In the latter
This is maintenance based on the state- of - repair case, all too often mistakes are made.
at a certain time, combined with operational 13 Discuss problems with a colleague: two heads are
experience. To prevent failures, the spare better than one.
parts are removed , repaired or replaced after a 14 Modern communication allows easy access to the
predetermined number of operating hours. At service organisation of engine suppliers. Use them
times, it can become apparent that the number for advice and consultation; after all, they are
there for you !
340
CH32 > MAINTENANCE A N D REPAIRS
HFO MDF HFO MDF

The number of operating hours between two overhauls
Time between Time between Expected comp. Expected comp,
overhauls (h) overhauls (h) lifetime (h) lifetime (h) and the expected lifetime. Shown here, a Wartsila 20 diesel
Main bearing 12000 16000 36000 48000 engine, category III .
Big end bearing 12000 16000 24000 32000

Clearly shown is that the service lifetime of a diesel engine
Gudgeon pin bearing 12000 16000 48000 48000
running on HFO is significantly shorter than that of a diesel
Camshaft bearing bush 16000 16000 32000 32000
engine running on MDO. Approximately 25% less!
Camshaft intermed.
16000 16000 32000 32000 Many spare parts must be replaced in the third overhaul.
gear bearing
When planning the (HFO) number of operating hours, companies
Balancing shaft
12000 16000 24000 32000
bearing, 4L20 will attempt to execute an optimum effective overhaul.
Cylinder head 12000 16000 An injector overhaul is planned after 6000 operating hours,
16000 36000 32000 and then after 12,000 hours. Most spare parts at 12,000 operating
Inlet valve 12000
hours are set for overhauling, with the exception of the camshaft
Inlet valve seat 12000 16000 36000 32000
(16,000) and the turbocharger (24,000). On average, these types of
Exhaust valve 12000 16000 24000 32000
engines operate between 6000 and 7000 hours per year.
Exhaust valve seat 12000 16000 36000 32000
Valve guide, EX 12000 16000 24000 32000
Valve guide, IN 12000 16000 36000 48000
Piston Crown 12000 16000 24000 48000
Piston rings 12000 16000 12000 16000
Cylinder liner 12000 16000 48000 64000
Antipolishing ring 12000 16000 24000 32000
Connecting rod 12000 16000
Connecting rod screws 12000 16000 24000 32000
Valve tappet and roller 24000 32000
Injection pump tappet

24000 32000
and roller
Injection element 12000 16000 24000 32000
Injection valve 6000 8000
Injection nozzle 6000 8000 6000 8000
Water pump shaft seal 12000 12000 12000 12000
Water pump bearing 24000 24000
Turbocharger 24000 24000
Governor 12000 12000
Vibration damper Acc. to manuf. Acc. to manuf.
15 Note all the activities done and record all

measurements in a journal.
16 Many engine manufacturers have their
maintenance programs computerized . All known
engine manufacturers have these programs.
Advice from the factory can also be obtained via a
remote connection when using these systems.
Tools stored in a well- arranged system are a primary

requirement to perform the work effectively.
341
Special tools, such as these

for a Wartsila 38 diesel
engine category III, are
delivered with the engine
in a special 'toolbox ' with
detailed instructions, either
on plasticized cards or
digitally for use with a
laptop computer.
32.4 Engine maintenance - Only minor maintenance, such as checks or

adjustments, changing fuel - and lubricating- oil
Division of the activities filters or testing / exchanging injectors, is still
In the past, many of these activities were carried out carried out by the crew.
by the crew. - The revision of cylinder heads, turbocharger
- There were sufficient skilled engineers. overhaul and for example, testing and repairing
- There was sufficient time; periods of inactivity fuel pumps and injectors is done by specialised
were common and long. companies.
- Electronics were not available.
- Communication with the engine factory was Reminder
difficult. One should never forget that these systems do
- The operating life of some spare parts was so not solve breakdowns in the middle of an ocean.
short, requiring frequent repair. Notorious One should therefore always ensure that the crew/
examples are the exhaust valves. engineers are capable of ‘bringing the ship home’.
If engineers only work as operators, the risk of
Nowadays maintenance is performed in a very ‘being adrift’ is considerable!
different manner.
- There are few engineers on location . 32.4.1 Hydraulic tensioning tools
- There is very little time, ships dock for a very
short time. Many engines in category II and almost all in
- Modern engines work with numerous electronic categories III and IV are currently supplied with
systems. Working with these systems requires hydraulic bolt - tensioning systems. This is often the
specialised knowledge. case in the following:
- The operating life of spare parts is much longer. - cylinder- head bolts;
- At present , worn spare parts are removed and - connecting- rod bolts;
replaced by overhauled or new spare parts. - horizontal and vertical main - bearing bolts;
On board or in a diesel - power station , very - fixing bolts for large counterweights on the
few repairs are carried out. Replacement is the crankshaft;
remedy. - in two -stroke engines, bolts for the exhaust -valve
- Shipping companies often replace all the casing;
components in a propulsion engine that wear - in two -stroke engines, the tie rods;
with overhauled or new components. This is done - in two -stroke engines, fixing the piston rod on the
either in port or during a majof overhaul. After crosshead;
two to three years, dependent on the number of - fixing the crosshead - bearing covers;
operating hours, these parts are simply replaced. - foundation bolts for all the larger engines;
This type of major maintenance can be performed - cams on camshafts.
in a couple of days to one week.
342
Good maintenance of the

technical installation and
therefore the diesel engines
is of utmost importance for
safe sailing, especially in
bad weather conditions.
An enthusiastic, motivated
and well-trained crew is
essential for every shipping
company.
Other fastenings that are assembled / disassembled

with hydraulic tools are, amongst others, coupling
sleeves between shaft - tunnel parts and attaching the
propeller to the propeller shaft .
Advantages of hydraulic tools

- The bolt is stretched within normal elasticity
limits using a hydraulic jack. The correct oil
pressure applies the exact elastic tension .
- The cylinder-shaped hydraulic bolt is simply
-U l —
hand - tightened with a small rod. Large force or
heavy tools are not necessary.
- The bolt is not under a torsion load and therefore
does not loosen . The bolt does not have to be
tightened with a large force in the tap holes, hand
tightening is sufficient.
- Tightening or loosening can be carried out in
stages allowing the forces to remain stable on the

bolts during assembly or disassembly.
- Hydraulic tensioning demands little time and
requires less muscle. The hydraulic lubricating- oil

pressure is supplied via a manual plunger pump
and in larger systems by pneumatic or electric
high - pressure pumps.
All the large bolts of this

Wartsila 32 diesel engine,
category III, are
hydraulically tensioned.
343
The hydraulic jacks installed

on the two connecting -rod
bolts and the vertical
main -bearing bolts of a
Wartsila 20 diesel engine,
category III, HFO.
o
The four hydraulic jacks

installed on the cylinder Application of the hydraulic tools for the L32 / 40 type
head of a Wartsila 20 diesel

engine. ftl
j£k\
The piping, the manometer,
and the pipe (foreground) of
the hand pump have already
been mounted.
Application of the hydraulic tools on the bearing screws

in the case of resilient support
The bolted connections of a MAN L32/40 diesel engine,

category III.
The hydraulic jacks have been placed on all the hydraulically

tensioned bolts (green).
'Loosening' the connecting -rod big end from the crankpin.
1 Place accessory between connecting - rod big end and bearing cap.
2 Loosen connecting -rod bolts.
3 Remove the nuts.
4 Hoist the piston out so that the crankpin - bearing shells are
released.
344
Fore-end view of a S65ME -C
All the larger bolts are also

hydraulically tensioned in
this new type of two- stroke
crosshead engine, a MAN
B& W 7 S65 ME- C .
A machine for hydraulic 'threading ' of engine bolts for

diesel engines.
The two rollers are hydraulically moved towards each other and
their threaded sections are pressed between the clamped blank
O
bolt giving the required thread profile. Even though the blank
co bolt is not pre -heated, after time it must be cooled to dissipate
the the resulting distortion heat. There are no bolts shown in this
picture. Between the rollers, the cooling-oil pipe is shown.
4,124
Hydraulic tensioning device for the cylinder head for a The four hydraulic jacks with hoisting equipment for a
Wartsila Sulzer RTA 84 two- stroke crosshead engine, Wartsila 46 diesel engine, category III.
category IV.
All the tools are moved using an overhead crane.
345
32.4.2 Bolted connections 32.4.5 Turbochargers, fuel pumps, injectors

and governors
Many of the bolts used for engine gears, as well as for
cylinder heads and main bearings, are supplied with In general, the maintenance of these parts entails
a rolled thread as opposed to a cut thread. either exchanging or reconditioning during planned
By ‘rolling’, that is, the hydraulic deformation of the major overhauls; progressively less maintenance is
material, the steel - grain structure is not distorted being performed on location. Maintenance is mostly
and the bolt is stronger than a bolt with a cut thread. carried out by specialised companies.
32.4.6 Piston maintenance
In general, the vessel’s own staff will carry out

maintenance of the pistons. They are ‘drawn’,
inspected and cleaned. Afterwards, the important
dimensions are checked to ensure that the piston
can be reused or if it should be replaced. This also
applies to the gudgeon pin , the piston - pin bushes,
and the piston rings. For two -stroke crosshead
engines, the piston rod and the piston - rod stuffing
Hydraulic bolts with rolled thread. box.
The conical nut can only be turned with a steel pin.

32.5 Maintenance for small
engines, category I
32.4.3 Grinding and honing tools
This diesel - engine category contains numerous
For many marine engines and engines for power ( normally ) lightly loaded engines with few operating
plants, specialist tools are available for maintenance hours. This is mostly the case for pleasure craft , such
of engines. as yachts and motorboats.
32.4.4 Grinding and cutting tools Maintenance

It is of utmost importance to read carefully the
These are mainly used for the repair of valve seats instruction manual. The long winter stops often
in the cylinder head or for the seats of the valves lead to more damage caused by frost, moisture, and
themselves. One manufacturer of these tools may disuse than wear and tear caused by hundreds of
grind the seats while another may use a cutting tool, engine operating hours in the summer season!
a small chisel.
For adequate maintenance, the next points are of
Honing tools importance:
It is common procedure to have mobile honing - Read the instruction manual thoroughly, all
tools available in the proximity of the engine. These normal activities are mentioned.
are used to provide the cylinder liner with a good - Ensure that fuel, lubricating oil and cooling
honing pattern after the piston removal. water /coolant is of good quality.
Smooth areas, ‘glazing’, are removed (‘deglazing’).
It should be noted that liner wear is minimal, so it Fuel
can remain in place for the full operating life of the A fuel tank should be left full in the winter stop. This
piston . prevents build - up of condensate and eliminates the
Honing extends the operating life of the cylinders. water contamination of the fuel.
Use a good fuel filter and an oil- water separator.
Fill the fuel tank with diesel oil at tank stations that
have a regular supply - and - demand network.
346
CH32 > MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS
Lubricating oil 32.5.1 Major maintenance

Lubricating oil rarely obtains the number of
authorised operating hours. Changing the couple of This is mostly carried out by specialised firms or the
litres of lubricating oil every season is advisable as service department of the engine manufacturer.
the water and dirt in the oil are disposed of at the
same time. Always renew the lubricating- oil filter. 32.5.2 Some maintenance activities
Coolant - Reconditioning and cleaning the cylinder

In a closed cooling system, use only the best coolant . heads:
Coolant must be kept at the correct level and - cylinder - head levelling;
exchanged according to the instructions. - replaning the valve seats in the head.
In an open cooling system or the secondary cooling - Reconditioning the injector(s ):

system ( untreated - water system ) , the sea inlet filter’ - clean the injector nozzle ( outer side );
must be cleaned regularly. Check, if possible, the - test the opening pressure and the atomisation ;
coolant discharge. - check for fuel leaks.

- Honing the cylinder liner:
Leaks When the cylinder liner shows some wear, honing
Stop fuel, lubricating- oil and cooling water /coolant with an optimal crosshatch pattern will extend the
leaks as quickly as possible; keep the outside of the operating life of the liner. Serious wear or a loose
engine clean and dry. cylinder liner in the block requires replacing the
liner.
Small maintenance - Piston reconditioning and cleaning:
This is often limited to the following points: - renew piston rings, if required;
- Checking the valve clearance. - measure the gudgeon - pin bush dimensions
- Checking the fuel, lubricating- oil and coolant and renew, if required.
systems, see above. - Check connecting-rod bearings and renew if
- Checking the starting system including starting required.
motor and accumulator. - Check turbocharger. If required, allow
- Checking the dynamo, often belt - driven ( correct reconditioning to be done by a specialised firm.
tension ). - Replace all packings, if required, for example,
- Checking the rotor of the coolant pump ( s) and valve caps and crankcase doors.
cleaning the algal filter. Replace the copper rings of the injector and fuel
- Checking the vibration dampers, the flexible lines.
couplings, and the propeller- shaft seals. - Crankshafts have a long life as do the main
- Checking the lubricating- oil level in the high - bearings .
pressure fuel pump. Only with serious wear must they be
- Checking the coolant pressure in the closed disassembled. The crankshaft must be ground and
system. Checking the coolant for frost protection . over- dimensioned main bearings and crankpin
bearings must be adjusted.
Testing the main engine - Check governor and lubricating -oil piping:
- Check that the engine is operating in a regular - change the lubricating oil.
loop; if not; this is often an indication of improper - High- pressure fuel pump.
combustion . Change the lubricating oil regularly. This
- Check pressures and temperatures. lubricating oil is often very thin! This points
- Check visible smoke in the exhaust gas after the towards possible fuel leaks, which are not a major
engine is warm . problem if the lubricating oil is regularly changed.
- Check vibrations. - Crankcase.
- Check leaks. Clean the crankcase well with lint - free cloth.
- Check to see if the dynamo and accumulator are Remove all small impurities. Carefully check all
working. the nooks and crannies with a lamp.
347
32.6 Examples of maintenance for

engines, category III
ra .
5
3
fl
o | a 1
2
4
BS £
7 T
a
4
2
xX
X
X
X
X
Cl
I
X
a /
X
r\j /\ /
An example of a X
maintenance programme; \ X
XI
some activities for a s
/
UK
E s
Caterpillar MaK 32 diesel
engine, category III, HFO
s
are detailed.
E y \
/ \
/ \
Shown, the cross-section of /
/
the upper part of the engine.
/
\
/
32.6.1 Crankshaft clock gauging
Ensure that the heart line of the crankshaft is in Crankshaft clock gauging is performed for the
line. following objectives.
Goal: avoid material fatigue in the crankshaft: this - A s a maintenance check.
could result in crankshaft breakage. - After a collision .
Cause: wear of the main bearing or deformation of - If there is a suspicion that the engine foundation
the engine frame ( large engines). is deformed.
Method crankshaft clock gauging: basically, a dial - With bearing damage.
gauge is placed in two standard centre holes between - Before and after dry- docking.
the crankshaft webs. The position of the crankshaft -
heart line is obtained by setting the dial gauge to zero
for every cylinder in a certain piston position . Then
progressively per cylinder, measurements are taken
in four different positions. The dial gauge ‘results’
must always be within certain values.
348
A measuring table for the

crankshaft position of a
Caterpillar MaK 32 engine.
Shown, a nine - cylinder
engine.
negative: smaller distance

between the crank webs
positive: larger distance
between the crank webs
In the lower drawing, the
measuring positions are clearly
shown.
As the connecting rod is in the
way, measurements are taken
once on the one side,
position 5, and once on the
other side, position 1.
There are also electronic

crankshaft- deflection
devices that store the
measured values in a file.
349
32.6.2 Valve- clearance check
Checking the clearances in the drive mechanism of The exhaust - valve clearances are usually larger; the
the inlet and exhaust valves. exhaust valve is usually warmer than the inlet valve
Goal: Valve clearance ensures that the valves are and therefore expands more.
completely closed when this is required for the There are different methods for cold and hot engines.
process. The clearance is often between 0.2 and Method: A feeler gauge is used to measure the
1.2 millimetres dependent on the type and size of clearance between both drive parts.
the engine.
Measuring the valve 3

clearance for a Caterpillar /
/
z V
MaK 32 diesel engine. /
&
L
x
/
z
/' /
illq pS
Z'1
/
z1 /
/
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
In figure 1: In figure 2:
1 valve- rocker arm 3 counter nut
2 valve- adjusting bolt 4 setting bolt
s valve clearance
If the clearance is not correct, the counter nut is loosened and
Using a feeler gauge, the clearance S can be checked. The feeler using the setting bolt, the correct clearance can be set.
gauge must move with reasonable difficultly. When tightening the counter nut, ensure that the setting bolt
does not rotate. Always recheck the clearance after any
adjustments! Always press both valve yokes down so that there is
no clearance.
32.6.3 Cylinder -head dismantling
Remove the cylinder head.

Goal: Check the cylinder head , such as, inlet -
and exhaust valves and seats, coolant spaces,
contamination of the bottom side of the head, fuel
injectors, and etcetera. Dismantle the cylinder head
further, so the piston and liner can be dismantled.
An hydraulic jack set ('spider ') for the six cylinder -head
bolts of a Caterpillar MaK 32 diesel engine.
In this case, the oil pressure is supplied using a hand pump. In

stages, the pressure over all six hydraulic jacks can be increased
until the 'hydraulic ' nuts on the head bolts are released so that the
cylinder head can be removed.
Method: Small engines in categories I and II W1

have bolted connections, which can be loosened
manually. Cylinders with a cylinder diameter from
200 millimetres in the categories II and III have
hydraulically tensioned bolts and hydraulic jacks are
used. W4
W6
Upper drawing: the hydraulic jacks hanging on a spreader

and hoisted above the cylinder with an overhead crane.
Lower drawing : a cross- section of the relatively long
hydraulic jack for the cylinder-head bolts.
10
The oil is supplied from the upper left. Outside pipe, W6, is on the
/ S
cylinder head. Inside pipe, W7, is screwed onto the rolled thread
of the cylinder- head bolt and due to the high oil pressure, is X
moved slightly upwards. As a result, the bolts are slightly I xX x
x
W4
xx X
stretched and the cylinder-head nut 12, with pin X X
s X X W6
W8, can be rotated upwards ('eight holes') so that when the oil
X
\ X X
X X\
X
sX X W7
pressure is removed, they remain free of the cylinder head. The X X
stx
head can then be removed.
X
\ X Xs
X
\ X X\
sX
X X
Working pressure of the oil system is 850 bars. X X
sX X s\
13 grooves in outer pipe X X
X
\
X\ 11
10 venting sX X
X
sX
s measured distance of the screwed inside pipe, ZZ7 X s
sX X
X
sXX X\
sX Xs
X
s X
s \
13
s
s
s
5
W8
12
Inlet and exhaust valves

These are cleaned and measured , the welded valve
seats are then ground to the correct angle.
N*
Exhaust- valve seat Caterpillar
7
*
E
E
c
E Inlet- valve seat Caterpillar
MaK 32. MaK 32.
The welded section must have The welded section must have
a minimal height of 1.5 mm after a minimal height of 0.2 mm after
grinding. The angle must be grinding. The angle must be

30 degrees 8 minutes. 30 degrees 8 minutes.
351
A measuring table for the M32

valves of a Caterpillar
MaK 32 diesel engine.
•when the deviation from the straightnesss does not exceed the following values {Fig. 1).
Amongst others, Measuring range " s" = 390 mm
measurements are taken:
= contact points for test device
- if the valve stem is bent:
A -B; •when the radial runouts of the valve cone do not exceed the following values:
- to find the thickness S, the
burn section caused by
0,04
high-temperature corrosion.
S is a maximum of 1.5 mm. 0,08 AB
20 20
A B
s
0,03 AB
0,006
Fig. 1
1.2 The valves cannot be reused in the

following cases
•the valve cone face is damaged

( cracks, blowholes )
•the wear caused by corrosive material

exceeds
>2%
of the valve head diameter
( compare with new valve )
•concave burns "s" caused by high

temperature corrosion on the
underside of the valve head exceeds
> 1.5 mm (Fig. 2 ) s
•the underside of the valve head Fig. 2

indicates severe pitting ( formation of
so -called " paving stones " )
•corrosion pits and mechanical

damage in zone of the valve stem, the
stem transition and valve head
•excess of limit dimension for

refinishing.
352
£
V,
A
A,
V
A
z
z
z\
/
Checking the valve-seat surface.

The polished outer ring of
- Sand lightly by hand. the valve seat is a maximum
- This is done with a very fine grinding compound of 50% of the total width.
(Dp 30/ 10 - 15 microns).
- After application of the grinding compound, a solvent is
sprayed over the paste to improve the polishing process.
a
The handgrip is placed on the valve. The valve stem is oiled and
positioned in the valve guide. After this, the valve seat is lightly
6
polished for a very short time. The contact surface of the valve
with the seat is between 30 to 50% of the seat width.
32.6.4 Checking the bearing shells A bearing shell for a medium -speed Caterpillar MaK
32 contains two layers: a 10 mm - thick steel support
Goal: Detect damage and wear. layer and a 0.7 mm to 1.1 mm thick running layer
Comment: 85% of all bearing damage is caused by consisting of a lead / bronze or aluminium alloy.
contaminated lubricating oil, solid contaminants and
water!
Layer configuration of two-metal bearings

The arrangement of the
Lead bronze bearing / AlSn.. bearing
bearing shells for a
Corrosion protection flash Caterpillar MaK 32 diesel
Sn - Flash 3 pm engine.
Lead bronze or AlSn..
0.7 - 1.1 mm The steel shell itself is
Steel back approximately 10 mm.
Steel C.. up to 10 mm
The lead bronze or aluminium
n
tin layer is between 0.7 and
Shell thickness
1.1 mm. The anti-corrosion
layer is very thin: 0.003 mm.
353
Method
Bearing replacement is required:
- when there are deep scratches on the running
layer ;
- when due to wear, the minimum layer thickness
is reached;
- in special cases, only with Al -Sn bearing shells.
The running layer shows a heavily overloaded bearing with

fretting corrosion in the aluminium alloy.
This bearing shell cannot be re -used. Both bearing shells must be

replaced. The cause of this damage must be investigated and
resolved.
The load- bearing area is distributed equally over the entire

running layer. The dirt in the lubricating oil has had no
negative influence on the bearing reliability. The bearing
shell can be re-used.
The load-bearing area shows damage of the bearing in a

large surface area, in certain parts, fretting corrosion.
This bearing shell cannot be re -used, renew both bearing shells.

The cause of this damage must be investigated and resolved.
Check the other bearing shells.
The load- bearing area is distributed equally over the entire

layer. The bearing shell can be reused.
The heavily loaded section of the bearing shows the

stripping of bearing material, probably by overloading.
Stripped bearing material can be found in the area . Clean! This

bearing shell cannot be re-used; both bearing shells must be
The load-bearing area is distributed equally over the entire renewed.
layer. The circumferential scratches are caused by very fine The cause of this damage must be investigated and resolved.
solids, such as metal particles and/ or sand in the Check the other bearing shells.
lubricating oil.
Given that the depth of these scratches cannot be measured or

felt, the bearing shell can be re -used. If the number, the depth
and the size of the scratches negatively affect the lubricating-oil
film build-up, then both bearing shells must be renewed.
354
32.6.5 Piston 'withdrawal'

Piston-ring pliers used for
Goal: Check the condition of piston , piston rings, the simple removal of
cylinder liner, gudgeon pin , connecting rod , piston rings. The risk that
connecting- rod bush, and connecting- rod bearings. the rings will break when
Method: Loosen the connecting- rod bolts at the using these pliers is small.
connecting- rod division when the piston is at top

position and attached to an overhead crane with a
hoist strap.
The antipolishing ring is then removed with a
special tool.
Carbon deposition on the cylinder liner is also Measuring the piston-ring
removed . groove in two places and
If the above two steps are not executed , the ( sharp ) the thickness of the piston
ring.
piston rings could remain behind !
After this, the piston rings are removed from the
^ N2
^ N1
piston using piston - ring pliers and the piston crown

is dismantled. The inside of the piston crown can
now be inspected for contamination .
Comment Ring thickness hR Groove width hN2

When the lubricating oil used for cooling the piston Groove Nominal Wear limit A measuring table for the
overheats, the internal piston -surface area can mm mm piston-ring grooves and the
become caked with carbon residues. This impedes 1 8 8.45 0.5 ring height for all four rings.
the heat transfer from the piston crown to the 2, 3 6 6.45 0.5
lubricating oil, causing overheating of the piston . 4 10 10.2 0.3
The pressure shocks occurring in the combustion

process can load the piston crown to such an extent
that the piston crown fails, causing huge damage to
the piston and its surroundings. All these parts must 32.6.6 Cylinder liner
be cleaned .
The surface areas checked for damage and all the Goal: Check the condition of the cylinder liner, such
important dimensions are measured. as wear, crosshatch pattern , cracks, and scratches.
All rejected parts, such as piston rings, are replaced. Method: Both, when installed in the block or
disassembled, the diameter of the liner can be
As a matter of course, the piston pin and the measured at different heights, in the length and
connecting- rod bushes are measured to locate in width ( fore and aft direction as well as abeam ).
possible wear. The rejected connecting - rod bushes Mostly wear is found on the upper side.
are removed in the engine factory and with
nitrogen (shrinkage) , a new bush is attached to the
connecting- rod eye. This can also be done with C02
snow’. All the bolted connections of the piston and
connecting - rod eye are tightened with an approved
torque spanner.
Measuring the cylinder diameter in a two- stroke crosshead

engine, a Wartsila Sulzer RTA96C.
The diameter of the cylinder liner is measured in various places to

determine the wear. To position the calliper gauge correctly, use is
made of steel strips with holes suspended at various heights in
the liner. See next figure.
355
With a certain amount of wear, the cylinder liner

W1
will be considered as faulty and replaced . Although /
Two measuring strips are
1 S
the cylinder liner may still be in working order, one placed in the cylinder so
should realise that it cannot be replaced until the that the wear can be
next overhaul. measured at three different
*\ heights by placing the
calliper gauge in both
*
r holes.
The measuring strips must
/ \
/ be mounted exactly
4 t\
.
t
opposite each other in the
2 /
Different types of scratches . 5 cylinder.
in the running layer of the
1
cylinder liner. The number 2 \
and their maximum 2\
2
dimensions are defined for 2
all scratches, regarding V
N
possible rejection of the
cylinder liner.
3 r\
hj
32.7 Some examples of Thread diameters in millimetres

maintenance for large foundation bolts M 64
two - stroke crosshead anchor foundation bolt M 180 x 6
engines, category IV cylinder - head bolts M 110 x 6
exhaust -valve casing M 110 x 6 T
32.7.1 Wartsila Sulzer RTA 96 C piston rod , on crosshead M 110 x 6
( Engine category IV )
In this very large engine, hardly any parts can be

lifted by hand , the weight of the spare parts are
enormous. Some of these very heavy parts are given
below as an example.
bottom - half six- cylinder crankcase 118,000 kg

main bearing shell 184 - 234 kg
bare A -frame 94,000 kg
tie rod 2210 kg
tie - rod nut 41 kg
cylinder liner 9006 kg
cylinder cover complete 10,442 kg
exhaust valve complete with casing 2909 kg
exhaust valve 236 kg
crankshaft six- cylinder 186 000 kg
,
crankshaft twelve-cylinder two parts 359,700 kg
fuel cam 253 kg
This entails the following:

- Almost all the parts must be moved using an
overhead crane with a hoist capability of 10 to 15
tonnes. The running surfaces in the crankcase of a large two- stroke
- All the large bolted connections are hydraulically crosshead engine. Slipping during these activities can be
tensioned. life-threatening.
356
.
j
1
CH 32 > MAINTENANCE A N D REPAIRS
- The requisite hydraulic jacks are very heavy and crankcase, covered in lubricating oil, can be very
moved by a crane. slippery. Permanent stairs facilitate climbing.
- Manual inspection is inadequate; only by
measuring can one ascertain if a part is in the Examples of maintenance schedules

correct place. Study spare - part drawings, which contain all the
- Working with heavy parts requires a lot of relevant data. Today this is done digitally. All
attention , safety is very important. The possibility the spare parts are represented in blue in both
of permanent injury is always present ! longitudinal - and cross -section . Clicking on them
- The crankcase and the scavenging- air space are provides detailed spare - part drawings.
large enough to walk around in; especially the
Maintenance 0380-1/ A1
SULZTR RTA96C
A small section of the
Maintenance Schedule maintenance schedule for
Inspection and Overhaul Intervals ( Guidelines)
the largest two- stroke
crosshead engine from
Component Work to be carried out Group Intervals Wartsila, the 'Sulzer '
RTA 96C.
Group 0
Activities are often combined.
Lubricating oil . . . Laboratory analysis 0900-1 3’000 op. hours
Clicking the blue code
(= operating hours)
numbers in the digital
Cooling water . . . Check concentration of inhibitor programme provides detailed
(as per supplier ’s instructions )
information on the part . There
Group 1 are six pages in total.
Bedplate Check pre-tension of foundation bolts 1112-1 every 2 years
(first time after 1’500 operating hours)
Main bearing Check pre-tension of waisted stud, if necessary 1132-1 15’000 -r - 20’000 op.
re-tension (first time after 1 year) hours
Remove main bearing upper half for inspection 1132-2 acc. to class, society
Remove bottom bearing shell for inspection 1132-1 as required
Thrust bearing . . Check axial and radial clearance 1203-1 6’000 8’000 op.
hours
Check bottom drain for free passage 1203-1 6’000 -h 8 ’000 op.
hours
Remove thrust bearing pads for inspection .. 1224-1 acc. to class society
,
Tie rod Check pre-tension, if necessary re-tension .. 1903-1 every 4 years

(first time after 1 year)
Group 2
Cylinder liner . . . . Establish wear in bore (in fitted condition) . . . 2124-1 at every piston removal
Remove cylinder liner 2124-2 as required
Replace O-rings 2124-2 at every removal
Water guide jacket, replace O-rings 2124-2 at every removal
Grind ofF wear ridge in bore 2124-3 at every piston removal
Recondition scavenge ports 2124-3 as required
Reshape lubricating grooves 2124-3 as required
Lubricating quill Check function and tightness . . . 2136-1 at every piston removal
and accumulator 2136-1 at every liner removal
Replace O-rings
Check diaphragm of accumulator 2136-1 15’000 -r- 20’000 op.
hours
357
Checking the main-bearing shells Subsequently the bottom shell, with the use of an
The bearing- cap bolts are loosened hydraulically. attachment and the turning motor, is rotated around
The bearing cap is hoisted from the crankcase onto the crankshaft so it lies on top of the crankshaft , and
a crane trolley outside the engine using a hoisting can now be hoisted out of the crankcase.
point in the crankcase. After this, the upper main - Now, the shells are inspected and the thicknesses
bearing shell is hoisted out of the crankcase. measured in various places. If the shells are
approved , the procedure above is reversed .
SULZ£ R RTA96C
Maintenance 1132-2/A1
Hoisting the bearing cap of
the main bearing out of the
Removing and Fitting a Main Bearing
crankcase.
I-I
Various hoisting points can be
found inside the crankcase;
LU
outside the crankcase, hoist o 9
beams and a trolley.
% «
S
CO
«
2
< %S
3
LU
94148
<5
CD UJ
C 9
<P CO
I I
£ = 3
g LU
c
a?=- Li
>
94117
94148
94142
358
Adjusting and checking the VIT- system of the The start of injection , the end of injection and
high- pressure fuel pumps the effective plunger stroke are measured. In this
This extensive procedure involves three dial gauges procedure, the camshaft must be progressively
being placed on the suction valve, the overflow valve, re - positioned by turning the engine.
and the high - pressure plunger.
Maintenance 5512-1/ A1
SULZER RTA96C
Checking and adjusting the
fuel pumps.
Setting and Checking the Control with Load-dependent V.l.T. (Variable Injection
Timing)
An extensive digital manual

ensures that the procedure
can be easily followed.
E
E
CM
O
o
o
o
-Q
D) Checking the fuel injection pumps

The same setting values as given for the injection pump setting must be used.
Carry out preparations in accordance with section B).
Checking the begin of injection, end of injection and of the effective plunger stroke
The description below applies to AHEAD rotation.
of the cam.
1. Turn the engine until the cam roller of the fuel pump to be checked rests on the peak
'0' (see lllustr.
Fit the dial gauge with about 1mm pre-tension over the now closed suction valve (S) and set it to
* J\ Fig. 1).
2. Turn engine ASTERN, until the cam roller rests on the base circle of the cam.
’ ’ with a slight
Fit the dial gauges over the plunger as well as over the now closed spill valve (U) and adjust to 0
pretension (see lllustr. ’J ’ Fig. 2).
359
Measuring crankshaft deflection The measurements are performed for five crankshaft
Crankshaft deflection is measured at least once positions. From a start position - the same for every
a year. When doing so, the ship must be afloat. cylinder - the dial gauge is set to zero and then
Crankshaft deflection must be measured as soon as read for every position. The readings can be either
possible after a ship has run aground. positive or negative ( larger of smaller ).
After changing the main - bearing shells, the For very large crankshafts, the deviations are
deflections have to be measured if possible, within a tenths of a millimetre. The maximum deviation for
period of 100 operating hours. crankshafts in these engines is 0.66 mm!
3103-1/ A 1 Maintenance SULZtR RTA96C

Measuring crankshaft
deflections.
Measuring Crank Deflection
The difference ( Aa) between the indicated values at B.D.C. and T.D.C. shows the amount of crank deflection during
one revolution (see Fig. ’B’).
All influences which cause a temporary deformation of the hull and/or the engine affect the crank deflection.
These are for example: loaded condition of the ship
engine cold or at service temperature
differing air/water temperatures
strong sunshine
The values of Aa given below are valid for all conditions independent of outside influences.
Where values are measured which lie over the maximum permissible limits, the cause has to be found and the nec-
essary remedial measures taken (defective main bearing, engine support altered due to hull deformation, loose
holding-down bolts, defective shaftline bearings, etc.).
When measuring the crank deflection , ensure that the crank journals are fully seated in their bearings.
Crankshaft deflection gauge Measuring point
/
a B.D.C.
\
i i
>
(/
Q
a> \
! a T.D.C.
Clearance o
co
\
No clearance i.
\
/
Difference A a = a T.D.C. - a B.D.C.

Good values A a=0 -T-
0.33 mm
Values still admissible A a = 0.33 -r- 0.66 mm
360
SULZ-ER RTA96C
Maintenance 3103-1/A1
The different positions
Crankshaft
when measuring the
Measuring Crank Deflection
crankshaft deflections.
Tools:
1 Dial gauge 94305
In order to ascertain whether the axes of the crank journals deviate from the theoretical shaft axis , the crank deflec-
tions must be measured. When doing so the ship must be floating freely.
Under normal circumstances, it is sufficient to measure the crank deflections once a year. They must, however, be
measured as soon as possible in case the ship has grounded or after replacing the main bearing shells. The deflec-
tions have to be measured again approx . 100 service hours after replacing the bearing shells.
Should signs of damage of the main bearings be found during inspection of the crankcase, the crank deflections
should also be measured.
Measuring is carried out using a crankshaft dial gauge (tool 94305) which, for this purpose, is inserted between the
crank webs of the crank to be measured. When turning the crankshaft, the change in distance between the crank
webs can be read from the dial gauge as this indicates any opening or closing up. The smaller the variations the
better the position of the shaft.
Measuring procedure (indicator valves must be open)

With the running gear in place, the crank to be measured has to be turned towards B .D.C. until the dial gauge can be
fitted next to the connecting rod at the position indicated. Pretension the dial gauge slightly and set it to ”0” (see Fig.
A’).
Turn the crankshaft AHEAD with the turning gear and read off and note the readings shown on the dial gauge at the
crank positions 90 ° before T.D.C., at T.D.C., 90 ° after T.D.C. and before B.D.C. (dial gauge still next to the con-
necting rod). The last value serves as a check. If the correct procedure has been followed, this should be back at
nearly ”0”.
Kurbel im O.T.P.
CRANK AT T.D.C.
JJ;
94305
2t:
I
93.7167
361
DIESEL ENGINES > B O O K III
Dismantling or assembling an SKF- shaft

coupling of the camshaft
The camshaft of this engine comprises various
parts. The shaft couplings and cams are attached
hydraulically. When repairing or changing a cam ,
part of the shaft is first removed from the cam casing
so that the cams can be dismantled.
SULZtR RTA96C Maintenance 4203-4/A1

Dismantling and
Camshaft
assembling an SKF- shaft Removing and Fitting of SKF Shaft Coupling
coupling of the camshaft.
The blue codes provide Tools: Key to Illustrations:
information about the tools 1 HP oil pump 94931 1 Camshaft P Fit gap
1 SKF hand oil pump 94931a 2 Inner bush R Ring space
(digital info).
1 Pressure gauge 94932 3 Coupling sleeve V Relief valve
1 HP hose 94935 4 Locking plate
1 HP hose 94935a 5 Valve screw HPC High Pressure
1 Hydraulic unit 94942 6 Screw Connection
7 Nut LPC Low Pressure
8 Seal ring Connection
3^ 94935
94932 94942
94931a
um
94931 V 94935a
10mm
190mm
Marken
MARKS
Anschluss
G 3/4” HPC
CONNECTION
Anschluss
G 1/4” LPC
CONNECTION
362
Reconditioning a damaged
fuel cam for a Wartsila
Sulzer 10RTA 96C engine.
1 camshaft
2 cam
3 fuel pump
Removing a section of the

camshaft.
Of course, many auxiliary tools

are required, such as guiding
beams, hoists and hydraulic
tools.
The hydraulic loosening of

the SKF- shaft coupling.
Every cylinder has its own

removable camshaft section.
363
L_
Checking the foundation bolts Working with these hydraulic jacks is extensively
In order to keep the various parts of a crosshead described in instruction manuals, the so - called
engine, the crankshaft bed , the A-frame, and the ‘Work procedures’. All the necessary detailed
cylinder beam together, hydraulically tensioned drawings can be found in ‘electronic instruction
foundation bolts are used. manuals’ by a simple click on the blue - highlighted
These are tensioned using very large hydraulic jacks. text in the drawings.
Tools: Key to Illustrations:

The hydraulic jack for the 2 Pre-tensioning jacks 94180 1 Cylinder jacket 14 Clamp screw
largest bolt in the engine 1 Pressure gauge 94932a 2 Intermediate ring 15 Column
1 Connection piece 94934a 3 Upper tie rod nut 16 Bedplate
industry: the tie rods for the 1 HP hose 94935 4 Cylinder 17 O-ring
two- stroke crosshead 2 HP hoses 94935a 5 Piston 18 Lower backing ring
1 Hydraulic unit 94942 6 Sealing ring 19 Lower tie rod nut
engine: 180 millimetres!
7 Round bar 20 Bush
8 Pin
9 Vent screw
10 Tie rod AN Drain slot
11 Screw K Slot
12 Protection cap L Thread protrusion
13 Opening for solvent S Measuring place
'
1 r
94180 i
8 9 10
94935a
94932a
94934a
94935
i
{ i
ix
XT
/
{
94942
97.7110
364
Good maintenance
depends for a large part on
motivated and specialised
personnel that, in the short
time in which diesel
engines are stopped, can
perform the maintenance
and repairs competently,
quickly and successfully.
The construction of a M32

inline engine at Caterpillar
MaK in Kiel, Germany.
This is a medium-speed diesel

engine, fuel HFO.
Note the covering of the
crankcase vents. Special
'Adhesive foil lids' are used to
prevent debris entering the
crankcase.
365
Pulling the piston, shown

here, a Wartsila 38,
a medium -speed
four-stroke propulsion
engine.
Note the notches in the piston

skirt for weight savings.
Pulling the piston liner.
Clearly shown here, the

thickened edge that can be
seen protruding above the
engine.
T
A cylinder cover of a
two-stroke crosshead
engine being placed on the
cylinder -head landing.
Dismantling a crosshead in a large two-stroke engine.
The whole gearbox is extremely slippery because of the finish and

lubricating oil. Extreme caution is advised. Fixed steps, aluminium
ladders and scaffolding as well as a safety harness should be used.
366
32.8 Excessive wear or 'scuffing' 32.8.2 Working on a cylinder liner in the

of the cylinder liners in a engine after a certain number of
two - stroke crosshead engine operating hours
32.8.1 Introduction Removing the wear edge in the cylinder liner

After many operating hours or excessive wear of
Source: A summary of a study by Maersk Lines, the liner, some residue remains right above the top
the largest container shipping company in the world. ring when the piston is in top position, whereas the
surface below has worn away: the so- called wear
Excessive wear of cylinder liners, pistons and piston edges. In order to draw the piston , the edge must be
rings is a regularly occurring problem in two -stroke removed; otherwise the piston is caught behind the
crosshead engines. edge. Grinding away the edge must be performed
with great precision .
This is partly due to the following:
- The material quality from which the cylinder Just 5 mm above the edge should be ground away.
liners and piston rings are manufactured . This creates a space in which the carbon deposit
- The amount and location of the dosage of is contained, which prevents it from reaching the
cylinder lubrication. cylinder liner.
- The quality of the cylinder lubricating- oil.
- The manner in which the liner is honed. This avoids wearing of the liner. If the wear edge is
- The type of piston rings for instance the profile, not removed in time, a newly fitted top ring could
the surface treatment such as chrome plating or potentially crack allowing hot gases to destroy part of
ceramic coating. the lubricating film and subsequently damaging the
- The size and finish of the piston ring grooves and second ring. In time, hot gases could pass through
the surface treatment . the entire spring package. This would result in a
- The engine load. heavily damaged piston and a badly worn cylinder
- The fuel quality. liner.
- The clearance of the various parts in relation to
each other such as liner, piston , piston rings and Grinding the wear edge
piston ring grooves. A wear edge is often removed using an angle grinder.
- The amount of moisture in the scavenging air. As it is difficult to keep this tool in the correct
position , some material below the wear edge may
As shown in Chapter 26, ‘Reconditioning diesel inadvertently be removed . This affects the seal
engines and their parts , this is a rather complex between piston and liner, increasing the chances of
procedure. a blow- out.
Engineers often have divergent ideas as to how It is preferable to use a special tool able to remove
honing should be performed. However, today the wear edge with great precision, such as a edge
a number of standard procedures are generally grinder from Chris- Marine.
accepted.
Left; a top piston ring and cylinder liner after a

considerable number of operating hours. The spring and
clearance
the liner are worn just above the top position of the piston
* ground away
ring where the liner does not wear, creating a 'fender,'
carbon build- up landing surface.
piston ring * The
is scraped away here Right; the fender has been ground away creating a space to
hold the carbon, preventing deposition in the piston ring
no package.
clearance
Worn lining Worn lining

after smoothen bumper
367
v A cylinder liner with a fine honing pattern and

A 'fender ' grinding machine correct internal dimensions need not be removed.
from Chris-Marine for However, if the liner shows very smooth patches,
accurate grinding/ lathing the liners require re - honing, provided they have not
of the landing surfaces. already worn out.
These patches could also be the result of semi - burnt
In about 15 minutes the fender lubricating oil and / or semi - burnt fuel droplets or
is ground away. water mist droplets. It is imperative to check the
cylinder- liner running surface even though it can be
difficult to establish the cause of the wear spots.
32.8.3 Three types of cylinder wear

Checking the cylinder liner
It is advisable to inspect the running surface of Abrasive wear
the cylinder liner thoroughly, prior to drawing the This is easy to establish: vertical scratches appear on
piston . the running surface of the cylinder liner. The wear
is caused by abrasive particles in dirty fuel. These
- Is there a sufficient amount of cylinder so -called cat - fines are remains of catalysts utilised
lubricating- oil throughout the liner ? in refining crude - oil , desert sand or grit from sand -
- Is the cylinder liner still reasonably round ? blasting. However, abrasive wear could also result
from adhesive wear products wearing the liner and
This is easily ascertained by applying talcum powder the piston rings.
to the liner running surface and subsequently
turning the engine. Adhesive wear
This type of wear occurs, for various reasons, when
Lack of contact between the piston rings and the the lubricating - oil film dissolves causing metal -
cylinder liner can easily be detected as the talcum to - metal contact between the piston ring and the
powder remains on the cylinder liner. cylinder liner. In some instances this phenomenon
Abrasive wear.
The dimensions of the dark dirt particle are greater than the
distance between the moving surfaces relative to each other and
create vertical scratches on the running surface of the cylinder
liner.
Abrasive wear.
The vertical scratches on the cylinder liner are clearly visible.
368
Adhesive wear. Corrosive wear.
Some particles 'stick' on the surface when the lubricating-oil film The sulphuric acid produced erodes the material.
disappears, this may result excessive wear or 'scuffing'. Red: sulphuric acid.
is referred to as scuffing’. The degree of wear can be 32.8.4 Clover leafing

considerable and occur in a very short space of time.
Scuffing may also result from poor water drainage Clover leafing is a phenomenon where the running
in the scavenging-air coolers. This is clearly visible surface of the cylinder liner shows signs of wear in
through a magnifying glass with a magnification of areas where the cylinder lubricating- oil is relatively
8- 10. far removed from the supply points. It is the result
of an insufficient supply of cylinder lubricating- oil
Corrosive wear combined with the TBN dip on the running surface.
Corrosive wear of the running surface of the cylinder Most of the wear is located between the lubricating
liner is caused by sulphuric acid. This occurs at points where the lubricating - oil supply and therefore
temperatures below the dew point (about 160 °C ) neutralisation of sulphuric acid is less than in areas
combined with a low oil film thickness. ‘Controlled’ nearer to the lubricating points. These cylinder
and limited corrosive wear enhances the bonding liners must be honed until the ‘clover’ structure has
of the cylinder lubricating - oil. The surface of been removed. Chromed piston rings are especially
the cylinder liner appears slightly speckled with vulnerable to this phenomenon as the chrome layer
numerous tiny indentations. can disintegrate. The damaged ring surface will cause
scuffing or, in some instances, fracturing of the ring.
Abrasive and corrosive wear
These two types of wear often go hand in hand.
Corroded particles drawn from the running surface
by the piston movement cause abrasive wear.
Clover Leaf pattern wear,

a form of wear which is
regularly found between
the supply points of the
cylinder lubricating- oil.
369
Checking the piston and the piston rings

Prior to cleaning the piston and fitting new piston
rings, the exterior of the piston should be closely
examined.
Precipitation on the piston crown

Precipitation on the piston crown or on the section
above the rings provides information regarding the
degree of cylinder lubrication . A layer of carbon may
have accumulated to the side of the piston , above the
piston rings. This layer affects the lubricating - oil film
on the cylinder liner. The layer is either formed by
an imbalance between the alkaline additives in the
lubricating oil and the sulphuric acid formed during
the combustion process and / or the result of poor
fuel atomisation , leading to the formation of various
small carbon particles which adhere to the piston
surface.
It could also be caused by fuel leakage.
If liners run for a while with broken or stuck piston rings,
there is a risk that the running surface will be thermally Too high a dose of lubricating oil is both expensive
overloaded and that cracks will appear in the upper part of and may produce an adverse effect.
the cylinder liner.
Dirt and carbon deposits are also often found on the
piston ring surface and in the piston ring grooves.
Poor combustion and piston ring blow- out add to
32.8.5 Hammering carbon formation .
Carbon build up generally occurs in ring grooves
Horizontal edges and hammer profiles at the top and behind the piston rings. In four-stroke engines
of the cylinder liner result from broken piston this often results in ring sticking’, which at times
rings beating against the running surface. Hammer leads to piston seizure. In two -stroke crosshead
profiles produced by parts of the exhaust valve or engines this phenomenon is seen less frequently,
the piston rings have varying patterns. The cylinder although it does cause additional wear.
liner can still be used if the scuffing is superficial. It is imperative that the rings have free movement.
Honing is a reliable method for checking the surface Furthermore, piston ring grooves should always be
and provides it with a proper pattern . When fuel kept clean.
injectors are fitted incorrectly, or in poor condition ,
thermal tearing can also occur in the top section of Scuffing generally starts at the bottom of the
the cylinder liner. cylinder liner as this has the smallest diameter.
32.8.6 Honing of the cylinder Burning of the piston crowns

This is a common occurrence and results from
The flow decision chart for honing can be consulted inadequate fuel injection. It may also be caused
to establish if honing is required. The time required by the lubricating- oil cooling of the piston crown .
for honing can be as much as 8 hours! Due to internal contamination, the piston crown
Only in exceptional cases is honing performed on is insufficiently cooled , which causes the surface
board. It is usually performed at a revision shop to burn . Piston rings often fracture when they are
on shore, where further knowledge of honing is lodged to the grooves. Potential problems are easier
available. to detect by examining the piston surface rather the
cylinder liner. The type of wear can be determined by
using a magnifying glass with an 8- 10 magnification .
370
Clearance of the piston ring in the groove 32.8.7 Piston rings

This is essential and should always be checked
during maintenance. Overall, the clearance is Due to rapidly increasing combustion pressures
measured to ensure that it is not excessive. Too little over the past twenty years, designers of two -stroke
clearance hinders the ring tension on the cylinder crosshead engines have been required to significantly
liner, which means that the ring is not firmly pressed improve the quality of piston ring technology
against the cylinder liner. and the materials applied in order to acquire an
acceptable degree of wear.
A flow chart showing the decision making process for the

necessity of honing of the cylinder liner.
Observation
Piston ring surface
No No New rings No No honing
> Scuffing? > Liner oval ? > to be fitted ? to be performed
'' Micro seizure ?
v Hard contact ?
Wear edge No
present ? Yes Yes
Yes >
Yes
’' Liner '>
/ \
running surface 'Light honing' by
Fit the wear edge No No
Scuffing? > Liner oval? > means of
milling machine and
Machine marks ceramic coarse stones
remove wear edge
present ?
^
Yes >
Yes
’' Use fine stones for
A proper groove in removal of excessive
the wear edge area metal and creation
is established No
Liner oval? of plateau surface
<
'' Yes < ''
Clean the inner liner '' Clean the inner liner
surface with a 'Heavy honing' of the surface with a
soap solution and rags upper part of liner soap solution and rags
running surface by
ceramic coarse stones
or diamond stones
> > r
'
Measure the liner > Measure the liner
for the cylinder for the cylinder
condition report 'Heavy honing' of condition report
scuffed areas by
ceramic coarse stones
or diamond stones
<
''
Clean all grooves
in the liner with
soap solution and
air pressure
''
Oil the liner surface
with cylinder LO
Honing completed
371
A 'pulled' piston, the piston is not very dirty; all piston rings
are loose and not broken. The running surface of the piston
rings is smooth so that they run entirely on the running
surface of the cylinder liner. A perfect piston!
A piston with a little more contamination. After cleaning

and measuring the piston rings, piston ring grooves and
the diameter of the cylinder liner, it can be decided
whether the piston can be re-installed in the engine.
This piston crown of a two- stroke crosshead engine is

severely worn. After the dry blasting, it is clearly visible that
the rings are broken or stuck. At the left, the piston material
is so hot that it melted and the piston ring has been
moved! The piston can be reconditioned, inspected and
re-installed in the engine.
372
r
32.8.8 Materials In recent years this has increasingly led to the

development of advanced piston ring coatings
Although simple cast iron piston rings are still used and piston ring profiles. These developments went
today, they are usually not suitable for carrying high hand in hand with an increase in development -
loads. Particularly the top piston ring and increased and manufacturing - costs and while in theory the
cylinder diameters create problems. extended life of the improved piston rings should
easily compensate for these additional costs, this has
not been the case.
Material for a standard piston ring

There are three variants:
- Laminar cast iron ;
- Fine perlitic cast iron ;
- Nodular cast iron.
The cast iron structure is enhanced by alloys to

obtain the required properties such as material
strength, microstructure, thermal stability, thermal
conductivity and wear resistance.
A typical example of a conventional piston ring. Depending Fine perlitic cast iron, often provided with a coating,
on the microstructure, it is possible to increase the wear is commonly used for the top piston ring.
resistance with so -called hard iron-carbides in the perlitic Laminar cast iron is used for the lower piston
crystal lattice. rings which are also often coated. Nodular iron is
currently not used.
32.8.9 Coatings
Applying a special coating in heavily loaded engines

is beneficial as it either enhances the running- in of
the ring to the cylinder liner or reduces wear and
therefore extends the life of the rings.
Electrolytic hard chrome piston rings are widely

used for medium -speed four-stroke - and high -
speed diesel engines, for heavy oil, diesel oil or
gas oil. Mitsubishi was the first manufacturer
Blunt Edge graphite structure, manufacturer 's name: of two - stroke crosshead diesel engines to
Daros RM 5. This has a better structure than the perlitic use these rings as their standard top ring in
structure; it is stronger, tougher and conducts heat better. UEC75LSII engines.
f » fir *
However, one of the drawbacks of
these chrome piston rings is that they are vulnerable
to high temperatures. Blow out causes the coating
to detach , which subsequently affects the pre -
tensioning of the ring which consequently loses its
seal.
* However, if the material temperature of a chrome
4 piston ring remains below 230 °C, it remains
the best option where wear resistance and low
% friction coefficient are concerned. At temperatures
over 250 °C it rapidly loses its strength / hardness,
Vermicular iron, manufacturer 's name: Daros Darcast. which reduces its quality significantly.
Engine manufacturers often choose the material in
consultation with the piston ring manufacturer.
373
A piston ring with a ceramic layer. A piston ring with an electrolytic plated hard chromium
layer.
Or ^
A piston ring with an aluminium layer. A piston ring with a chrome-ceramic coating used in the
modern Wartsila two- stroke crosshead engines.
Plasma ceramic coating rings and plasma coated piston rings can be supplied
This consists of a mixture of carbides and metal with a copper or aluminium coating, also referred to
components and has a hardness of approximately as RIAS, with a profiled running surface. This surface
1,500 HV and 250 HV ( Vickers pyramid number ). allows for a rapid and safe ‘running- in’ process.
The ‘Cermet’, ceramic metal is sprayed onto the
pivoting piston ring and has much better material Below a list of the most common piston rings and
temperature tolerance than both electrolytic and the material used by the three manufacturers of
ceramic chrome, usually in the order of 500 °C, two- stroke crosshead engines.
before it is permanently damaged. Moreover, the
material has an increased scuffing resistance. In fact , Note
it is virtually indestructible. One of the disadvantages MAN B&W engines with large borings have CPR
of plasma coating is that it can cause extremely high ( constant pressure relief ) pistons in the upper piston
cylinder liner wear and not only during ‘running in’. ring groove. Both the bottom parts of this ring as
In some instances, ‘running in’ can not be completed well as the second ring are provided with a chrome
as the piston rings and the cylinder liner need to be coating.
replaced due to excessive wear. Both cast iron piston
374
MAN Gotze Daros NPR Riken Material Composition Coating Cylinder liner Material
Uballoy Uballoy Uballoy Rik45 Gray cast iron None or Alu- coat Tarkalloy
CF 5 LP 8 RM 5 Uballoy- S Rik47 Copper -molybdenum alloyed, None, Alu- coat or Tarkalloy or

flake graphite Cermet + Alu- coat Tarkalloy -C
CF4 RM4 Vanadium and copper -molybdenum None or Alu- coat PVA or Tarkalloy- C*
alloyed flake gaphite
RVK** Tarkalloy G Rik29VMD Alloyed high strength compact Cermet + running -in Tarkalloy -C
graphite coating
CV 1 VP 6 RVK- C Tarkalloy G Rik 29VMD Alloyed high strength compact Alu- coat or Tarkalloy- C
graphite with wear reducing carbides Cermet + Alu-coat
Cermet coating is a plasma sprayed ceramic metal alloy having low wear properties and high scuffing resistance.
Alu- coat (golden appearance) running-in coating with a soft Cu matrix including hard aluminium oxide phase.
* C 8 and RM4 piston rings are used in special cases (old standard).
** RVK = Darcast
MAN B& W two- stroke crosshead engines. Types MC and

ME. Preferred piston rings.
Note: The larger cylinder piston diameters have CPR piston rings
in the top piston-ring groove and chromed surfaces at the
bottom of the ring. The second piston ring also has chromed
surfaces on at the bottom of the ring.
Wartsila two- stroke crosshead engines. Types RTA and

RT Flex. Preferred piston rings.
Engine Type Piston ring Daros Gotze Riken Material Composition Cylinder liner
position Manufacturer
RTA /RT- flex96C 1 Darcast PM2 BF SCP 1 CC 20 Rik 29Mo GGV, Chrome Ceramic **
RTA / RT-flex96C 2 RM4TF SCP 2CC 20 Rik 29Mo GG spec. Ill, Chrome Ceramic **
RTA / RT-flex96C 3 RM4TF SCP2CC 20 Rik 47 GG spec. Ill, Chrome Ceramic **
RTA / RT-flex96C 4 RM4TF SCP2CC20 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, Chrome Ceramic **
RTA 84C/CU 1 Darcast SCP1 RC 20 Rik 29 GGV, RIAS **

RTA 84C /CU 2 RM4 SCP1RC 20 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RTA 84C/CU 3 RM4 SCP 1 RC 20 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RTA 84C /CU 4 RM4 SCP 1 RC 20 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RTA 84C /CU 5 RM4 SCP 1 RC20 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RTA / RT-flex84T 1 Daroseal*** SCP 1 CC 20 Rik 29 GGV, Chrome Ceramic alt. RIAS **
RTA / RT-flex84T 2 RM4*** SCSIRC* Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS alt. Chrome Ceramic **
RTA / RT-flex84T 3 RM4*** SCP 1 RC 20 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS alt. Chrome Ceramic **
RTA /RT-flex84T 4 RM4*** SCP1 RC 20 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS alt. Chrome Ceramic **
RTA 62U 1 Darcast SCP 1CC17 Rik 29 GGV, Chrome Ceramic alt. RIAS **
RTA 62U 2 RM4 SCP 1 RC 13 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RTA 62U 3 RM4 SCP 1 RC13 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RTA 62U 4 RM4 SCP 1 RC13 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RT- flex58T 1 Darcast SCP 1 CC 16 Rik 29 GGV, Chrome Ceramic **
RT- flex58T 2 RM4 SCP1 RC16 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RT-flex 58T 3 RM4 SCP1 RC 16 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
RT-flex 58T 4 RM4 SCP 1 RC 16 Rik47 GG spec. Ill, RIAS **
WHC Standard Specification
Designation of compatible or alternative piston rings
* Valid for engines fitted with SIPWA only ( SIPWA piston rings are uncoated)
** Typically HHI, CAPE, orToaKoki, or anyone fulfilling spec. GJL- 250 according DIN 1561 ISO 185
*** New spec, under construction
375
Engine Type Piston ring Riken NPR Material Composition Cylinder liner
Mitsubishi two- stroke position Manufacturer
crosshead engines. Types UEC 50LSII 1 Rik 29Cr Cr-plated vermicular graphite Toa Koki
UEC 50LSII 2 Rik47 Cu -Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
UEC and MHI /RTA 96C.
UEC 50LSII 3 Rik45 Plain grey cast iron Toa Koki
UEC 50LSII 4 Rik45 Plain grey cast iron Toa Koki
UEC60LS 1 Rik47Cr Cr -plated Cu-Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
UEC60LS 2 Rik47Cr Cr-plated Cu-Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
UEC60LS 3 Rik47 Cu-Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
UEC60LS 4 Rik47 Cu -Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
UEC 60HA & 52/125 H 1 Uballoy S Cu-Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
UEC 60HA & 52/ 125 H 2 Uballoy S Cu-Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
UEC 60HA & 52/ 125 H 3 Uballoy C Plain grey cast iron Toa Koki
MHI/RTA 96C 1 Rik 29Mo Mo - coated vermicular graphite Toa Koki
MHI/RTA 96C 2 Rik 29Mo Mo - coated vermicular graphite Toa Koki
MHI/RTA 96C 3 Rik47 Cu-Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
MHI/RTA 96C 4 Rik47 Cu-Mo alloyed flake graphite Toa Koki
32.8.10 Piston ring design The introduction of ‘tali’ piston rings poses a
problem during the ‘running- in’ process as a, say,
Today, all two -stroke crosshead piston engines have 30% increase in the height of a ring produces a factor
profiled cross sections, usually just the upper ring, 2 increase in the distortion resistance. This affects the
but occasionally all rings, depending on the engine piston ring adaptability to the geometric conditions
design . This is due to the increased ring height and at varying engine loads, temperatures and piston
the subsequently increased radius of the curvature positions.
of the ring’s running surface. This is the simplest
manner in which to obtain a sufficient oil - film Shipping company A.P. Moller- Maersk introduced
thickness between the piston ring and the cylinder the so - called ‘minutes piston rings’ or ‘conical rings’
liner for a given cylinder pressure. An increase in in large two stroke crosshead engines towards the
the viscosity of the lubricating oil by, for instance, end of the 1980’s to improve the ‘running- in’ process.
reducing the liner temperature, can also increase the Shortly thereafter, MAN B&W also introduced the
oil - film thickness. conical piston rings as their new piston rings.
Rectangular piston ring Tapered piston ring

Load dependant position of contact Same position of contact independant of load
Two different types of piston rings with evidently different
diameters.
Left: A 'barrel' type piston ring with rounded corners, a barrel

shape.
Right: A tapered piston ring.
Upper drawings: Not loaded, the engine stopped. ¥
Lower drawings: Loaded, the engine running.
>
>
376
CH3 2 > MAINTENANCE A N D REPAIRS
It is of the utmost importance that the

aforementioned conically shaped piston rings are
Darcast
fitted with the marked ‘top side up. In the absence of
a top mark, the top is provided with the name of the
piston ring manufacturer!
— Alu- coat
— PM2 Cermet hard coating

Chrome Controlled Pressure Relief piston rings
The running surface of this type of piston ring has
A piston ring with clearly visible, one of its four slanted been supplied with four grooves. This way the heat
ducts, a 'Controlled Pressure Relief ' type. is more evenly distributed over the cylinder liner,
which allows for a steady pressure reduction over
the ring package. This reduces the wear of the piston
rings. A wear resistant plasma coating is required to
protect the groove during operation as it prevents
carbon deposit formation. Otherwise the ring could
Clearly, a taller and hence more rigid piston ring be rendered completely gas tight.
requires a more conical profile than the standard
shorter ring. 32.8.11 Inspection via Inlet ports
It should be noted that a new Wartsila cylinder Inspections via the inlet ports are imperative for
liner has a surface roughness comparative to a monitoring the condition of the cylinders. It is
‘run- in liner. The underlying idea is to reduce the advisable to perform an inspection every two to four
‘running - in’ process and the consequent problems. weeks.
This inspection is certainly recommended after a
long crossing.
A piston ring with a lock hole: Type; airtight. Ring with an .

A piston ring with a lock hole: Type; 'Daroseal'
aluminium bearing- surface.
A piston ring with a lock hole: Straight ring type. A piston ring with lock hole: Type; oblique rings.
377
A
A good picture of the wear process and pollution of piston The image through the scavenging -air ports. The wear can
rings, piston ring grooves, piston and bearing surface of be tracked with the use of photos.
the cylinder liner can be obtained via the scavenging-air
receiver through the scavenging air ports.
32.8.12 The inspection - When the piston is in top dead centre position in
order to inspect the cylinder liner.
This can be performed in two ways:
Through the covers in the cam shaft section . When checking the piston rings special attention
Through the scavenging air space. The latter is must be paid to:
preferable.
- Pointed edges or burrs at periphery of the piston
The piston should be inspected in the following rings.
locations: - Measuring the piston ring - to-groove clearance
- Top side of the piston. after a considerable number of operating hours.
- Piston ring package. - Fractured rings.
- Piston skirt .
35
Piston ring wear.
30 -
E
VerticakThe increase of the slot opening in millimetres. E 25 -
CL
03
Horizontal: The wear of the piston ring in millimetres. CT 20 -
D1
C
New ring: Gap, 6 millimetres. •;
oi
= 15 -
Worn ring: Gap, 21 millimetres. •
5
03
£ 10 -
Wear ring: (21-6)/2n = 2.4 millimetres. U
c
5-
0
0 1 2 3 4
Radial ring wear (mm)
378
CH3 2 > M A I N T E N A N C E A N D REPAIRS
Ring condition
Bright smooth
Stuck
Broken/damaged surface layer
Overhaul ? To be planned, next port

Ring 1
Ring 2
Ring 3
Ring 4
Cylinder oil dosing To be increased
In a two- stroke crosshead engine, an inspection can be
carried out from the scavenging-air beam through the Overhaul? Required now
scavenging-air port. These piston rings are in good Ring 1
condition, clean, well run in with more than enough Ring 2
lubricating oil. Ring 3

Ring 4
Cylinder oil dosing Running-in dosage
This graph shows the inspections performed via the

scavenging-air ports and recommendations on the steps to
betaken.
32.8.13 'Running-in' the conical rings 32.8.15 A few examples of damage, wear and
soiling
This can simply be established since the lower
section of the ring rubs against the liner, whereas the The optimal cylinder
top section can move freely. - Good quality piston rings are not fractured , have
smooth running surfaces and no pointed edges.
This can be established after 18 to 24 operating - There is no carbon build - up in the grooves behind
hours. the piston rings and there is a limited amount
of carbon deposition above and in between the
32.8.14 Evaluation of scavenging- air ports piston rings.
inspections - The entire surface is provided with a layer of
lubricating oil.
After photographing all rings and charting each ring - The inlet ports are still dirt -free.
of every cylinder an action plan can be drawn up. - The cylinder liner shows no significant signs of
local or overall wear when the piston is in BDC.
Additional information, such as carbon deposits on - The pattern of a wave- cut surface liner is still
the top section of the piston crown , behind and in intact.
between the piston rings, the running surface of the - The cylinder liner shows no corrosive wear as a
cylinder liner and potential detachment of ceramic - result from sulphuric acid formation .
or chrome coatings on the piston rings may help - The liner surface has not been hammered by
when drawing- up such a plan . fractured piston rings or by parts of the exhaust
valve.
- The upper section of the cylinder liner bears no
thermal fractures.
- No tearing of the liner surface due to a poor
condition of the piston ring package.
379
- No scuffing of the liner surface due to dirt behind - The running surface of a functioning piston ring
the piston rings in the vicinity of the inlet ports. is smooth and lightly coloured . When a ring is
- Neither the piston crown, nor the section above wedged in a groove it has a much darker colour.
the piston rings or the piston rings themselves - Piston rings supplied with a chrome ceramic
have been burnt as a result of a defective fuel coating have excellent running properties, but do
injector. require an even surface and optimal lubrication
- The piston grooves have not been burnt by heavy conditions. If the running surface of a piston
leakage of hot gases along the piston rings (heavy shows irregular patches, the piston should be
blow out ). replaced immediately as the remainder of the
- The grooves show no thermal tearing resulting coating will peel off rapidly.
from heavy leakage of the piston ring. - A piston ring with an aluminium coating often
wears at the inlet ports: here the rings ends are
Further focal points: pushed rather hard into the ports. In these areas
- One often finds that pistons are overly dry and the aluminium coating may start to detach and
stuck in the ring groove (sticking ).To resolve is further peeled away. Inspections should be
this issue, the lubricating- oil dosage should be performed at regular intervals. Replacement of
increased and the cylinder monitored closely. the piston rings should be considered only if
The piston should be drawn for maintenance or the coating detachment is significant and is not
replacement in the next port. limited to the ends.
A clearly worn cylinder liner with vertical scratches. Here,

double vertical rows with cylinder lubricating- oil supply
channels.
T
A photo taken from the top of the liner .
At the time of taking this picture the cylinder liner was being
tested. The cylinder lubricating- oil runs straight down here (1 ).
380
CH 32 > MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS
Inspection of a two- stroke crosshead engine.
Digital cameras are commonly used nowadays for the inspection - Record the cylinder number and
of a two-stroke crosshead engine to ascertain the condition of the - Record the date and number of operating hours.
piston crown, piston rings, piston skirt, piston rod and cylinder-
liner wall. It is important to include/use: With good lighting and the remote control of the turning motor,
- A 'flash' which allows a much clearer picture, particularly of an image can be taken from any desired piston position.
scratches and stains;
- Indicate the position and direction from where the photo was
taken;
1 2 3 4
5 6 8
9 10 12
13 14 15 16
381
32.8.16 Checking the maintenance of The Replica technique is often used in power stations
cylinder liners and in the aviation -, chemical- and offshore industry.
It was developed for advanced laboratory analyses,
Two reasons: both optically and using SEM ( scanning electron
1 To avoid sudden engine failure. microscopes ).
2 Keep the engine operational in the most cost -
effective manner. Over the past 10 years A. R Moller Maersk has
applied this technique successfully using a simple
Traditional measuring and inexpensive Struers microscope with a
Measuring the cylinder liner and rings over given magnification of 100.
periods provide values that are difficult to diagnose.
However, it is the most reliable method to acquire The reason is that the requirements on the most
insight into the maintenance of a cylinder. It is important parameters which significantly affect
imperative that the mechanical engineer literally be the cylinder liner condition , such as hard graphite
inside the cylinder liner while these measurements particles, catalytic products, corrosive and abrasive
are taken , so the running surfaces can be closely wear are relatively low.
examined. No measurement could ever replace the
eyes, nose and finger tips. The running surface of the cylinder liner should be
cleaned thoroughly prior to applying the test tape
Engine manufacturers take at least 10 measurements with the replica compound on the back of the tape to
to obtain a good insight into the degree of wear. the running surface.
These tests are performed both longitudinally and
athwartships. Measuring is ideally executed under Occasionally, the running surface is polished with a
test conditions. On board a ship, measuring the first diamond paste and subsequently etched in order to
ring in BDC, the fourth ring in BDC, and at VS of the bring out the optimum microstructure. Generally,
downward stroke of the piston suffices. this is only carried out in a foundry or a processing
shop for evidence and documentation of the correct
Obviously, the results of these measurements microstructure and in particular for checking for
need to be recorded. In most engines, the piston hard graphite particles, distribution and the type of
ring performance determines the time in between graphite.
two maintenance periods. Particularly, in case of
fractured top piston rings, maintenance is easily Analysis of the drained lubricating oil in the
performed. Piston rings are and will continue to be scavenging air pipe
the most heavily loaded engine parts and despite In recent years, various propulsion engines
the best technology piston rings may still break. have been fitted with measuring devices on the
lubricating- oil drain in the scavenging air pipe for
The duplicate method from 'Replica's' each individual cylinder. This way, a lubricating- oil
Originally developed some 30 years ago by Rolls - analysis can be obtained showing, for instance, the
Royce aviation engineers, the replica technique is correlation between the amount of sulphur in the
a unique method of non - destructive research and fuel and the amount of lubricating oil supplied to a
analysis. certain cylinder and the wear of the cylinder liner.
The so - called Repliset from Struers is a rapidly There are various options:
drying method which takes between 1 and
20 minutes, depending on the material temperature. Check for a typical wear of the cylinder liner by
A two component silicon - rubber mixture with a establishing the cast iron contents and TBN.
0.1 micron resolution can provide a very accurate - An engine ‘footprint’ indicates if the
3- D representation of the microstructure of the liner manufacturers instructions concerning
surface in the engine. the sulphur related lubricating- oil dosage
corresponds to the number of iron particles in the
-
lubricating oil samples at various loads.
382
- Type of wear: abrasive or corrosive. Here the Temperature measurements of the cylinder liner
TBN number is correlated to the iron content. A Cylinder liner temperature measurements have been
high TBN number for the drained lubricating- oil taken for all three engine types since the beginning
samples is indicative of a corrosive layer, which of the 1990’s. Applying this method may prevent the
means that the type of wear is abrasive ( also perishing of the liner. Liner temperature measuring
referred to as scuffing ). in conjunction with the analyses of drained cylinder
lubricating- oil provides a good insight into cylinder-
It is important to know the extent to which the liner wear.
drained lubricating oil has been diluted with
crankcase oil. Each engine has its own specific
characteristics and the degree of dilution depends on
the manner in which the piston - ring stuffing boxes The temperature
1 HT- water
are maintained. However, in practice the dilution can temp , sensor measurements for a Wartsila
be disregarded when comparing cylinders. medium- speed four- stroke

Erroneous measurements may occur when cylinders 2 exhaust gas
temp, sensors
engine operating with
are affected by one cylinder showing excessive wear. heavy fuel oil.
This may occur in Wartsila Sulzer engines, which
4 cylinder liner
have openings in the frame between the cylinders. temp, sensors Measurements of the H.T.
When testing Wartsila engines, the three adjoining coolant temperature, exhaust -
cylinders should also always be measured. The 1 DCU or SMU gas temperatures after the
ensuing test results must be carefully analysed before exhaust valve (2 x), material
any conclusions can be drawn . 1 main bearing
temp, sensor
temperatures of the cylinder
This type of contamination does not occur in MAN liners (4x) and material
Diesel and Mitsubishi engines. temperature of the main
bearing shell. All data is sent

via the DCU or SMU to the
engine control system.
1
1 Measured values of the
Mapex system from
Wartsila.
IQ)
2 2 2
:oj oCA O 1 cylinder cooling -water inlet
and outlet temperatures
2 liner wall temperature
c 3 scavenging -air temperature
4 engine load
I
©
® 5 engine speed
RTA RT-flex
383
32.8.17 Other causes of cylinder -liner wear The thermal load of the engine parts will increase in
the course of time, but can be positively influenced
The air supply by proper maintenance.
This may be heavily contaminated with dust, sand
and water. It is of the utmost importance that dust 1. Turbochargers significantly affect the condition
and sand are prevented from entering the cylinder of the cylinder if their efficiency is reduced and
liner by filters fitted on the turbochargers, Especially the thermal load of the engine increases. It is of
in North Africa , the Red Sea - and the Persian the essence that the exhaust - gas turbine is kept
Gulf area, dust - and sand storms can carry very clean and the blades and clearances match the
fine dust particles over long distances. Although instructions.
the dust appears powdery, it is hard and abrasive. 2. Air cooler performance will gradually diminish if
Furthermore, the air may contain airborne iron the heat exchangers in the cooling water system
oxide, in particular in the region north of Oman are defective and the material temperatures of the
where the mountain soil holds large amounts of iron cylinder liners will consequently increase.
oxide. This can be seen in the iron contents of the 3. Fractured of seriously worn piston rings will effect
drained cylinder lubricating - oil. a 10 ° to 15 °C material temperature increase of
The fine dust particles produce a tremendous the cylinder liners and will require immediate
abrasive action in the cylinder, thus causing excessive replacement.
wear of the piston rings and the cylinder liner.
Delayed combustion should be restored to test
Therefore, special attention must be paid to the conditions
filters on the turbochargers! Some mechanical engineers keep the maximum
combustion pressure below that of the test condition.
Air coolers, water mist catchers and draining This, combined with the effects of the VIT systems
Air coolers require proper maintenance and regular can delay the fuel injection considerably and will
cleaning to sustain a high - cooling effect and ensure therefore delay the combustion process.
low scavenging-air temperatures. Water mist In the pV - chart this will create a ‘dromedary’ effect.
catchers and draining systems are equally important. In modern engines operating conform the IMO NOx
Automatic draining systems should function requirements, a similar effect can be seen at loads
properly and consistently and the drains should be over 90 % MCR .
checked regularly for clogging and dirt. An orifice This means that a larger section of the cylinder
could be entirely plugged with sludge. liner running surface is exposed to the flames
generated by the combustion process, resulting in
Engine performance a deterioration of the cylinder lubricating- oil and
One should avoid exceeding the maximum material causing increased wear, seized and fractured piston
temperature of the cylinder liner as this would rings.
upset the thermal stability of the lubricating oil: the Generally, the maximum combustion pressure for
lubricating oil will burn! all loads should comply with the manufacturers’
specifications.
Part of North Africa, the

area around the Red Sea
and part of the Persian Gulf
where dust storms
frequently cause problems
for diesel engines!
384
r
Problems arise when mechanical engineers are

required to frequently change the type of fuel due
to demands from local authorities. This means that
either the cylinder lubricating- oil dosage and / or the
TBN - number must be modified to the lowest TBN -
A number to acquire a stable oil film .
A p (/- diagram for late fuel injection. On the left, vertical
peaks, the maximum combustion pressures ( black). An elevated CCAI number causes a delayed
Thereafter a 'banana' ( blue ) and finally a 90° shifted curve combustion . The implications were discussed earlier.
(red ).
The problems associated with catalytic products, the
so - called cat fines occur in all heavy oil systems.
Refinery residue such as hard particles consisting of
aluminium, silicon and oxygen will be transferred
32.8.18 Fuel and fuel systems to the cylinder liners and piston rings through fuel
injection in the cylinder. The negative effects of cat
Today’s poor fuel quality poses problems which were fines can only be countered by the usage of well -
formerly unknown . functioning fuel centrifuges.
Three fuel parameters are crucial for the condition of
the liner running surface: A well - functioning centrifuge is indispensible
- The sulphur content . even if the cat fine content falls well below the
- The CCAI. maximum permissible value!
- The number of catalytic products, in particular,
aluminium and silicon . Remarkably, fuel with low sulphur content often
contains a high percentage of cat fines. This is due
The sulphur content of the fuel does cause any to the fact that low sulphur content is obtained by
problems provided that the lubricating dosage has blending, which may produce any percentage of cat
been accurately modified . However, one must bear fines. So a malfunctioning fuel centrifuge can cause
in mind that the sulphur content affects the degree significant and rapid wear of the piston rings and
of wear. cylinder liner.
Sudden cylinder liner wear due to a poorly functioning

centrifuge system.
After approximately 13,000 hours, wear on all cylinders suddenly

appears. The green coloured cylinder which had been renewed
has the same problem!
After solving the centrifuge problem, the wear decreases
immediately.
Incident due to lack of proper purification

1 ,6
1,4 -
E 1 ,2 -
E
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1'
CDI ° “
j 08 -
,
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B 0,6 -
0,4 -
0,2 -
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0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Running hours
385
Standard regulations for cylinder lubricating- oil Obviously, the temperature of the cylinder liner is
1
Standard lubricating oils supplied by large oil the most important variable for checking the thermal
companies have all been approved by the engine stability of the lubricating oil. Not all engines are
manufacturers. However, this is not to say that they designed with identical clearances, and generally
all have identical properties to prevent wearing and engines with small cylinder diameters have larger
scuffing of piston rings and cylinder liners, although clearances than engines with large diameters. The
no lubricating-oil company produces lubricating oil engineer can control the clearance to an extent by
too inferior to use. Some low- priced lubricating oils performing quality maintenance as stipulated in the
are only suitable for low- load engines. manuals.
The composition of the additives also varies. The Excessive wear or scuffing can be avoided by
cylinder liner is predominantly affected by corrosive sustaining a good lubricating film between the
wear resulting from sulphur forming sulphuric liner running- surface, the piston rings and the
acid. This acidic compound can be neutralised with piston skirt.
alkaline components, usually calcium salts. This
additive to neutralise the acid in the lubricating oil is Therefore it is imperative that the various lubricating
called the Total Base Number or TBN. methods be studied in order to acquire insight into
their effectiveness and obtain optimum lubrication at
Engine manufacturers’ list of requirements: a minimum dosage.
Wartsila Sulzer: Numerous measurements have demonstrated that

TBN 70 the traditional lubricating systems are far from
Over 1.5% S standard recommended dosage. ideal. Sample analyses from scavenging- air drains
From 1.5% S to 3.0% S minimum recommended show that only a minor amount of the lubricating-
dosage. oil supply is used during each piston stroke. This
TBN 40 means that either the lubricating- oil distribution is
Over 1.5% S standard recommended dosage. inefficient or that the localized lubricating- oil dosage
From 1.5% S to 3.0% S increased dosage. is excessive. It is usually a combination of these two
factors.
MAN B &W:
TBN 70 The conclusion applies to all types of two -stroke
Below 2.0% S standard recommended dosage. crosshead engines from MAN B&W, Wartsila Sulzer
From 2.0 S to 1.5% S minimum recommended and Mitsubishi.
dosage.
TBN 40 Essentially, the lubricating oil is distributed over the
Over 1.5% S standard recommended dosage. liner running surface in two different manners:
1. By injecting the lubricating oil via the supply
Apart from the TBN number, thermal stability channel into the liner grooves.
against oxidation forms an important factor in 2. By injecting the lubricating oil directly onto the
assessing the amount of deposition that may occur running surface, in the Wartsila ‘Pulse - Jet’ system
when using a certain type of cylinder lubricating- or indirectly, the ‘SIP’ system.
oil. Through oxidation, compounds are formed
which adhere to the piston surface and are a magnet Irrespective of the method , the piston rings
for other substances, such as soot and various obviously perform most of the vertical and
other particles, which form a solid, thick coating horizontal distribution of the lubricating oil.
on the piston crown and on the sides of the piston
between the ring grooves. This can eventually cause When the liner running surface has been supplied
a decrease in the lubricating - oil film on the running with grooves, the zigzag lubricating method is most
surface of the liner. Furthermore, the lubricating effective. This type of cylinder liner has various
properties of the oil residue on the running surface advantages over those only supplied with supply
are reduced , thus creating scuffing. channels or horizontal grooves.
386
A most interesting experiment is the so - called 6k If the cylinders temporarily have to operate with
pocket liner, which has 6000 small, horizontal oil either seized or fractured piston rings, the running
chambers and has been tested in Wartsila Sulzer RT surface can become thermally overloaded causing
96C engines for several years. The designs starting tearing of the top section of the cylinder liner where
point is that the running surface is constantly the piston ring package is situated when the piston
covered with a lubrication film, irrespective of the is in TDC. The larger the cylinder diameter of the
moment of supply. This partially applies to ‘Wave- engine, the greater the risk. These cylinder liners
Cut’ cylinder liners as the lubricating oil found in cannot be repaired and will have to be replaced.
the machined troughs of a MAN B&W K90MC
engine corresponds to the amount that is supplied at
120 rev/ min and at full power.
A cylinder liner from Wartsila Sulzer, deeply honed with

Pulse Jet cylinder lubrication and zigzag grooves.
ran n ri n
A
A cylinder liner from Wartsila Sulzer, with 6000 pockets and
cylinder lubrication from a single point.
A A
A cylinder liner from MAN B& W, 'Wave Cut ' with Alpha A cylinder liner from Wartsila Sulzer /Mitsubishi, 'Wave Cut,
cylinder lubrication and zigzag grooves. SIP cylinder lubrication without dividing grooves, pockets
and cylinder lubrication from a single point.
387
32.9 Trouble shooting excessive 6. In case of severe piston -skirt scuffing, the piston
cylinder liner wear alignment should be checked. Abrupt scuffing in
older engines is generally caused by loose guide
The numbers in the chart are discussed below. ways.
7. Excessive deposition on the piston crown may
1. The wear edge at the top of the cylinder liner just damage the oil film on the cylinder liner, causing
above the first piston ring should be removed scuffing of the liner and piston rings. The sulphur
with a special cutter. This grinding method content of the fuel should be checked and the
requires accuracy, so the risk of the newly fitted lubricating - oil dosage should conform to the
piston ring hammering against the wear edge guidelines for sulphur content. Should the dosage
is minimised. If not , the piston ring may break be in excess of the specifications, then it should be
causing gasses to escape to the second ring ( blow reduced. Deposit formation on the piston crown
by ). This could damage the entire ring package. may also result from inadequate fuel injection .
2. The liner running-surface will almost certainly be Therefore, the injectors / fuel valves should be
damaged if the wear edge is not removed with a checked regularly.
special machine. Consequently, the new piston - 8. If the piston rings have not been run in properly
ring seals cannot be checked and the ensuing they are not gastight . This may cause blow - by and
leakage will cause broken and seized piston rings. subsequent seizure or fracturing of the piston
3. In case the new piston rings are mounted with a rings. Conical or rounded piston rings enhance
standard tool, they are likely to fracture either at the running- in process. The engine manufacturer
the ends or in the middle after a few operating provides ample information with regard to this
hours. process.
4. Condensation or cooling - water leakage in the 9. Insufficient dosage of lubricating oil produces
air coolers must be drained; otherwise the water scuffing, resulting in seized and / or broken piston
droplets entering the cylinder will damage the rings. The correct lubricating- oil doses are
lubricating film on the cylinder liner and piston clearly stipulated in the manufacturer’s operating
rings. This will effect increased wear and probably manual.
scuffing, starting at the bottom of the cylinder 10 The time of dosage should be in accordance with
liner, predominantly at the front - and port side of the manufacturer’s instructions. An incorrect
the liner. Therefore, the air- cooler drains should time -setting of the lubricating- oil dosage will
be inspected at regular intervals. In addition , the cause scuffing, blow by and seized and / or
air coolers should be opened at least once a year fractured piston rings.
to check the drain internally as it often congested
with dirt and rust.
5. Severe piston -skirt scuffing may distribute wear

material throughout the cylinder and damage the 1 l . The piston - ring grooves must be cleaned
piston rings. Scuffing may also cause localised thoroughly before mounting the piston rings.
damage of the cylinder liner, which produces This should be performed with a special tool: a
scuffing and / or wear of the piston rings. The piston ring groove cleaner. If the grooves are not
piston skirts are usually somewhat worn, however, cleaned , the piston ring will eventually cease to
with no direct implications for the piston rings move in the ring grooves and either cause seizure
and cylinder liner. or fracturing of the piston rings. Scuffing may
388
also occur at the liner’s smallest diameter, usually 18. If the cooling- water temperature is in excess of
just above the inlet ports. 85 °C, scuffing may occur at high engine loads.
12. Piston - ring groove wear should be inspected at Long- term low engine power may produce
regular intervals. Excessive wear causes increased corrosive wear.
wear of the cylinder liner and may lead to seized 19. The air- inlet filter of the engine room and that
and fractured piston rings. Insufficient ring to mounted on the turbochargers serve to prevent
piston clearance will damage the rings and they water, dust and sand from entering the engine.
consequently break. Dust and sand have abrasive properties, which
13. If the liner wear is in excess of 0.5% of the accelerate the wear of the piston rings and the
diameter, it is difficult keep the cylinder in good cylinder liner. Therefore, the air- inlet filter should
condition . It is, therefore, advisable to replace the be inspected at regular intervals.
cylinder liner rather than continually overhauling 20. The best method to remove abrasive particles
the piston as the piston rings are either seized from the fuel is to align the centrifuges in series.
and / or fractured. Scuffing will often occur. Setting the engine at low load capacity can also be
14. Oval cylinder liners or clover leafing will beneficial.
also cause fracturing and scuffing. Check the
roundness of the cylinder liner by using talcum
powder and, if required, send the cylinder liner to
shore for honing.
15. Fuel- valves/ injectors must be inspected regularly
and in accordance with manual guidelines.
Heavily worn injectors cause delayed combustion.
As a consequence, fuel drops may reach the liner’s
running surface and damage the lubrication film
resulting in scuffing, blow out and seized and / or
fractured piston rings. If the fuel- valves/ injectors
are defective, the liner should be checked for
thermal tearing.
16. Fuel analysis provides information regarding
the CCAI ( The Calculated Carbon Aromaticity
Index ) . If the CCAI exceeds 900, combustion may
be delayed , thus affecting the lubrication film on
the liner running surface. This results in scuffing,
blow by seized and/ or fractured piston rings. In
this instance, the lubricating- oil dosage must be
increased . 21.Check the fuel filter at regular intervals.
17. Running the engine at full power ( maximum of 22. If the catalytic product content, aluminium -
85% MCR ) and a simultaneous high scavenging - and silicon oxides, approximates or exceeds
and inlet - temperature may cause thermal the maximum permissible value of the fuel
overload of the engine. When the engine load is specifications, extra attention should be paid to
85% and the scavenging- and inlet - temperatures centrifuging the fuel. A low- capacity setting is
total 75 °C, the thermal load of the engine is useful.
100%. Obviously, this affects the condition of 23. In case the cylinder liner is honed without first
the cylinder, leaving little room for errors. In removing the piston , one should be aware of
extreme cases this will cause scuffing and seized the grindings produced by the honing process.
and / or fractured piston rings. Moreover, the high This should be intercepted and prevented from
thermal load forms a catalyst for other problems. entering the piston and onto the liner as they
The coinciding high cooling- water temperature cause severe wear. Lubricating- oil drenched cloths
exacerbates the problems. The problem may be covering the cylinder wall catch much of the
solved by reducing the temperatures especially grindings.
that of the scavenging air. However, the cooling- 24.Sensors measuring the cylinder- liner temperature
water temperature should not fall below 70 °C. indicate whether there are signs of scuffing wear.
The lubricating- oil dosage can be temporarily Reduce the load of the cylinder concerned by
increased by 25%. decreasing the fuel supply to the cylinder.
389
Abrasive ring wear Adhesive ring wear

Trouble- shooting chart for with scratches in the Sharp edges, possibly dry
ring surface surfaces with micro seizure
solving liner wear
y or friction marks (scuffing) /
problems. ^ ^
Piston skirt Liner

No Text 5 No
without scuffing ? > Guide 19
temperature > Text 24
OK ?
Result
Result
'' Yes <
Yes
'
Yes Piston alignment
<-
checked. OK ? Liner without No Text 4
scuffing *» Guide 12
No
Yes
Result
<- Text 6 ''
^ Drain from "" No

air cooler working > Guide 46
\ OK ?
Air intake No Text 19 ^
filter checked ? >
Guide 44 Result
Yes 4 -
Result
Yes <-
Piston skirt No Text 5
without scuffing Guide 19
Fuel: Al + Si No Text 22
> Result
content below
\ limits ?
Guide 47
Yes
>
-
Yes ^ Piston
Yes Result <- alignment checked
\ OK ? /
1
Centrifuges: ’
No
working in > Text 20 No
series ? . ’r
Result
< Text 6
Result
Yes <r
Piston topland No Text 7

Fuel filter No without excessive >
Text 21 Guide 11 + 35
checked, > deposits ?
OK ?
Result
Yes <- ''
Result
Yes <- ’'
Running-in No Text 8
Liner honed No
instruction >
> Text 23 followed ? Guide 31
with piston
removed?,
Result
Yes <
Yes
Lube -oil No Text 7 + 9

dosage checked >
OK ? Guide 35
Result
<
Continue
next page
390
Broken and/or Adhesive ring wear

stuck piston rings Continued
Possibly dry with
traces of micro seizure
Wear ^ Timing of \
No Text 1, 2 No
edge removed lubricators checked, Text 10
with cutter
Guide 1
\ OK? z'"
*
Result Result
Yes Yes <-
^ Ring ^
No Text 3 Liner wear No
mounted with > Text 13
Guide 21 below 0.5%?
standard tool ?
Result Result
Yes < Yes <-
> '
Cleaning of ' Liner nearly " Text 14

No Text 11 No
ring grooves -> circular without > Guide
Guide 20 clover leaving ?.
checked ? 4, 6 & 9
Result Result
Yes < Yes <-
'>
^ Clearance ^ Atomisers Text 15
No Text 12 No
in ring grooves > checked, > Guide 8
Guide 18
within limits? ^ OK?
Result
Yes Yes <
'
Fuel CCAI value No

> Text 16
below 900 ?
Result
Yes <-
''
Engine power No Tscav Tjnlet No Text 17

>
below 80% < 75°C ? Guide 46
Yes Yes
Result Result
<r ''
Cooling water No
temperature > Text 18
as instructed
Yes
’'
If you hove answered all questions ' Yes',
> then there is no easy explanation of your problem:
contact Technical Service.
391
32.10 Damage report Wartsila 3. Cylinder liner

Vasa 4 R 32 - Measure diameter according to guidelines.
- Replace cylinder liner if the maximum measuring
32.10.1 Introduction values are exceeded.
- Hone cylinder liner, if required .
Damage to the driving gear and the engine block of a - Inspect anti - polishing ring.
Wartsila Vasa 4R32 medium -speed four- stroke diesel - Turn antipolishing ring every 20,000 hours.
engine running on HFO 380 cSt resulted in a major

overhaul. 4. Cylinder liner waterside
- Draw one of the cylinder liners.
32.10.2 Cause - Draw all liners and clean the cooling water
sections in the block if the deposition thickness is
Broken fixing bolts between the piston crown and in excess of 1 mm ,
the piston skirt . Possibly caused by a cracked or - Replace o- rings at the bottom of the liner
otherwise damaged contact surface between the retaining-edge every 20,000 hours.
crown and the skirt , this resulted in piston - crown
seizure. The piston skirt was also damaged and the 5. Pistons
connecting rod was moving freely in the crankshaft. - Draw, open , inspect and clean pistons.
This caused damage to the engine block, the - Measure ring- groove height according to
crankshaft counter weight and both balance weights. guidelines.
The valve discs of the in - and outlet valves broke off - Inspect the retaining ring of the piston pin .
and the fuel injectors were damaged. Eventually, all - Replace all piston rings.
parts of one cylinder were rejected.
Obviously, the list is much longer!
32.10.3 Explanation
32.10.4 Maintenance
According to the Wartsila manufacturer, the engine
type Vase 32 with an average load below 75% and The manufacturer’s guidelines demonstrate that
using HFO requires major maintenance after 20,000 engine maintenance had been performed recently.
operating hours, such as: The maintenance had been performed by the crew,
- Inspection of engine parts, only certain sections of the instruction manual
- Replacement of parts, had been consulted; the contents of the service
- Trueing up parts, such as valves. letters were unknown . The maintenance was poorly
- Measuring parts. documented; measurements and findings were not
processed in the maintenance system .
This applies to: Often bolt connections are periodically checked
1. Connecting rods for hairline cracks. Connecting- rod bolts and
- Replace the crank - pin bearing. piston - skirt and -crown connecting bolts require
- Measure the boring of the connecting - rod big meticulous monitoring and testing ( crack test /
end. dye check ) conform the engine manufacturers
- Replace the nuts and studs of the connecting- rod guidelines. Bolt replacement should also be
bolts after 24,000 operating hours. Inspect and performed in accordance with the specifications.
measure the ovality of the piston - pin bushing. Fractures have major implications.
2. Cylinder head Below, the engine damage documented with

- Clean and inspect . Inspect cooling - water section . photographs.
If required , regrind or replace valve seats.
- Inspect valve rotators.
- Check valve movement.
- Replace o - rings in the valve guides.
- Replace the o- rings below the cylinder head every
second overhaul.
392
A A
The results of damage. The cylinder head viewed from below.
Top left, the piston crown. All four valve flanges are broken. The flame plate of the head is
Middle and right: buckets filled with fragments of cast iron from badly damaged. The cooling channels, as a cross from the centre
the piston crown and cylinder liner. outwards, are visible!
Top left; the gudgeon.
Top right; the crankpin bearings.
Part of the piston crown

and above, the cylinder
liner collar.
A
Fragments of a piston skirt, cylinder liner and the engine
block in the crankcase.
Above and below, the counterweights (1) which are absolutely

necessary in this four- cylinder engine to compensate the The distorted crankpin
secondary free forces. bearing- shells.
The 'small end' of the

connecting rod.
The forged steel connecting

rod is very strong and when it
detaches from the piston, it
destroys everything in his path.
The rod itself was badly bent.
393
A A
The crankpin immediately after the damage. The cleaned crankpin.
Heavy oil leakage is visible on the pen mainly from the The running surface is slightly damaged, but still respectable
disassembly of the parts. The entire lubrication system including enough to clean.
crankshaft were flushed with a special flushing oil to remove all
the dirt.
The probable cause of the damage.
The broken bolts used to attach the piston to the piston-crown

skirt. It is of vital importance during the inspection of the
disassembled piston to check carefully for irregular alignment,
damages or other irregularities of the contact surfaces between
the piston crown and piston skirt. This is described in detail in the
operating manual supplied with the engine, for bolts; there are
also clear instructions for : inspections, measuring, testing for
cracks, bolt replacements, replacing parts such as bushings, nuts,
washers and other specific details.
The counterweights.
The counterweights are

moderately 'cold deformed'.
Since these are made of forged
steel, they never break !
However removing a
counterweight took, because
of the deformation, more than
40 man hours!
394
A
The major damage.
The support for the bottom edge of the cylinder liner in the cast
iron block was severely damaged. Fortunately, no cracks were
detected in the engine block. This would be a reason for rejecting
the block . Here, after a number of operations, a new support ring
A must be manufactured, a fairly complicated repair.
The beaten flat spray nozzle.
A slightly damaged counterweight.
This does not need to be replaced. Often the rough edges are
slightly re - cut.
T
The impeller of the exhaust- gas turbine is considerably
damaged.
The nozzle segment for the

impeller of the exhaust- gas
turbine of a turbocharger.
Many pieces of broken

material have severely
damaged the turbine via the
exhaust pipe.
395
1
The engine manufacturer and the classification 32.10.5 Repair operation details
society play an important role in assessing this
type of damage. Repairs must be performed in - Removal of all parts, debris and dirt.
compliance with the manufacturer's specifications, - Boring out the bottom of the retaining edge to
who present the ship-repair plan to the create a ledge on which the stainless steel sleeve
classification society. The latter will enforce a can rest.
so -called CoC ( condition of class ) and repairs will - Manufacturing a stainless steel sleeve with a
have to be completed within a certain time frame. diameter allowing for a solid crimped connection
A reference to the repair specification is included with the engine block after it has been cooled
in the CoC. If a CoC is not observed, a ship may with nitrogen .
lose its class. - Honing of the crank pin using a mobile honing
machine.
Step 1 - Overhauling, cleaning and replacement of the
Both the damage report and the repair plan are other three cylinders, including the driving gear.
drawn up by the engine manufacturer. These include - Inspection of the inside of the engine.
repair details, the welding method , the welding - Cleaning the entire inside of the engine.
electrodes used , welding surveys, the required - Checking the position of the crankshaft: the
certificates and the manufacturer’s instructions for crankshaft clocking.
welding repairs. - Replacement of all damaged cylinder parts,
such as: cylinder head , cylinder liner, piston ,
Step 2 connecting rod , bearings and packing.
The damage report and the repair plan are assessed - Scavenging with a scavenging oil of all
by the classification society and approved. lubricating-oil pipes, filters, pumps and ducts.
- Refilling the sump with fresh lubricating- oil and
Step 3 filling the entire system .
The repairs are performed under supervision of the - Checking lubrication of all driving gears with the
manufacturer and generally carried out by their own pre- lubricating pump with opened crankcase -
personnel. and camshaft doors. Obviously, while the engine
is idle.
Step 4 - Test running the engine in compliance with the
Following the repairs, the engine is test run under manufacturers specifications, including the load
the supervision of a surveyor from the classification ( generating operation ).
society and the CoC is lifted.
The movable boring machine for turning the lower support

ring.
The machine is aligned to the centre axis of the upper surface of

the engine in the centre axis of the cylinder. The crankshaft axis
direction is then determined perpendicular to this point. The
machine is fixed with four cylinder -head bolts.
396
The line-boring of the lower

support edge.
The machine is supported at

the bottom of the engine with
four threaded rods against the
cooling- water wall of the
engine. By measuring and
adjusting the threaded
supports, the machine is
placed absolutely
perpendicular to the block.
The chisel ( 1 ) runs at a speed
of about 30 rev/min.
Trueing up of the crankpin.
The crankshaft is stationary

and the rotating part with the
honing stones of the honing
machine is pneumatically
driven by a chain.
1 Air connection
2 Drive motor
3 Chain
4 Honing machine
5 Crankpin
Honing.
The honing machine 'runs' on the side against the radius of the
journal and crankweb. The crankpin journal is honed .
The honing stone experiences a slight vibration because of the

air- driven cylinder. Gas oil is used for the lubrication and flushing
of the crankpin and honing stones.
Fixing the new lower support edge.
The supporting edge is turned and the stainless steel ring is fitted
after being nitrogen cooled. After the ring has assumed the same
temperature as the environment and therefore the block, the fit is
then tight when the dimensions of the block and ring are then
correct.
On the top a malleable steel 'Belzona' is applied for additional

support and finish. The corresponding repair kit includes a
malleable steel degreaser to attach the parts properly. The ring
approaches the specifications of the supporting edge. Any slight
ovality is absorbed by the O -rings on liner so that it is air tight.
397
32.11 Sleeve bearings, theory and life. Friction is reduced by lubrication . Ideally, the
damage sliding surfaces of the sleeve bearing and the shaft
surface are completed separated by a thin oil film .
Source: A summary of a study by the Miba Bearing This is referred to as fluid film lubrication . Due to
Group, a manufacturer of engine bearing applications internal oil - film friction there may be some heat
and bearings. development . This must be discharged by cooling
the lubricating oil. The Stribeck curve shows the
32.11.1 Sleeve bearing relation of the friction coefficient to shaft speed. As
mentioned in Chapter 11, Lubrication of engines,
Since earlier times, bearings have constituted an there are three types of friction:
indispensable part of a rotating shaft. Today, sleeve I - Boundary lubrication,
bearings are widely used , also in the driving gears of II - Fluid film lubrication,
combustion engines, such as: III - Hydrostatic lubrication .
- The main bearings and crankpin bearings of the
crankshaft. The latter uses a separate high -pressure supply

- The bearing bushings of the camshaft. pump and will therefore not be discussed.
- The bearings in the thrust blocks of the
crankshaft.
- The bushing of valve levers.
Left figure: Downtime of the shaft in the sleeve bearing.

The diesel engines greatest load is located at the The two parts touch each other.
crankpin - and main shaft bearings. However, the I- Boundary lubrication, middle figure: the parts
piston - pin bushings are also heavily loaded. occasionally come into contact with each other in spite of
the lubricating- oil film between the rotating shaft and the
32.11.2 The function of a sleeve bearing stationary bearing.
The high 'peaks' of the 'rough' surface of the bearing shell
Sleeve bearings serve to bear and support the and the axis come into contact with each other more or
rotating or moving parts of the engine. This means less, depending on the degree of boundary lubrication.
that there is direct contact between the shaft and II- Full film lubrication, right figure: the rotating shaft
the bearing, which causes friction and consequently and the stationary bearing are consistently separated by a
heat development and wear. The friction must be very thin lubricating- oil film. The ideal situation: there is no
kept to a minimum to achieve an acceptable bearing wear on either part.
i k
ZL
5£ Transition point (Speed)
-P
LL_
>
Rotational speed in rpm n
398
b b Bearing width [mm]

dL Bearing diameter [mm]
dw Shaft diameter [mm]
e Excentricity
F Bearing load [N]
Fd, FV Bearing load portions
caused by rotation and
squeeze effect [N]
h Lubricant film thickness [mm]
ho Minimum lubricant film
\Q\Q>
Fv /
^ -
e.
T3 "
O
5
Pmax
thickness [mm]
Maximum lubricant film
pressure [MPa]
5 FD PDmax' Pvmax
Maximum lubricant film
Pressure caused by rotation
and squeeze effect [MPa ]
P Angular position of h0,
£
A Mw (ML at n=oo)
£
E 6
relative to FD
Angular position of h0
Q .
of . Y Angular position of bearing
load F
WL Angular velocity of bearing
OJW Angular velocity of shaft
Mw ( at n=0)
d|_ ~ C/yy
Gumbel circle Relative clearance ( —
di
The hydrodynamic effect of bearing.
To minimize friction, the bearing is always designed for full- film The small figure in the middle shows that the minimum
lubrication. Many engineers have made these calculations, such lubricating- oil film thickness depends on the size of the
as Reynolds, Sommerfeld, Gurkel and many others. bearing, speed, bearing load, viscosity of the lubricant and
- The image set a rotating shaft in a plain bearing. the bearing clearance. The lubricant film is thicker with a
- The shaft rotates clockwise. decreasing load, increased viscosity of the lubricating oil and
- The space between the rotating shaft and the bearing is higher speeds. Yet there are no general rules of thumb for
known as the lubricating- oil clearance and is filled with the clearance in the bearings because the various parameters
lubricating oil. Clearance is ho - also influence each other. Parameters include the bearing load ,
- The rotating shaft squeezes the lubricating oil on the shaft into the temperature rise of the lubricant due to friction
the gap and so decreasing the clearance. Through this wedge, the decrease in the amount of flowing lubricant and therefore
a pressure build up is created, the shaft 'floats' on the the cooling capacity, the increasing bearing clearance due to
accumulated lubricating- oil pressure. wear and also changes in the primary shape and dimensions
In most cases, the lubricating-oil pressure is axially oriented of the bearing.

and lifts the shaft. The forces exerted on the shaft such as the
weight of the shaft and forces from the combustion process The following values can be used as reference for the minimum
are completely compensated by the oil pressure in the clearances:
lubricating film. The shaft drops slightly when the forces on the - Crankpin bearings, 0.06% of the crankpin diameter, dw;
shaft increase; causing the wedge to increase and therefore the - Main bearings, 0.075%.
oil pressure. It is once again balanced! The centre axis of the
rotating shaft moves in comparison to the centre axis of the The corresponding maximum tolerances are calculated according
bearing because the shaft rotates. Depending on the operating the above values.
conditions, the centre axis of the shaft moves along a curved Experience is obviously paramount; engine manufacturers always
line, the circle of Gumbel. For an infinitely high speed, the mention these tolerances in their manuals.
centre axis of the shaft will in theory coincide with the centre
axis of the bearing.
399
The main bearings in a Rocker arm bushings

small diesel engine,
.
category I
Piston pin bushings
Camshaft bushings
Main bearings
Conrod big end bearings
Thrust washers &

flange bearings
cylinder pressure
The bearing loads. +Pgas mass
lateral force
of piston
The load on the main bearings
of the crankpin is due to the
gas forces on the piston and
aj
the acceleration and o

—
1
to
deceleration forces of the
gearing.
The direction and size of rod force

these bearing forces change
continuously.
cylinder
In the figure, the dynamic pressure
load on the bearings of a
interia force
four- stroke engine. of piston radial interia force
/ of conrod
TDC
rotating interia force
reaction of the of conrod
conrod pin force
force onto
force onto neighbouring crankshaft pins
bearing pins \
tangential force
/ onto crankshaft
conrod force including

translational interia force
of conrod
rotating interia force
of crank throw BDC
400
Kz
A polar diagram of the forces on the connecting rod
o bearing for a four- stroke diesel engine.
The closed red curve shows the power curve. The blue values
180 represent the crank angles. When the crank is in its top position
90
during combustion, the greatest force is exerted.
630
450 540 270
0,75 0,50 0,25 0,25 0,50 0,75
\
360
X X
Ps Ps
pr= radial holding pressure [MPa ]

Ps= bolt force [N]
SN= crush height [ mm]
W = bearing wall thickness [mm]
= angle of section cutted out
dv
p = friction coefficient
oL = circumferential pressure in the bearing [MPa ]
oG = circumferential pressure in the housing [MPa ]
r = tangential stress by friction [MPa]
Adjustment and tensioning of bearing shells.
It is extremely important that the two bearing shells are fitted Due to the increasing load on the bearings over the years, the
properly in the bearing housing and are correctly loaded. direct result of the greatly increased load on the engine, it is
Good contact with the bearing housing is important: if there is becoming increasingly complicated to design a good bearing.
too much clearance, the shells tend to rotate along with the shaft,
of course, this leads to immediate damage! Note:
In sleeve bearing designs, a large number of formulas are used to For the engineer in field, it is of paramount importance to pay
create the most ideal design. Amongst others, the complete attention to the maintenance of the gearing, the bearings and
circumference of a sleeve bearing is greater than the product of their rotating shafts.
the diameter of the bearing housing multiplied by a factor of 2 of The shaft surface (rough, scratched, out of centre) is especially
SN, the clearance required to load the bearing correctly. important.

When designing bearing clearance under varying loads during Always measure when replacing the shaft bearings!
operation and when starting, field experience and a host of other Lubricating oil remains a major focus.
information play an important role.
401
—z
The movement of a crankpin bearing. x180
\ /
90 540 0
/
630 /
Rotating loaded bearings continuously change the thickness of
270
the oil film and oil pressure.
For each revolution of the shaft, the position of the centre line can
be calculated using a special program 'Pin Orbital Path.'
450
In this case for bearing manufacturer Miba, Laakischen, Austria,
the method is based on Holland-Lang with the numbers of
1,75 0,50 0,25 0,25 0,50 0,7.
Sommerfeld consistent to Butenschon. This method is widely
used for the design of the main-, crankpin- and camshaft
bearings.
The red line in the figure shows the movement of a crankpin
bearing.
The crankpin changes take place not only in its circumference, 360
axially, but also radially! The closer the crankpin comes to the
bearing, the greater the load capacity of the oil film.
Normal values for the thinnest lubricant film, homin are 1 - 5 micro -
millimetres, a small percentage of the bearing clearance.
This oil film is often much thinner than the size of impurities such
as wear particles carried in the lubricating oil.
Crush relief
Theoretical calculations.
Theoretical calculations for bearings and bearing research have

provided a great deal of information about the right design for
sliding bearings.
Calculations of the hydrodynamic behaviour combined with the Specific
deformation of the bearing shows how a bearing behaves under wall
thickness
load.
profile
The figure a standard crankpin bearing is shown with left, part of
the connecting rod.
The oil grooves are clearly marked.
Notch
Repairing the big end of a connecting rod.
Repairing a connecting rod necessitates a number of meticulously

executed procedures.
The lubrication of the crankpin bearing and the precise clearance
between the bearing shells and the crankpin are crucial for
optimum operation as the crankpin bearing is subjected to heavy
loads.
402
Hydrodynamic pressure The load of a sleeve bearing.
This figure displays the characteristics of a sleeve bearing, such as:

- Hydrodynamic pressure: The hydrodynamic pressure build-up.
The highest pressure, the so- called peak pressure is shown in
Asperity contact pressure red. The numbers indicate the position of the crankshaft.
0 degrees is the top position. At top to just after the top, the oil
pressure is at its highest.
- Asperity contact pressure: Contact pressure with impurities.
- Oil fill ratio: Extent to which the oil film is present.
Oil fill ratio - Fully filled gap: Sufficient oil film present.
- Poorly filled gap: Insufficient oil film present. Wear possible!
Fully filled gap
- Oil film thickness: Thickness of the oil film.
Poorly filled gap
- Low film thickness: Location of the thinnest oil film.
- Friction loss : Friction losses.
Oil film thickness
The image clearly shows that the greatest load of the slide
bearings for engines is found in the middle of the lower shell
Low film thickness
(main bearing) or upper bearing (crankpin bearing) and occurs
when the load on the piston, at the beginning of the power

Friction loss stroke, is greatest .
In images of bearing shells, the wear is usually easy to see!
Reference
system
for shell angle
32.11.3 Worn and damaged sleeve bearings
It is important to establish the cause of severe wear 1 Running surface scratches in the direction of
or damage. The following information is vital: rotation
- The number of operating hours.
- The operating conditions. Image
- Lubricating - oil supply/ refreshing / examination . Often local embedding of foreign particles.
- The engine load.
- Other damaged engine parts. Causes:
- Dirty oil.
If required, the bearing shell supplier should be - Contamination of the lubricating- oil system after repairs to the
consulted. engine.
- Malfunctioning of the lubricating-oil filters and / or centrifuges.
Foreign particles
Lining material
— Steel shell —
403
2 Local overload of a bearing shell 4 Diagonal wear of the bearing shells
a
\
Example:
m ^|j
Image Figure a. Conical turned
This is often local, the running surface is worn and very often connecting-rod foot, the
lighter in colour. so- called 'big eye' in which the
crankpin bearings, the most
Causes: heavily loaded bearings in the
- Conical (and therefore incorrect) grinding of the shaft pin or engine, are placed.
crankpin. Figure b. Crankshaft is not
- Conical shape of the housing where the bearing shells are properly aligned. Control by Image
installed. means of crankshaft Shown, the wear in the centre axis direction of the shaft on one
deflections. side of the lower shell and on the other side of the upper shell.
Figure c. Abnormal
movements of the rod, often Causes:
'waving' in the radial direction. Figure a. Misalignment of the shaft and/or the centre axis of the
Figured. Crankshaft imbalance: bearing housing.
eccentricity. Misalignment of the bearing housing.
Figure b. Bent or twisted rod.
3 Overload in the centre of the bearing shell
a b
Image
In the middle of the shell, excessive wear is visible, possibly even
cracks in the running surface due to overloading.
Furthermore, 'glazing' of the friction layer is visible.
Causes:
BSC?!©! - See Figure a. barrel polished journal.
- See Figure b. 'Concave' bored bearing caps.
- Lack of lubrication.
404
5 Local load at the extremities of the bearing

shells
b
Image
Severe wear on both ends of the bearing shells.
Causes:
- Concave ground shaft journal.
- Convex ground shaft journal.
- Radii of the corners of the crankwebs are too large.
- Radial clearances in the crankshaft are too large.
- ' Waving' of the connecting rod.
6 A 'high' oval boring in, for instance,

the connecting rod big end
Image
Very heavy local wear in the middle of the two bearing shells and
'glazing' of the friction layer. Sometimes on both bearing shells.
Causes:
- Excessive deformation of the bearing housing.
- Connecting rod- or main-bearing bolts are not securely
tightened after repairs or maintenance.
7 A 'wide' oval boring in, for instance,

the connecting rod big end
Image
Very severe wear in the middle of the bearing shells, sometimes
with glazing of the running surface. Occurs in loaded and
unloaded bearing shells.
Causes:
- Exceptional plastic deformation of the bearing housing or
connecting- rod foot.
- Bolts not properly tightened after an overhaul of the drilling.
405
8 Wear in the heavily loaded section of the 11 The sides of the bearing shells are not
bearing shells 'run- in'
Image
Overall wear of the entire bearing surface, especially
in the heavily loaded midsection .
Cause:
- Normal wear resulting from a large number of
operating hours.
- Inadequate lubrication produces boundary
lubrication between the shaft and the bearing

shell.
- Increased roughness of the shaft surface.
- Radial oscillation of the shaft .
9 Wear in the transverse direction of

the crankshaft centreline
wrong
*
A A
Image Image
Local wear at the location of the lubricating-oil hole in the No wear along the edges of the bearing shells in the centre axis of
crankshaft. the crankshaft or crankpin.
Cause: Cause:
- Insufficient rounding of the lubricating-oil hole. - Badly ground journals, finishing too narrow.
10 Wear of the bottom crankpin bearing shell
Image
Local wear with lots of scratches on the underside of the crankpin.
In some cases, fatigue of the friction layer which results in their
detachment.
Cause:
The bottom of the crankpin is carried locally and comes into
direct contact with the bearing surface. In the middle, the crank
pin is no longer carried. This causes strain on the rest of the
crankpin. Result: scratching.
12 Bearing- shell corrosion 14 Cavitation as a result of lubricating- oil

discharge at a hole in the bearing
Image
Rough, porous or smooth running surface with dark Image
patches. The erosion appears as mushroom - shaped mark
Often , the running surface has largely disappeared, near the oil hole. Occasionally, the edges of the
revealing divergently coloured transition zones. In lubricating - oil grooves are also affected.
extreme cases, wearing of lead - bronze emergency
running-surface. Cause:
Turbulence in the lubricating oil due to a poor
Causes: transition from the groove to the bearing running
- Aggressive chemical additives in the lubricating surface.
oil.
- Lubricating oil contaminated with coolants and 15 Cavitation as a result of fluctuating
anti- freeze or acidic additives. lubricating- oil pressure
- Combustion residue in lubricating oil. For
example: Sulphuric acid due to combusting heavy Image

oil in engine. Oval or round erosion in the rotation direction . The
- Exceeding the maximum stability of the erosion is generally found near the main bearings.
lubricating oil.
- A high - water content in the lubricating oil. Cause:
Pressure waves in the oil boring in the crankshaft
13 Erosion resulting from cavitation due to directional changes of the oil flow.
Generally, cavitation is caused by local lubricating -
oil pressure drops. This may produce cavities 16 Cavitation as a result of oscillation
( “ bubbles” ) as oil boils at relatively low pressures.
These cavities implode once they enter a high - Image
pressure section and may subsequently cause a Pitting erosion with round patches on the running
pressure wave. Large forces are released with the surface, usually in the vicinity of the connecting- rod
collapse of a cavity, which may cause serious damage bearings. Main bearings often show oblong patching
to the running surface of the bearing shells. This may in the running surface of the top bearing shells.
result in pitting. Cavitation in bearings are usually
the result of low oil - pressure at high lubricating- oil Cause:
temperatures, by liquids in the lubricating oil with - The connecting- rod bearing is out of true due to
low boiling points such as fuel, and also due to bearing load .
vibrations. - Oscillation due to rapid , cyclic movements of the
crankpin .
Image
Long-stretched erosion of the bearing shells with 17 Running- surface fatigue
ragged lubricating - oil grooves.
Cause: Image
Turbulence in the lubricating- oil supply stream, Cracks or a network of cracks in the running surface.
in particular in areas where the flow direction is
opposed to the rotation direction of the shaft. Cause:
- Local overloading caused by high bearing loads, often in
conjunction with high material temperatures.
- Load on the bearing edge or increased boundary lubrication,
often caused by an oval hole in the bearing housing or
connecting- rod foot .
407
18 Fatigue of all the bearing material, the 19 Fretting corrosion of the back of the bearing
running surface ( anti- friction layer ) and shells
emergency running-layer ( mostly bronze )
Image
Dark, rough sections at the back of the bearing
housing. The steel surface has already been affected .
Causes:
- Excessive clearance of the bearing shells in
relation to the bearing housing or the connecting -
rod big end. Usually, the bearing housing- or big-
end borings are too wide.
- The main bearing - or the connecting- rod
bolts have not been fixed according to the
specifications.
20 Welding spots on the back of the bearing

shells
Image
Fissures at the back of the bearing shells and the
bearing housing or the big end , usually visible at the
Image joints of the bearing shells.
Cracks or a network of cracks, stone-shaped impurities in the
bearing material. Causes:
Pieces of the bearing material have broken off. - Excessive clearance of the bearing shells in
relation to the bearing housing or the big end.
Causes: Usually, the bearing housing - or big end borings
- Local overloading due to very high bearing loads. are too wide.
- Local overloading due to uneven loads on the bearing. - The main bearing- or the connecting- rod
bolts have not been fixed according to the
Damage sequence specifications.
- Firstly, small tears in the running surface of the bearing occur.
- The cracks in the steel bearing shell increase in depth and 21 Fracturing of the steel bearing shell
width.
- Finally, pieces of the bearing material break off. Image
Fractured steel bearing shell.
The fractured surface is indicative of a sudden
fracture. Occasionally, the damage indicates material
|% battering.
Causes:
M - The fretting of material and / or welding spots
produced indentations.
- Loose bearing shells.
- Incorrect fit of the bearings in the bearing
housing or big end .
A cracked crankshaft, undoubtedly a result of detonation.
The crankpin is badly damaged and a section of the bearing shell

has fused onto the crankpin due to overheating.
408
32.11.4 Incorrect mounting
22 Bearing shell is misaligned
Image
Very severe abrasions at the connection between the upper and
lower bearing shells on the diagonally opposite surfaces of both
bearings.
Causes:
- Improper bearings.
- Bearing shell rotated 180°.
- Damaged tabs on the back of a bearing shell.
- Bearing- cap or connecting-rod bolts have been incorrectly
fixed.
23 Incorrect placement of oil holes in a bearing

shell
Image The hydraulic tensioning of

Overheated running surface, bearing shell is no engine parts can be
longer functional. problematic; the incorrect
Imprint of lubricating hole at the back of the bearing assembly of the crankpin in
shell. a large two- stroke
crosshead engine is shown
Cause: here. Forged steel is very
- Incorrect mounting of the bearing shell impeding strong and rarely breaks.
the lubricating- oil supply to the bearing.
24 Damages to a bearing shell due to a dowel pin
Image
Serious damage to the running surface. The imprint of the pin is
clearly visible next to the hole on the back of the lower bearing
shell.
Cause:
- Dowel pin too long, remnants in the pin hole.
- Dowel pin misaligned.
The subsequent damage to drives can be substantial, total

engine loss is often the result of damage to the cast iron
engine block of a four stroke engine.
The piston, cylinder liner and the connecting rod can be replaced
on this two - stroke crosshead engine.
409
32.11.5 Bearing types for various purposes .

Some examples
Steel- backed AISn40 Bimetal Bearing

A type of bearing for Cross- section Application
large four- and two- stroke
Typical application
engines. 500 |jm Large 4- stroke and 2-stroke engines,
Engine categories III and IV. compressor and medium speed engines
rVWfc *•- . Bearing Alloy
«*
The steel back has a carbon

Additional Qualifications
percentage of 0.13% and a High corrosion resistance
manganese percentage of
0.6%.
The running surface is an
aluminium (60%) tin (40%) Bonding foil
alloy. Steel
The bonding layer is 99.5%
aluminium required for good Chemical Composition Operating Limits
adhesion. Chemical composition (% by mass) Short term temperature limit (°C) 120
Bearing Alloy Al Sn Cu Long term temperature limit (°C)
The specific load is 25 MPa,
rem. 40 0,6 Operation at design point 100
which is moderate!
Bonding Foil Al 99,5 Max. sliding speed (m/s) 162
The maximum sliding speed of according DIN 1712/part 3 Specific unit load (MPa) 25
the shaft relative to the sleeve Steel Back C Mn P S
bearing is 162 m/s. This is very max. 0,13 0,60 0,045 0,050 Performance Characteristics
high! Wear resistance +
Hardness Fatigue life 0
Hardness (HB ) Emergency runnig capability +
Bearing Alloy min . max. Cavitation resistance 0
28 35 Legend: 0 = Standard; + = Improved; ++ = Excellent
Steel back min. 139
Steel-backed Leaded Bronze Trimetal Bearing ( Sputter Overlay)

A type of bearing for Cross- section Application
heavily loaded four- stroke
Typical application
engines. 300 pm High performance truck and
Coating
Engine categories II and III. medium speed engines
The steel back has a carbon • ."

«•
vi *. ;
Additional Qualifications
percentage of 0.25% and a \
•C-
'
V Ni diffusion barrier Excellent corrosion resistance
* VI
manganese percentage of ‘ T:«r ±V . *.; T7 V V T
' 4? .s- rT,Cl 1
•
'Alloy
r. p ' -v
•
2.. ' 5 » . " 1
\ Bearing
0.7%. * F< •
tcyyvV <
V
* '
The coating on the running -- * '
-8
——— —
•/ r
surface is an alloy of .v
aluminium (79%), tin (20%) Steel Back
and copper (1 %).
The running surface is a Chemical Composition Operating Limits
copper ( 75.5%), lead (22%) and
Chemical composition (% by mass) Short term temperature limit (°C) 190
Coating Al Sn Cu Long term temperature limit (°C)
tin (2.5%) alloy.
rem. 20 1,0 Operation at design point 165
The specific load is 100 MPa, Bearing Alloy Cu Pb Sn Max. sliding speed (m/ s) 22
which is very high! rem. 22 2,5 Specific unit load (MPa) 100
The maximum sliding speed of Steel Back C Mn P S
the shaft relative to the sleeve max. 0,25 0,70 0,045 0,050 Performance Characteristics
Wear resistance ++
bearing is 22 m/ s. This is low!
Hardness Fatigue life ++
Hardness (HB) Emergency runnig capability 0
Bearing Alloy min . max. Cavitation resistance ++
70 100 Legend: 0 = Standard; + = Improved; ++ = Excellent
Steel back min. 100
410
Steel-backed Leaded Babbit Bimetal Bearing

Cross- section Application A type of bearing for the
main connecting-rod
Typical application
Main- and conrod bearings, bearings and piston pin
conrod small end bushings in compressors bushings for heavily loaded
and heavy fuel engines four -stroke engines running
Additional Qualifications on heavy fuel oil.

Excellent conformability and embeddability Engine categories II and III.
The steel back has a carbon

percentage of 0.25% and a
manganese percentage of
0.6%.
The running surface is a
Chemical Composition Operating Limits copper (77%), lead (14%) and
Chemical composition (% by mass) Short term temperature limit (°C) 120
tin (9%) alloy.
Bearing Alloy Pb Sb Sn Cd Long term temperature limit (°C)
The specific load is 14 MPa,
rem. 14,0 9,0 1,0 Operation at design point 120
Steel Back C Mn P S Max. sliding speed (m/s) 14 which is low!
max. 0,25 0,60 0,045 0,050 Specific unit load ( MPa) 14 The maximum sliding speed of
the shaft relative to the sleeve
Hardness Performance Characteristics bearing is 14 m/ s. This is very
Hardness ( HB) Wear resistance 0
low!
Bearing Alloy min . max. Fatigue life 0
22 Emergency runnig capability ++
Steel back min. 100 Cavitation resistance 0
Legend: 0 = Standard; + = Improved; ++ = Excellent
.
32.11 6 The three types of bearing shells
The three types of bearing

shells.
SYNTHEC'
<- Electroplated or
sputtered overlay Left, a single piece.
Lining
Solid lining (cast/ roll bonded) Lining A one-piece bearing, an
<-
( Al /Cu based) (cast/ roll bonded)
aluminium copper alloy.
Steel back Middle, bimetal.
<- Steel back
A built up bearing shell, a steel
back and a running surface
comprising a friction material,
such as an aluminium tin alloy.
Right, trimetal.
A built up bearing shell with a
steel back, an intermediate
layer consisting of a copper
alloy, which also functions as
an emergency running surface
and a sputtered running
surface.
This usually consists of an
aluminium tin alloy.
411
32.11.7 The names of all plain- bearings parts
Names of all the parts of a bearing. These are important

when drawing up a damage report.
Bearing shells and thrust washer (fig. 1 )

1 Free spread
2 Lug ( tang) width
3 Lug (tang ) position
4 Lug (tang ) relief
5 Bearing width
6 Partial oil groove
7 Parting line relief
8 Bearing internal diameter
9 Countersunk oil hole
Io Bearing back
II Wall thickness
12 Outside edge
13 Inside edge
14 Lug (tang) length
15 Joint face
16 Oil pocket
17 Lug (tang ) length
18 Thrust washer thickness
19 Running surface
20 Thrust face
21 Oil Groove
22 Locating lug (tang )
23 Bearing length
24 Distance between flanges
25 Locating notch
26 Relief on thrust face
27 Releif
28 Flange thickness
29 Lubrication slot
30 Relief on thrust face
31 Oil groove
32 Flange diameter
Bushings (fig. 2)
1 Oil groove
2 Oil hole
3 Inside diameter
4 Outside diameter
5 Length
6 Mating faces
7 Clinch butt
8 Oil groove
9 Location notch
1 o Axial oil groove
412
32.11.8 Guide to determine the cause of

bearing damage ( checklist )
Function Characteristics Parameters to check

Operating conditions - particular load cases or applications A checklist to determine
Breakage of adjacent parts causes of slide bearing
Failure of piston damage.
External Piston pin

conditions Piston pin bushing
Engine design, vibrations
Failure of lubrication - reason ?
Assembly/ dirt in the system
Oil analysis, additives, oil aging
Single or multiple viscosity oil
Viscosity
Viscosity
Water content
Foaming
Oil treatment
Dilution Running surface and housing, transitions,

Lubricant
Contamination evaluation of bearing set (conrod, main)
Hot operation Standard temperature

condition Temperature under specific operating conditions
Cooling performance
Temperature measurement before failure
Overheating
Metallurgical analysis of the components
Mixed friction Running in /before stop/lubrication in advance

condition Specific appearance of the bearing
Specific surface load1
1
Pin orbital path /limits
Bearing design
( Engine's own) vibrations
Comparable engines
Latest data from assembly test
Installation situation
Available geometric measurements
Bearing/load Installation situation
Housing
Condition of bearing back
Corrosion
Bearing Cavitation2
Metallurgy
Cavitation2
Pin
Metallurgy
Manufacturing records
Housing
Measurements of geometry, surface roughness, etc.
Quality Bearing Detailed geometry, including spread, crush height, wall thickness,
bearing clearance, back contact
Pin
Measurements of geometry, surface roughness, etc.
1: Relevant for the design and testing of new engines.

2: Individual types of cavitation are not considered here in detail.
413
33.1 Introduction the International Convention for the Prevention of

Pollution from Ships, which in 1978 was changed in
Many regulations are in force pertaining to the the MARPOL protocol. Additionally, conventions
technical installations on ships. Adherence to were also drawn up to establish liability and
these rules and regulations ensures constructive compensation when accidents occur.
compliance with the law and with the stipulations
of insurance companies. The principle is the safe Safety at sea is largely determined by
operation of commercial shipping with respect to communication . The establishment of the
crew, ship, cargo and environment. International Mobile Satellite Organization
Many countries used to have their own regulations, ( IMSO ) in the nineteen - seventies made
all more or less with the intention of achieving the communication via radio and VHF maritime radio -
above goals, but all differing slightly. As shipping telephony possible. In 1992, the next step was taken
is perhaps the most international of the world’s with GMDSS , the Global Maritime Distress and
industries, there is a need for international standards Safety System. All ships are required to be equipped
to regulate shipping - which should be adopted and with satellite emergency- position indicating radio
accepted by all. beacons. This ensures that in emergencies, an
automatic emergency signal is sent that can be
localised by satellite.
33.2 The IMO: International
Maritime Organization IMO, following the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks in the US in
2001, has been highly alarmed with terrorism . The
The IMO ( International Maritime Organization ) fight to prevent and suppress these acts has resulted
has 167 Member States and 3 Associate Members in in the International Ship and Port Facility Security
2008, representing a worldwide range of shipping Code, where a risk analysis must be performed to
interests. determine what security measures are appropriate
The International Maritime Organization, in harbours to prevent not only terrorism, but also
based in London , UK , embodies the coordination human trafficking.
of governments and shipping in maritime -
technical issues, in order to improve maritime and 33.2.1 Rules and regulations
environmental safety. The IMO is a specialized
agency of the United Nations. Below are a number of mandatory regulations
The concept of the IMO was developed after the adopted by the IMO.
MS Titanic disaster, the ship that could not sink’
but sank on her maiden voyage. Until then, every Maritime security
country had its own regulations with respect to - 1966, LL, International Convention on Load
design , construction and equipping of ships. In Lines. The Load Lines Convention contains
1948 at an international conference in Geneva , the detailed regulations on the assignment of the
IMCO ( Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative freeboard ( the vertical distance between the top
Organisation ) was formally established. In 1982, of the hull and the waterline ) and the specific
the name IMCO was changed to IMO, International load - line limitations for different types of ships. It
Maritime Organization. also sets down the required construction integrity
of a ship so that it can safely carry cargoes.
The first major treaty was the establishment of a - 1971, STP, Special Trade Passenger Ships
new international convention on safety, SOLAS Agreement .
( Safety Of Life At Sea ). Through the years, SOLAS - 1973, Protocol on Space Requirements for Special
has changed , adapted and brought up - to - date by the Trade Passenger Ships.
inclusion of modern views, scientific development - 1972, COLREG, International Regulations for
and new technological possibilities. Preventing Collisions at Sea. A set of traffic rules
for shipping that can be compared with road
Safety was the main objective of the IMO, however, traffic regulations.
pollution control was put high on the agenda after - 1972, CSC , International Convention for Safe
the accident with the Torrey Canyon on 18th March Containers. Regulations that set out procedures
1967, when 119,000 tons of Kuwait crude was spilled regarding the safety of freight containers
into the sea. In the years following, many procedures transported by sea: size, strength, handling,
were started to prevent recurrences of major oil spills storing and stacking.
and to reduce the effects. This resulted in 1973, in
416
!
C H3 3 > REGULATIONS FOR P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, CLASSIFICATION , R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
1974, SOLAS, International Convention for the - 1990, OPRC, International Convention on
Safety of Life at Sea. Regulations which specify Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and
minimum standards for the construction , Co - operation . Measures for dealing with
equipment and operation of ships, compatible pollution incidents, either nationally or in
with their safety for those on board. co - operation with other countries.
1979, SAR, International Convention on - 2000, HNS Protocol, Protocol on Preparedness,
Maritime Search and Rescue. The system covers Response and Co-operation as to Pollution
a search and rescue operation - who does what , Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances,
where and under what conditions. 2000.
1976, INMARSAT, Convention on the - 2001, AFS, International Convention on the
International Maritime Satellite Organization . Control of Harmful Anti -fouling Systems on

The operational requirements for a satellite Ships.
communication system for maritime purposes. - 2004, International Convention for the Control
1977, SFV, The Torremolinos International and Management of Ships, Ballast Water and
Convention for the Safety of Fishing Vessels. Sediments.
1978, STCW, International Convention on
Standards of Training, Certification and Watch - Liability and compensation
keeping for Seafarers. Regulations establishing - 1969, CLC, International Convention on Civil
basic requirements for training, certification and Liability for Oil Pollution Damage. These are
watch - keeping for seafarers at an international arrangements concerning liability, especially
level. when disasters occur in international waters.
1995, STCW- F, International Convention on - 1971, FUND, International Convention on the
Standards of Training, Certification and Watch Establishment of an International Fund for
keeping for Fishing Vessel Personnel. Regulations Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage.
to improve the training, certification and watch - - 1971, Convention relating to Civil Liability in the
keeping standards for crews on fishing vessels. Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material.
- 1974, PAL, Athens Convention relating to the
Marine pollution Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage by Sea.
- 1969, International Convention Relating to - 1976, LLMC, Convention on Limitation of
Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Liability for Maritime Claims.
Pollution Casualties. - 1996, HNS, International Convention on Liability
- 1972, LDC, Convention on the Prevention of and Compensation for Damage in Connection
Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious
Other Matter. Substances by Sea.
- 1978, ( MARPOL 73/ 78 ) International Convention - 2001, BOPD, International Convention on Civil
for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. The Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage.
prevention of accidental or operational pollution
of the marine environment by ships.
A cargo- ship docked for overhaul, repairs and periodic

inspection by a classification society.
Many precisely defined regulations are in force that oversee the

technical installations on ships. The underlying principle is that
merchant vessels sail safely with respect to crew, ship, cargo and
environment.
Since most seafaring countries already had diverging rules and
regulations pertaining to shipping and as shipping is indubitably
a purely international industry, it was deemed better to have
uniform international regulations.
417
1
Other 33.2.3 Considerations for diesel engines

- 1965, FAL, Convention on Facilitation of
International Maritime Traffic. For diesel engines, the fuel used and the emission of
- 1969, International Convention on Tonnage noxious substances is of the utmost importance.
Measurement of Ships. Naturally, the discharge of oil and oily wastes at sea is
- 1988, SUA, Convention for the Suppression of bound by very strict regulations.
Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Seagoing vessels are required to have certain
Navigation. certificates on board that establish that they meet the
- 1989, International Convention on Salvage. requirements of IMO.
33.2.2 The MSC, the Marine Safety The compulsory equipment on board must be
Committee approved by the flag states and / or by one of the
classification societies.
The legislature of the IMO is The Assembly
comprising committees and sub - committees that The following four certificates are in use:
deal with different issues.
Issues concerning safety are dealt with by the MSC For SOLAS:
( Maritime Safety Committee). 1 Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate.
The MEPC, the Marine Environment Protection 2 Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate.
Committee, was established to handle environmental 3 Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate.
issues such as oil pollution of the sea , air pollution by 4 Cargo Ship Safety Certificate, this combines 1, 2
the emission of noxious substances or the dumping and 3.
of industrial and other waste at sea.
Over the years, two important conventions have For Marpol:
been adopted: This is expressed in The International Oil Pollution
- SOLAS - Safety Of Life At Sea .
Certificate 9 I.O.P.C.
- Marpol - Marine Pollution.
This applies to, amongst others, oil tankers and cargo
ships above 400 GT.
For both conventions, many rules have been drawn In detail, the following parts are covered:
up. These must be ratified by a sufficient number
of member states before the convention is adopted . Annex I: normal oil, such as, fuel and lubricating
It then enters into force and is implemented by all oil. Sludge and bilge water also belong to
member states. this annex.
Annex II: noxious liquids and chemicals.
Annex III: packed substances.
Annex IV: sewage.
Every sea - going vessel has Annex V: garbage.
a clearly visible IMO Annex VI: air pollution, the exhaust gases of diesel
number in the engine room engines.
and on the deck. Annex VII: ballast water.
33.3 Classification societies
They are globally active to survey and certify

systems, assets and facilities to improve quality,
increase safety and protect environment.
Many classification societies have more than one
discipline, of which shipping is an important one.
418
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S , C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , REPAIR A N D D A M A G E
33.3.1 Shipping Ships carry not only class certificates but also comply
with statutory regulations.
Their activities in the shipping field mainly comprise Both are issued by the societies.
classifying’ ships.
Classification societies draw up standards for the 33.3.3 Acceptance by a flag state
quality and the reliability with respect to design,
construction and operation of ships. A company can have a sea - going vessel registered
Besides carrying out classification surveys in a particular country, the flag state. The flag state
and statutory inspections, compulsory under accepts the ship as a member of its fleet.
international shipping conventions and regulations, a The authorities of a country allow the shipping
classification society gives ship-owners and operators company to sail under their jurisdiction for a certain
insight in the risks they face and helps them to ( financial ) tariff.
improve business performance. These tariffs vary considerably per country/ flag state.
The flag states name must be visibly displayed on the
33.3.2 Classification stern of the ship.
The certificate of registration , the international
A classification society establishes the regulations tonnage certificate, is issued by the flag state or by
regarding the construction of a certain type of ship. the classification company on behalf of the flag state.
The society approves the drawings, gives advice The official details of the ship are listed in the
for possible modifications and verifies that the tonnage certificate ( also important for, amongst
construction of the ship and all the technical others, harbour dues).
installations are conform its standards.
After completion of the ship, the ship - owner will
receive a Certificate of Classification, for the hull 33.4 Periodic inspection of the
and the machinery. diesel engine and its parts
An Operating Certificate is also issued that is
valid for 5 years. Every year, the certificate must The condition of the engine parts must be checked
be endorsed when the annual survey has been regularly. Classification societies have strict
satisfactorily completed . regulations regarding the inspection periods and
In order to provide this service, classification activities.
societies maintain a worldwide network of surveyors. In view of the brief docking times of modern ships
A Class certificate allows the vessel to be insured. these ‘surveys’ are predominantly performed during
dry- docking and other periods when the ship is out
The society surveys the technical condition of the of service.
ship, the safety and the living conditions on board. Therefore, timely contact between the shipping
Flag states allow these activities to be carried out by company/ proprietor and the classification society is
the classification societies. of utmost importance.
On the stern of an
approved vessel, the name
of the vessel and the port of
registry must be displayed.
It is then clear under whose
flag the vessel is sailing.
419
During dry- docking, due to

damage as shown here,
many activities can be
carried out to the
propulsion plant, without
extra delays and therefore
extra expenditure.
33.4.1 Regulations for reconditioned parts
Worn parts are often reconditioned .

Stamped code in a cylinder
liner. Also, see Chapter 26, Reconditioning engines and
their parts.
Class Germanischer Lloyd.
Pressure 7 bar. After repair, the part must be re - tested and therefore
A repair performed in 1995. should be ‘made available to the classification
The 1995 year logo of GL. society.
The reconditioning company makes an appointment
for inspection with a surveyor from the society.
Often one ( new constructions) or several
( reconditioned ) registration numbers are marked on
the part by one or more societies.
Testing the cooling- water

spaces of newly installed
cylinders. Left, the foundry
code. This code displays all
the manufacturing data of
the engine block.
420
CH 33 > REGULATIONS FOR PROPULSION ENGINES, CLASSIFICATION, REPAIR A N D DAMAGE
PPPHf '
'.
-
-
- r .‘|
55
aft
,
r
8 \ QOA Yl
_
;*
mm LR - 3 T >* t
gag.
4
m
m m .
, ..
751* 121
s v‘
•
*
393 5 6 0 * Ml - i
=
Mm
'
m
.
7.S * fa
E s s s t i j *5
i Mat
f .
V - - A w.rvXi '
A A
Stamped codes on a crankshaft web. Stamped codes on the connecting- rod big end.
After a number of repairs are done to the web, the 'fuller ' it The material composition is also displayed, 42 CR MO 4.
becomes.
Those who are aware of all the numbers and For a complete classification, the classification
marks can easily verify which parts have been society checks the vessel from the drawing table,
reconditioned and /or tested! the beginning of construction , the skeleton , the
installations and the engines.
Vessels are constructed in accordance with The classification society subsequently follows the
stipulations from classification societies. entire life - cycle of a vessel.
The classification society approves drawings, details All vessels must be surveyed in order to comply with
and material types. Every detail is clearly registered . the requirements of seaworthiness.
During construction of the vessel, the classification The flag states are accountable. They usually
society monitors the activities and ensures that outsource the actual testing to classification societies.
the vessel is constructed in accordance with the
approved drawings. 33.4.2 Classification societies
When construction is complete, all the systems are
checked and tested. The following societies are active worldwide:
The final check of the vessel is a test at sea, a sea trial. ABS - American Bureau of Shipping
The entire construction of the vessel, all the tests and BV - Bureau Veritas
ultimately the trials are performed in accordance CCS - China Classification Society
with a specific class. DNV GL - Det Norske Veritas/ Germanischer Lloyd
The classification society supplies the vessel with a KR - Korean Register of Shipping
certificate - the Certificate of Class for the vessel and LR - Lloyds Register
machinery. NKK - Nippon Kayi Kyokai
An operating certificate, valid for five years, is also RINA - Registro Italiano Navale
issued . This certificate must be re - approved every RS - Russian Maritime Register of Shipping
year after an annual inspection.
The classification societies are all members of IACS, The regulations fot the, for instance, Lloyd’s
the International Association of Classification Register, comprise seven parts:
Societies.
This association has its headquarters in London
and is the umbrella organisation of the ten largest
societies.
421
Part 1: Rules/ Regulations. This part is especially important as it provides a

General regulations, the actual classification , detailed description of the manner in which the
periodic inspection. propulsion engine must be constructed.
Part 2: Regulations for the manufacture , for the Part 6: Control, electrical systems, cooling systems
testing and the classification of materials. and fire prevention.
These tests are performed at foundries, iron - works
and component manufacturers. Part 7: Remaining vessel types and plants.
Part 3: Ship’s structure.

Basis structure of the skeleton , longitudinal strength, 33.5 Examples: Germanischer Lloyd
bow and stern constructions.
The following examples are a small part of the
Part 4: Ship’s structure ( ship types ) . regulations.
Skeleton - construction requirements for the carcass It is not our intention to give a complete overview.
per ship type, such as towing boats, ferries, oil - The societies have comprehensive regulations.
tankers and container ships. ‘Rules for Classification and Construction Ship
Technology/Seagoing Ships/ Machinery Installations’.
Part 5: Main and auxiliary engines. The main focus is the acquisition of an idea of the
Including propeller-shaft alignment and vibrations, meaning of these regulations. This overview is not
piping for oil tankers and steering gear. complete!
Table 1.1 Inclinations Table 1.3 Air temperature

The general regulations for Angle of inclination [°] 2 at atmospheric pressure = 1000 mbar
Installations, and relative humidity = 60 %
the set-up, selection and Athwartship Fore-and aft
components
static dynamic static dynamic Installations, Location, Temperature
arrangement of machinery
Main and auxiliary components arrangement range [°C]
with respect to the 15 22,5 54 7,5
machinery in enclosed
0 to 452
maximum angle of Ship ' s safety spaces
inclination. equipment e.g. on machinery

emergency power Machinery components,
Furthermore, the water boilers According to
installations, and electrical
temperature, the air specific local
emergency installations 1 in spaces subject conditions
conditions and other fire pumps and to higher or lower
their drives 22,53 22,53 10 10 temperatures
ambient conditions in
Switchgear, on the open deck - 25 to + 45
spaces, enclosed spaces electrical and 1 Electronic appliances shall be designed and tested to ensure trouble free
and on deck. electronic operation even at a constant air temperature of + 55 °C.
2 The Society may approve lower air temperatures for ships designed only
appliances 1 and
for service in particular geographical areas.
remote - control
systems
1 Up to and angle of inclination of 45° no undesired switching Table 1.4 Other ambient conditions
operations or functional changes may occur.
Location Condition
2 athwartships and fore - and aft -inclinations may occur simultaneously.
3 On ships for the carriage of liquefied gases and chemicals the emergency Ability to withstand oil vapour
power supply must also remain operational with the ship flooded to a
and salt -laden air
final athwartships inclination up to a maximum of 30°.
4 Where the length of the ship exceeds 100 m, the fore-and-aft static angle Trouble - free operation within
of inclination may be taken as 500/L degrees. the temperature ranges stated
In all spaces in Table 1.3, and with a relative
humidity up to 100 % at a
Table 1.2 Water temperature reference temperature of 45 °C
Coolant Temperature [°C] Tolerance to condensation is

assumed
Seawater + 321 80 % relative humidity at
In specially protected
a reference temperature of
Charge air coolant inlet to control rooms
45 °C
charge air cooler
+ 32
Ability to withstand temporary
1 GL may approve lower water temperatures for ships operating only in On the open deck flooding with seawater and
special geographical areas. salt -laden spray
422
CH3 3 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
33.5.1 General regulations and instructions 33.5.2 Internal combustion engines and
starting- air compressors
These comprise general subjects, related to, amongst
others: Today, there are individual regulations for dual -fuel
- The propulsion plants and the auxiliary devices engines for, amongst others, LNG tankers. These are
required to warrant the ships safety during separate from the diesel - engine regulations.
operation .
- The required drawings and all necessary
information .
- The atmospheric conditions such as air Special regulations apply
temperature, humidity and air pressure. for 'dual fuel' engines, such
- Allowable vibrations. as on this modern LNG
- The design of the installation, in particular with tanker.
regard to the stresses and loads, material types,
accessibility of the engine room, operation of the
propulsion plant and manoeuvring.
- Fuels used. The flash point , for instance, may not
drop below 60 °C and for auxiliary engines must

be equal to or higher than 43 °C.
- Additional regulations for measuring
instruments, such as pressure gauges, lighting,
bilge spaces/ pipes, ventilation, enclosure of
rotating parts, alarms and communication.
- All the equipment that is part of the propulsion
plant , such as diesel generators, pumps, starting-

air systems, turbochargers and ventilation .
100 The maximum vibrations

permissible in certain
E
E 50 spaces.
< >
>N
U
O
cu
lil
>
10
5 | | Upper boundaries of
areas A, B, C
l I Upper boundaries of
area A , B'
1
5 10 50 100 300
Frequency [Hz] >
Table 1.5 Numerical definition of the area boundaries shown in figure above
Areas
s [mm] < 1
E B
< 1 < 1 < 1
B'
< 1
v [ mm / s] < 20 < 35 < 63 < 20 < 40
Veff [mm/ s] < 14 < 25 < 45 < 14 < 28

a [9,81 m/s 2]
< 0,7 < 1 ,6 < 4 < 1,3 < 2,6
423
33.5 .3 Important regulations It should be possible to exceed the standard nominal

power with 10% for as long as one hour.
To calculate the power output of the engine, the - After trials, an engine overload should not be
following atmospheric conditions are applied: possible. Therefore, the fuel supply must be
restricted to 100% standard nominal power.
Air pressure 1000 millibar - This rule does not apply for diesel generators.
Inlet - air temperature 45 °C - However, the rule does apply for dual - fuel
Relative humidity of the air 60% engines.
Seawater temperature 32 °C - Accessibility. This is an important topic for
engineers who work on engines.
.
33.5 4 Standard nominal power - All the activities, such as the changing of
components, must be able to be performed
The use of a graph is required . without any problems.
- Electric components and measuring instruments ,
Overload power which operate and control the engine, must meet
i >
A power diagram for a certain requirements. This applies, for instance, to

i
diesel engine driving a • i
computer systems.
Nominal i
propeller. propeller curve - If an electrical / electronic system fails, the

£
QJ
£
propulsion engine should not stop or undergo
1 Continuous operation. o
o_ Rated ^ / / a drastic change in the power output . This also
( continuous )
2 Intermittent operation. / *
* applies to speed regulators such as governors.
power 0
*
0
0
0
0
*
0
0
Intermittent •
operation 9 ( 2) ©
0
0 Continuous
0
0 operation
0
0
0
0
0
Engine speed [%] >
According to the
regulations, all engine parts
must be accessible for
inspection, repair and
maintenance.
In practice, this is sometimes

very difficult to realise. Often,
the costs of alterations are too
high.
Shown here, two service
engineers from Wartsila
removing a cover from the 'hot
box '. The upper side of this
Wartsila 46 is easily accessible.
Note, the IMO number on the
engine -room bulkhead.
424
CH 33 > REGULATIONS FOR PROPULSION ENGINES, CLASSIFICATION , REPAIR AND DAMAGE
33.5.5 Documents of approval
The engine manufacturer must provide the Manufacturers operating under licence are also
classification society with drawings and data for each required to present these documents; these
engine, such as those listed in the table below. must include a statement by the licenser when
modifications have taken place.
Table 2.1 Documents for approval

Remarks A table of all parts and
A /R Description Quantity
No. (see below)
drawings that must be
Detail required on GL forms F 144 and F 144/ 1 when applying for approval of an internal submitted for approval.
1 R 3
combustion engines
2 R Engine tansverse cross-section 3
3 R Engine longitudinal section 3
4 Bedplate and crankcase
R - cast 1
A - welded, with welding details and instructions 3 9
5 R Thrust bearing assembly 3 3
Thrust bearing bedplate
6 R - cast 1
A - welded, with welding details and instructions 3 9
Fra me /fra mebox
7 R - cast 1 1
A - welded, with welding details and instructions 3 1, 9
8 R Tie rod 1
9 R Cylinder cover/head, assembly 1
10 R Cylinder liner 1
11 A Crankshaft for each number of cylinder, with data sheets for calculation of crankshafts 3
12 A Crankshaft assembly, for each number of cylinders 3
13 A Thrust shaft of intermediate shaft (if integral with engines) 3
14 A Shaft coupling bolts 3
15 R Counterweights including fastening bolts 3
16 R Connecting rod, details 3
17 R Connection rod, assembly 3
18 R Crosshead assembly 3 2
19 R Piston rod assembly 3 2
20 R Piston assembly 1
21 R Camshaft drive, assembly 1
Material specifications of main parts with information on non-destructive material tests and
22 A 3 8
pressure tests
23 R Arrangement of foundation (for main engines only) 3
24 A Schematic layout or other equivalent documents of starting air system 3 6
25 A Schematic layout or other equivalent documents of fuel oil system 3 6
26 A Schematic layout or other equivalent documents of lubricating oil system 3 6
27 A Schematic layout or other equivalent documents of cooling water system 3 6
28 A Schematic diagram of engine control and safety system 3 6
29 A Schematic diagram of electronic components and systems 1
30 R Shieldin and insulation of exhaust pipes, assembly 1
31 A Shieldin of high-pressure fuel pipes, assembly 3 4
32 A Arrangement of crankcase explosion relief valves 3 5
33 R Operation and service manuals 1 7
34 A Schematic layout or other equivalent documents of hydraulic system ( for valve lift) on the engine 3
35 A Type test progam and type test report 1
36 A High pressure parts for fuel oil injection system 3 10
1 only for one cylinder.
2 only necessary if sufficient details are not shown on the transverse cross section and longitudinal section .
3 if integral with engine and not integrated in the bedplate.
4 for all engines.
5 only for engines with a bore > 200 mm, or a crankcase volume > 0,6 m 3
6 and the systems, where this is supplied by the engine manufacturer. If engines incorporate electronic control systems a failure mode and effect analysis
( FMEA) is to be submitted to demonstrate that failure of an electronic control system will not result in the loss of essential services for the operation of the
engine and that operation of the engines will not be lost or degraded beyond an acceptable performance criteria of the engine.
7 operation and service manuals are to contain maintenance requirements (servicing and repair) including details of any special tools and gauges that are to
be used with their fitting/settings together with any test requirements on completion of maintenance.
8 for comparison with GL requirements for material. NDT and pressure testing as applicable.
9 The weld procedure specification is to include details of pre and post weld heat treatment, welding consumables and fit - up conditions.
10 The documentation has to contain specifications of pressures, pipe dimensions and materials.
A for approval
R for reference
425
33.5.6 Definition of the diesel- engine type Repairing crankshafts is costly, as they usually have
to be removed from the engine room. This is in itself
The type specification of an internal- combustion expensive. Consider disassembly, assembly and the
engine is defined by the following data: time the vessel is non - operational!
- Type number of the manufacturer.
- Cylinder diameter. There are many considerations.
- Stroke.
- Fuel- injection method. - Shrink joints of built - up crankshafts for two -
- Fuel used. stroke crosshead engines must be designed in
- Operating principle: four-stroke or two-stroke. accordance with certain regulations.
- Scavenging system: natural aspiration or - The bolts used to connect power-end flange
supercharging. couplings must be the specifically prescribed
- Nominal cylinder power at nominal speed and fitted bolts.
the maximum mean effective pressure.
- Method of supercharging: intermittend - pressure
system or constant - pressure system . 33.6 Materials for diesel engines
- Charging- air cooling system: type of intercooler.
- Cylinder arrangement: in -line or V. The mechanical properties of materials used for
engine parts must meet strict requirements.
For additional engine components such as
turbochargers, heat exchangers, engine- driven The following individually designed parts must be
pumps and other machinery, the manufacturer must submitted for material tests:
provide the classification society with the required - The crankshaft.
data . - The crankshaft -coupling flange for main power
transmission .
33.5.7 Calculations for the crankshaft - The crankshaft - coupling bolts.
- Pistons or piston crowns made of steel, cast steel
The most important and also most vulnerable part of or nodular cast iron.
the engine is the crankshaft. - Piston rods.
The load on crankshafts is high and damaged - Connecting rods including bearing caps.
crankshafts can result in total engine loss. - Crossheads.
Very strict regulations are

applicable for crankshafts
due to their high loads.
426
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R PROPULSION E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , REPAIR A N D DAMAGE
- Cylinder liners made of steel or cast iron . 33.7 Tests and trials
- Cylinder covers made of steel or cast iron.
- Welded crankshaft bedplate and the bearing 33.7.1 Inspection during engine construction
transverse girders made of forged - or cast steel.
- Welded A-frames and crankcases. If the engine manufacturer is approved as a ‘Supplier
- Welded fitting caps. of mass - produced engines’ by a classification society, A table of approved
- Tie rods. special regulations apply for this manufacturer. materials and type of test
- Bolts and studs for cylinder covers, crossheads, certificate.
main bearings and connecting - rod bearings. Table 2.3 Approved materials and type of test certificate
- Camshaft drive -gearing wheels and chain wheels Society ' s Test certificate1
Approved materials Components
for, amongst others, some two -stroke crosshead Rules* B
engines, made of steel or cast iron. Forged steel Rm > 360 N/mm2 Section 3, C. Crankshafts X
Connecting rods X
- Dependent on the cylinder diameter and X4
Pistons rods X3
therefore the engine size, certain parts are Crossheads X3 X4
submitted for material testing. Pistons and piston crowns X3 X4
Cylinder covers / heads X
- Above a cylinder diameter of 400 mm , all the
Camshaft drive wheels X3 X4
parts mentioned above must be submitted for Rolled or forged steel rounds Tie rods X
Section 3, C.
material testing. Rmm > 360 N/mm2 Bolts and studs X1 X2
Special grade cast steel Section 4, C.
Table 2.2 Material tests Rmm > 440 N/mm2 Throws and webs of
X
Cylinder bore Parts to be tested * Special grade forged steel Section 3, C. build-up crankshafts
Rm > 440 N/mm2
< 300 mm 1 - 6 - 10 - 11 - 12 - 13
Cast steel Section 4, C. Bearing transverse girders X
> 300 < 400 mm 1 - 6 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 - 12 - 13 - 14 ( weldable)
> 400 mm all parts Pistons and piston crowns X3 X4

Cylinder covers/heads X1 X2
* numbered according to the list under D.2.1 above
Camshaft drive wheels X3 X4
A Nodular cast iron, preferably Section 5, B. Engine blocks X1
ferritic grades Bedplates X1
The number of parts that must be subjected to material
Rmm > 370 N/mm2 Cylinder blocks X1
testing is dependent on the cylinder diameter of the Pistons and piston crowns X3 X4
.
engine Above 400 millimetres, all parts must be submitted Cylinder covers / heads X1
fortesting. Flywheels x 1
Valve bodies X1
Lamellar cast iron Section 5, C. Engine blocks X
- In addition, material tests must be carried out Rm > 200 N/ mm2 Bedplates x
on pipes and parts of the starting- air system and Cylinder blocks x
other pressure systems. Cylinder liners x
Cylinder covers/heads x
- Materials for air coolers must be delivered with
Flywheels x
test reports from the manufacturer. Shipbuilding steel, all GL grades welded bedplates
X
- In individually manufactured engines, non - for plate thickness < 35 mm Section 1 . B. welded frames
X
Shipbuilding steel, GL grade B for Welded housings
destructive material tests must be performed. X
plate thickness > 35 mm
- The drive gearing and other components
Structural steel, unalloyed, for
Section 1, F.
subjected to heavy loads, such as cylinder covers, welded assemblies
are subjected to special testing. * All details refer to the GL Rules II - Materials and Welding, Part I - Metallic Materials, Chapter 2 - Steel and Iron
Materials
f Test certificates are to be issued in accordance with GL Rules II - Materials and Welding, Part I - Metallic Materials,
Chapter 1 - Principles and Test Procedures - Section 1, H. with the following abbreviations:
A: GL Material Certificate. B: Manufacturer Inspection Certificate. C: Manufacturer Test Report
1 only for cylinder bores > 300 mm
2 for cylinder bores < 300 mm
3 only for cylinder bores > 400 mm
4 for cylinder bores < 400 mm
Table 2.4 Magnetic particle tests Table 2.5 Ultrasonic tests

The compulsory magnetic Cylinder bore Parts to be tested* Cylinder bore Parts to be tested *
particle tests and ultrasonic < 400 mm -

1 2-3-4-5 < 400 mm 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 7 - 10
tests are applicable for a > 400 mm all parts > 400 mm 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 10 - 11
number of engine parts at * numbered according to the list under D.2.2 above * numbered according to the list under D.2.2 above
certain cylinder diameters.
427
Table 2.6 Pressure tests 1

A number of parts must Component Test pressure, p [ bar ]2
also be pressure tested. Cylinder cover, cooling water space 3
7
Cylinder liner, over whole length of cooling water
7
space5
Cylinder jacket, cooling water space 4, at least 1,5 p e,zul
Exhaust valve, cooling water space 4, at least 1,5 p e,zul
Piston, cooling water space (after assembly with
7
piston rod, if applicable)
Fuel injection
pump body, pressure side -
1,5 Pe,zui orPe,zui + 300 ( whichever is less)
Valves 1 ‘
Pezuior Pezui + 300 ( whichever is less)
system
Pipes 1,5 - pezu| orpezu| + 300 ( whichever is less)
High pressure piping for
Hydraulic system hydraulic drive of exhaust gas 1 5 - pe,zul
/
valves
Exhaust gas turbocharger, cooling water space 4, at least 1,5 - pezu,
Exhaust gas line, cooling water space 4, at least 1,5 - pezu |
Coolers, both sides4 4, at least 1,5 - pe,zul

Engine- driven pumps (oil, water, fuel and bilge
pumps)
4, at least 1,5 - pezu|
Starting and control air system 1,5 • pezu| before installation

1 In general, items are to be tested by hydraulic pressure as indicated in the Table. Where design or testing features
may require modification of these test requirements, special consideration will be given.
2 Pezu [bar] = maximum working pressure in the part concerned.
|
3 For forged steel cylinder covers test methods other than pressure testing may be accepted e.g. suitable
non - destructive examination and dimensional control exactly recorded.
4 Charge air coolers need only be tested on the water side.
5 For centrifugaliy cast cylinder liners, the pressure test can be replaced by a crack test.
33.7.2 Pressure tests B Type test.

The tests take place in the presence of a surveyor
Certain parts of the engine are subjected to pressure from a classification society.
testing.
C Part inspection .
33.7.3 Type- approval testing After the test run , certain parts of the engine
must be submitted to the classification society for
Diesel engines used on board ships, must be inspection . This entails the disassembly of these
type - tested in the presence of a classification society’s parts.
surveyor.
33.7.6 Load during the test
33.7.4 Conditions for testing certain engine
types In normal cases, the engine load is 25%, 50%, 75%,
100% and 110 % of the maximum rated power.
The engine must be tested in accordance with the a. This is performed along the nominal ( theoretical )
specific engine properties. propeller curve and / or at constant speed in
The inspections and measurements performed by propulsion engines.
the engine manufacturer for reliable continuous b. At rated speed with a constant governor setting
operation are submitted to the classification society. for continuous operation in a genset.
33.7.5 Scope of type- approval testing For engines supplied with supercharged air by a
turbocharger, the achievable power output after
The type- approval test comprises three parts: turbocharger damage is indicated as follows:
- Engines with one turbocharger, if the rotor is
A Internal test . blocked or removed.
Tests under operating conditions where the - Engines with two of more turbochargers, if the
operating data of the engine, such as pressures, damaged turbocharger is turned off.
temperatures, power output and speed are
collected .
428
CH 33 > REGULATIONS FOR P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S , CLASSIFICATION , REPAIR A N D D A M A G E
B test: Type test

This test is carried out in the presence of a surveyor
from a classification society.
Deviations from this program require the agreement
of the classification society.
This two- stroke crosshead engine is ready to be installed in

the ship ( docked in the background). It has been subjected
to intensive testing at the factory in accordance with the
stipulations.
Overload power 110 105,8

An engine- load diagram. /
100
110
Rated power
Horizontal: the speed (continuous power )
Vertical left: the power output 90
Vertical right: the torque
The data measured and recorded when testing the engine at 80

various load points must include all the parameters necessary
for an assessment.
The operating time per load point depends on the engine size 70
and on the time required for collection of the operating

values. The measurements shall in every case only be taken
after a steady- state condition is achieved. 60
Normally, an operating time of half an hour per load point is

common.
At 100% output (rated power), an operating time of half 50
an hour is required. At least two sets of readings must be

taken with a 1 hour interval for each case.
40
The nominal maximum continuous power,

100% power.
Rated power/continuous power. 30
The operating point of 100% output at maximum allowable

speed must correspond to load point 2 during the test.
Speed [%] o
Maximum permissible torque.
(T) Range of continuous operation
The maximum permissible torque is normally the result at 110%
(2) Range of intermittent operation
output at 100% speed corresponding to load point 3.
(3) Range of short-time overload operation
in special applications
The minimum permissible speed for intermittent operation
has to be adjusted:
- at 100% torque corresponding to load point 4.
- at 90% torque corresponding to load point 5.
Partial load. propeller curve, load points 6, 7 and 8 are held. Proceeding from
For partial-load operations of 75%, 50% and 25% of the rated the nominal speed at a constant governor setting, the operating
power with speeds corresponding to the maximum nominal points have to be adjusted so that they correspond to load points
9, 10 and 11.
429
Emergency operation for problems with - If the classification society deems it necessary,
turbochargers further dismantling of the engine may be required
The maximum achievable power that can be attained: for the inspection of other parts.
- At a speed conforming to normal propeller curve.
- With a constant governor setting for rated speed. After this, the classification society draws up a test
report and if this is favourable, a ‘Type Approval
Functional tests Certificate’ is issued.
These must be performed as follows:
- Ascertaining the lowest speed according to the
nominal propeller curve. 33.8 Testing mass- produced
- Starting tests for non - reversible and / or reversible engines
engines.
- Governor tests. For engines with a cylinder bore smaller than or
- Test of the safety system, especially for ‘overspeed’ equal to 300 mm, numerous conditions apply.
and failure of the lubricating- oil pressure.
Some important points:
C test: Component inspection If the power of a certain type of engine increases by
Immediately after testing, the parts from one more than 10%, a new test program is required. This
cylinder for in - line engines and two cylinders from frequently occurs in practice. When introducing new
V- engines must be presented for inspection as types of engines, the power is usually increased.
follows:
- Piston, dismantled.
- Crosshead bearing, dismantled. 33.9 Shipboard trials
- Crankpin and main bearing, dismantled.
- Cylinder liner may remain in the engine block. After the conclusion of the testing program
- Cylinder head /cover, all the valves dis-assembled. prescribed by the engine manufacturer, the vessels
- Camshaft , camshaft drive and crankcase, with the undergo further trials in open water, both stationary
covers removed . and sailing.
The final trials are known as ‘the sea trials’.
After construction of the

vessel has been completed
at the wharf, the final
procedure before the vessel
is delivered to her new
owner takes place: the
sea trials.
430
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, CLASSIFICATION, R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
33.10 Some important points
33.10.1 Main- engine propulsion with a fixed

propeller
The tests must be carried out as follows:

a. At maximum permissible speed for at least four
hours and an engine speed at normal cruising
power for at least two hours.
b. At a speed of 103% of the maximum allowable
speed for 30 minutes when the engine
adjustments allow this.
c. Determining the minimum speed at load to
determine when the engine stalls.
d. Starting / stopping and reversing manoeuvres.
e. Reversing the direction of the propeller rotation
at a speed of at least 70% of the maximum speed
for 10 minutes.
f. Testing the monitoring and safety systems. Diesel engines for
33.10.4 Diesel- engine driven auxiliaries and generators also undergo
33.10.2 Main- engine propulsion systems electric generators extensive testing.
with a controllable - pitch propeller or
reverse gearing These engines must be subjected to an operational
test for at least four hours.
Controllable- pitch propellers must be tested at During the entire test, the genset must operate at
various propeller pitches. maximum permissible power.
In combined systems for speed and at a certain pitch , The test must establish that the genset is capable of
a combination curve must be plotted and verified by operating at 110 % of its normal maximum power,
measurements. and for diesel gensets, the amount of time required
for the actuation of the overload protection system.
33.10.3 Main engines that drive generators,
such as those for diesel- electric 33.10.5 Fuel type
propulsion
If the main and auxiliary engines can run on
The tests must be performed at nominal maximum heavy oil or another type of fuel oil, this must be
speed with a constant governor setting under the demonstrated by a test.
following conditions: The program for the sea trials can be extended for
a. 100% nominal maximum power for at least four special operating conditions, such as towing and
hours and at normal continuous cruising power fishing.
for at least two hours.
b. At 110% of maximum power for 30 minutes. 33.10.6 Earthing
c. At a minimum speed of at least 70 % of the
maximum speed for 10 minutes when reversing It is necessary to check the limits. These are specified
the direction of propeller rotation during sea by the engine manufacturers; the potential difference
trials. between the crankshaft and propeller shaft to the
d. Starting / stopping procedures. hull must not be exceeded during operation .
e. Testing the monitoring and safety systems. Appropriate earthing devices must ensure that this
cannot occur. Furthermore, the potential difference
must be monitored and alarmed .
431
A slip-ring construction on
the propeller shaft prevents
too large a potential
difference between
crankshaft, propeller shaft
and hull.
This prevents damage to
the engine, especially the
crankshaft.
33.10.7 Safety devices protection. This must ensure that the normal
maximum speed cannot be exceeded by more
Numerous regulations are applicable, for instance: than 20 %.
33.10.8 Speed control and protection against 33.10.9 Engines driving gensets
overspeed
Strict regulations apply, also in view of the damage
Some comments: that can be caused to electrical - power consumers.
- Each diesel engine not used to drive an electric Each engine or emergency diesel- power unit must
generator must be protected with a governor, be supplied with a governor, which ensures that the
which is set to prevent that the engine speed frequency fluctuations in the electrical network do not
exceeding the normal maximum speed by more exceed plus or minus 10% of the normal frequency,
than 15%. with a recovery time to the steady-state frequency
- Each main engine with a shaft power of 220 kW conditions of a maximum of five seconds, when the
or more, which can be declutched in operation maximum electrical load is switched on or off.
or drives a controllable- pitch propeller, must If a certain load equal to the maximum load is
be equipped with an independent overspeed switched off, a speed deviation of 10% of the nominal
Strict requirements also

apply for governors.
432
CH 33 > REGULATIONS F O R PROPULSION ENGINES, CLASSIFICATION , REPAIR A N D DAMAGE
A safety valve on the cylinder cover for a two-stroke

crosshead engine. This opens at 140% the normal
maximum combustion pressure.
Serious engine damage can occur, especially with a temporary

engine shutdown.
A leaking injector can result in a very high peak pressure. Cooling -
water leaks can cause a great deal of damage to the piston and
connecting-rod assembly in the cylinder head. This is known as

water hammer.
maximum speed is allowed . It should be noted that c. The engine has a manual operated fuel control,
the speed safety of + 15% must not be activated. suitable for manoeuvring.
Apart from the normal governor, each diesel engine
with a power of 220 kW or more must be equipped .
33.11 1 Safety system against excessive
with an overspeed protection device, operating pressures in the combustion space
independently of the normal governor.
The protection device must prevent normal All the cylinders of engines with a bore larger than
maximum speed exceeding 15%. 230 mm must be fitted with a safety system that
There are many regulations for maintaining a is actuated when the pressure exceeds 40 % of the
constant frequency and voltage of the electrical normal maximum combustion pressure.
network.
When increasing the load in two stages, this is 33.11.2 Crankcase airing
allowed from 0 to 50% and subsequently from
50 to 100 %. This is not allowed.
In this case the frequency is not allowed to deviate
too much from the normal frequency, with a 33.11.3 Crankcase venting
maximum deviation of 10% and not for more than
five seconds. The openings should be as small as possible.
Gensets installed in stand - by’ systems must operate In systems for extracting lubricating- oil vapours
on full load within 30 seconds after the start , also or, for instance, monitoring the oil - vapour
when the engine is cold , and therefore without concentration in crankcase mist detectors, the
heated cooling water. under- pressure in the crankcase may not exceed
For emergency diesel gensets, this is 45 seconds. 2.5 millibar.
The vent pipes of two or more engines may not be
combined .
33.11 Regulations for propulsion In two -stroke engines, the oil vapour from the
engines crankcase should not be transported to the
scavenging- air receiver or the air- inlet receiver of the
To ensure that the speed of the engine is controllable engine.
in all circumstances, the following requirements
apply:
a. The governor system has an independent

‘back- up’ system .
b. There is an extra governor system that can be
manually controlled with a separate, protected
power supply.
433
.
33.11 4 Safety valves on crankcases An engine with more than eight cylinders must be
fitted with an extra safety valve in the centre of the
Each type must be provided with a certificate. crankcase.
Safety valves for the crankcase must be fitted on each
engine with a cylinder bore larger than 200 mm or a Engines with a cylinder bore larger than 250 mm
crankcase volume equal to or larger than 0.6 m 3. and smaller than or equal to 300 mm must be fitted
with at least one safety valve placed near every
All the other separate spaces in the crankcase, such second crank web with a minimum of two.
as, the gear- or chain casings that drive the camshaft
or similar drives, must be fitted with their own safety Engines with a cylinder bore larger than
valves if the volume of these spaces exceeds 0.6 m 3. 300 millimetres must be equipped with at least one
safety valve per cylinder.
Engines with a cylinder bore larger than Each safety valve must at a minimum have a free
200 millimetres and equal to or smaller than cross-sectional area of 45 cm 2.
250 millimetres must be fitted with at least one safety
valve at each end of the crankcase. The total free cross-sectional area of the safety valve
on a crankcase in an engine should not be less than
115 cm 2 per m 3 crankcase volume.
A relief valve.
Prescribed for a gear- casing

section with a capacity of
0.6 m3 or more.
Prescribed for engines with a
cylinder diameter greater than
200 mm.
Relief valves are required

for every crank of a
engine with cylinder
diameters larger than
300 mm.
434
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N, R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
Clearly shown, the exiting

pressure wave is directed
towards the floor when the
relief valves open. This
makes it as safe as possible
for people in the vicinity.
Notes about operation 33.11.6 Oil- mist detection system

The safety valve must be of the rapidly ‘open
and
close’ type. Engines with a cylinder bore larger than
In normal operation, they must be oil- tight when 300 millimetres or with a maximum power output
closed and prevent air from entering the crankcase. of 2250 kW or higher must be equipped with an oil-
The gas flow must be deflected by a baffling plate in mist detection system.
order to guarantee the safety of persons standing One should be able to read this at a safe distance
nearby when an actual explosion occurs. from the engine.
The gas flow is often directed downwards.
33.11.5 Warning sign An oil- mist detection

system is mandatory on
A warning sign indicating that the crankcase covers diesel engines with a
or doors should not be opened immediately after cylinder diameter of more
stoppage, but only after a certain cooling- down than 300 millimetres or a
period, must be mounted on both sides of the power output of 2250 kW
engine. or higher.
The compulsory 'warning sign' mounted on the engine

next to or on the crankcase cover.
435
The compulsory relief valves for the scavenging- air space

of a two- stroke crosshead engine.
33.11.7 Safety devices in the starting- air

system
Many starting- air systems work with pressures

of 30 bar. This may be dangerous in certain
circumstances.
A separate check valve must be placed in the
starting - air line of every engine.
Engines with a cylinder bore larger than
230 millimetres must be supplied with a flame
arrestor under the following conditions:
a. On directly reversible engines, at the starting- air 33.11.10 Fuel systems
valve on each cylinder.
b. On non - reversible engines, at the supply line of Many regulations are applicable.
the main starting-air duct for the engine. - Flanged fuel - line connections may only be fitted
with metal sealing surfaces or a similar approved
design .
- Feed and return fuel - line systems of the
engine must be designed in such a way that

no excessively high pressures can occur in
the system .
- All the parts of the system must be sufficiently
strong to withstand the maximum pressures that
occur in the system .
- Fuel - oil lines should not be placed too close
to high - temperature systems. Steam pipelines,
exhaust manifolds, silencers and other equipment
must be adequately insulated.
Shielding
Regardless of the intended use and location of
internal combustion engines, all external fuel -
injection lines between the high - pressure fuel pumps
and injectors must be double- walled .
The flame arrestors in the 33.11.8 Safety devices in the lubricating- oil
supply line for the starting- system
air valve of a two- stroke
crosshead engine from Each engine with a maximum continuous power of
manufacturer Wartsila, 220 kW or more must be fitted with safety devices
RT-Flex 96C. which automatically shut down the engine in the
event of a failure in the lubricating- oil supply.
This is not required for engines driving emergency
gensets or emergency fire pumps. These engines
require a lubricating- oil pressure alarm.
33.11.9 Safety devices in inlet- air manifolds
Inlet - air manifolds connected with the cylinders A

must be fitted with safety valves similar to those The compulsory double-walled high- pressure fuel line,
fitted to the crankcase. between the high-pressure fuel pump and high-pressure
injector.
436
CH33 > REGULATIONS FOR P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N, R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
The fuel must be: 33.11.11 Fuel- oil emulsions

- Safe enough to be collected.
- Drained without an overpressure. Engines running on fuel emulsions or other liquid
- Efficiently monitored and alarmed. fuels must be able to convert to normal fuel- oil
- If pressure variations larger than 20 bar occur in treatment systems if there is a system failure.
feed - and return -fuel lines, these lines must also
be double - walled. 33.11.12 Filters for fuel- or lubricating- oil
- The double- walled high - pressure fuel lines must systems
be permanent .
Filters mounted on the engine should not be located
in the immediate proximity of rotating or hot parts.
If this is not feasible, the rotating or hot parts must
be shielded.
A readily accessible
heavy- oil fuel filter.
The heavy oil can be easily
led from the one to the
other filter element;
it is also easy to see when
the filter is dirty.
A
The double-walled high-pressure fuel- pipes for the three 33.11.13 Duplex filters
injectors and lubricating- oil pipes for opening the exhaust
valves in a two- stroke crosshead engine. - Filters must be provided with a drip tray.
- Filters must be able to be safely switched off and
drained for cleaning purposes.
- It should be clear which filter is on - line in the
system.
T - The off- line filter must be installed so that it can
A fuel pump for a six-cylinder Scania diesel engine. be cleaned while the engine is operating.
- It should also be feasible to vent the filter and
The high-pressure supply lines to the injectors are double-walled. depressurise the off- line filter.
Strict requirements also

apply for these fuel filters.
437
33.11.14 The lubricating- oil system 33.11.16 Turbocharger systems
- The sumps must be able to be refilled during Turbochargers must not reach critical speed ranges
engine operation . under any operating conditions.
- One should be able to drain the sump. The supply of lubricating oil must also be adequate
- Combining the oil - drainage lines from the sumps during starting- up and shutting- down the
of two or more engines is not allowed. turbochargers.
- Main lubricating- oil pumps driven by the engine
must be designed to maintain the supply of Even at low engine speeds, the main engines must be
T lubricating oil under all operating conditions. supplied with an adequate volume of turbocharged
Cylinder lubricating- oil - Main engines, which drive lubricating- oil pumps, air to ensure reliable operation.
systems for the engine must be equipped with independently- driven
must be approved by a stand - by lubricating- oil pumps.
classification society, as - Cylinder lubricating - oil systems for the engine
they are installed with installed with electronically controlled dosing

electronically controlled systems must be approved by a classification
dosing systems. society.
The lubricating- oil system of an ABB turbocharger.
The turbine shaft drives the lubricating-oil pump that lubricates

the bearings. Therefore, the lubricating oil in the system is
separate from the rest of the engine and remains clean. Visible
through the sight glass!
When the turbocharger is operational, the bearings are always
well lubricated under all conditions.
33.11.15 Cooling systems
Similar to the lubricating- oil pumps, cooling- water

pumps must have sufficient capacity to supply an
adequate volume of cooling water for all operating
conditions.
Main engines that drive cooling- water pumps must
be installed with independently driven stand - by
pumps.
If cooling air is obtained from the engine room , the
design of the cooling system must be based on an
engine - room temperature of at least 45 °C.
A
An extra lubricating- oil tank supplies the lubricant for this
turbocharger ' s bearings when the engine stops, up to the
time that the turbocharger stops.
438
CH3 3 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S , C L A S S I F I C A T I O N, R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
The steel sheet protection

of the exhaust- gas line in
this propulsion engine may
attain a maximum surface
temperature of 220 °C.
The electrically driven auxiliary charger for a two-stroke

crosshead engine.
If required, two - stroke crosshead engines must be 33.11.20 Starting- air systems
fitted with directly - or indirectly driven scavenging
air pumps. Many regulations also apply.
In the event of a turbocharger failure, the main - There must be at least two starting-air
engines must be able to maintain emergency compressors for the main engines.
operation . - At least one of the two starting-air compressors
should operate independently of the main engine,
.
33.11 17 Scavenging- air cooling and should provide at least 50% of the total
compressor capacity.
Means are to be provided to ensure that the - The volume of the starting - air reservoirs should
temperature of the scavenging air is within be such that they can be filled in one hour to
the temperature range specified by the engine the legally required capacity from atmospheric
manufacturer. pressure to the maximum permitted pressure.
The air- inlet pipes of engines with air coolers must - If the main engine is started with starting air,
be supplied with good drainage points. the available volume of starting air must be
distributed over two starting- air reservoirs of
33.11.18 Fire- extinguishing systems on similar capacity.
scavenging- air lines - The total capacity of the starting-air reservoirs
must be of sufficient capacity in order to achieve
The scavenging- air line for two - stroke crosshead twelve sequential starts of the engine in ahead
engines must be supplied with an approved fire - and astern direction with reversible engines,
extinguishing system that operates independently of without re- charging. A minimum of six starts
the engine- room’s fire-extinguishing system. is prescribed for non - reversible engines driving
a controllable - pitch propeller or they must be
.
33.11 19 Exhaust- gas lines equipped with another device, which allows the
engine to start without a load .
Exhaust - gas lines must be insulated and / or cooled to - For auxiliary engines with a starting - air system,
prevent the surface temperature exceeding 220 °C. this should be at least three starts.
The insulation material must be fireproof.
439
Two large starting-air

reservoirs for a twelve-
cylinder main engine, a
Wartsila 12RT-Flex 96C.
The engine must start with

these reservoirs 6 times ahead
and 6 times astern without
assistance from the air
compressors.
A
All the necessary equipment for an emergency- diesel
generator set must be in the same room as the generator
itself. Shown here, the diesel- oil daily supply tank .
33.11.21 Electric starting systems 33.11.23 Starting emergency- diesel

generators
Here a number of regulations also apply.
- Main engines that are electrically started must - Emergency- diesel generators should be able to
be equipped with two separate starting batteries, start at temperatures as low as 0 °C.
which cannot be operated in parallel. - If it is not possible to start at these low
- Each starting battery must be able to start the temperatures, the generator must be heated.
engine from a cold condition . - The genset must be operational in all weather -
- The total capacity of the starting batteries must and sea -going conditions.
be sufficient so that within half an hour, the - The starting, charging and energy -storage
previously described starts can be done without equipment, such as the battery and the diesel -
having to re- charge the starting batteries. oil tank should be installed in the vicinity of the
emergency- diesel generator.
33.11.22 Auxiliary engines
33.11.24 Local operating- control system
- At least three starts.
- Starting batteries should only be used to start the There are a number of requirements that apply to
engine and its monitoring installations. local operating control.
The emergency
manoeuvring position for
a two- stroke crosshead
engine, a Wartsila
10RTA 96C.
In circle: starting- and

reversing levers.
440
CH 33 > REGULATIONS FOR PROPULSION ENGINES, CLASSIFICATION , REPAIR AND DAMAGE
Table 2.7 Alarms and indicators
Propulsion Auxiliary Emergency Table of compulsory alarms

Description
engines engines engines and indicators that must be
speed/ direction of rotation available in the emergency-
engine overspeed 5 A, S A, S A, S start manoeuvring mode.
lubricating oil pressure at engine inlet I, US I, L, S I, L

lubricating oil temperature at engine inlet I, H Is,H 5 l5,H5
fuel oil pressure at engine inlet I
fuel oil temperature at engine inlet 1 I

fuel oil leakage from high pressure pipes A A A
cylinder cooling water pressure or flow at engine inlet 1 L

/ I, L4 Is, L5
cylinder cooling water temperature at engine outlet 1 H
/ 1 H / l, H
piston coolant pressure at engine inlet I, L
piston coolant temperature at engine outlet I, H
charge air pressure at cylinder inlet I
charge air temperature at charge air cooler inlet I

charge air temperature at charge air cooler outlet 1 H
/
starting air pressure I, L

control air pressure I, L
exhaust gas temperature 2 I, H3
oil mist concentration in crankcase or alternative
I, H6 I, H6 I, H6
monitoring system 7 8 -
1 for engines running on heavy fuel oil only I: Indicator
2 where ever the dimensions permit, at each cylinder outlet and A: Alarm
at the turbo charger inlet and outlet H: Alarm for upper limit
3 at turbo charger outlet only L: Alarm for lower limit
4 cooling water pressure or flow S: Shutdown
5 only for an engine output > 220 kW
6 for engines having an output > 2250 kW or a cylinder bore >
300 mm
7 alternative methods of monitoring may be approved by GL
8 an engine shutdown may be provided where necessary
33.11.25 Main engine
- A locally-situated system that can operate and

monitor the engine must be fitted.
- If reduction gearing and controllable - pitch
propeller systems have been fitted , the above -
mentioned control system must be able to enable
emergency operation .
- Critical speed must be indicated by red sectors on
the speed gauges.
The emergency manoeuvring mode for a four- stroke trunk-

piston engine, a nine -cylinder Caterpillar Mak 43 engine.
v o
S 50
Arrow: toothed and reverse lever.
- - 100
ASTERN
Critical speeds must be indicated by red sectors on the
0 - »14
speedometers. This engine does not have a critical speed.
441
33.12 Engine alignment
Special regulations have been drawn up.

- The crankshaft alignment must be checked each
time an engine is re - aligned on its bedplate.
- This is done by clock gauging of the crankshaft .
The crankweb deflection of every cylinder must

be measured . 0.00
In order to compare later crankshaft deflections, note

<- »
- •
should be taken of the loading and draught of the a
vessel including the conditions of the engine when A
the deflection was measured: cold , preheated or at When the crankshaft rotates, if the crank webs do not have
operating temperature. the original values between the ( engine manufacturer )
stamped centres, they have a deviation known as the
angular rotation of the webs. This is known as 'crankshaft
clock gauging' or 'a deflection measurement '. It is obvious
that a larger crank has a larger measured value at the same
deflection (angle a) than that of smaller crank.
T
A chart showing clearly how large the permitted maximum
crankshaft deflections.
Horizontal: the distance ro indicating where the measurement

location. $
o
Vertical: the deflection result Ao
In the figure are lines for trunk-piston engines and crosshead
engines.
Both lower lines are the recommended values after initial engine A
installation. The basic standard measurements for defining the
Both upper lines are the advised maximum crankshaft deflection. crankshaft - deflection value, rQ.
The larger rQ is, the larger the crankshaft diameter and the larger
the deflection may be.
Guidelines are in the process of being established for the angular
rotation that a crank may deviate from the ideal line. The same
maximum angular rotation has a larger absolute value with a
larger crank.
i k 70
60
E
E
o
o 50
<
fa
S’ -*
c 40
Y \e»6
.
«
o
=
4
u
o°i
CD
5
CD
= 30
~
o
-Q
CD
£
20
enttecommende
c d I
alignment on initial installation
Crossheadengines.
CO
l aWgnrn
—
engim
u
10 ^
Trunk'PjilS - ^
Trunk- piston engines: alignment on initial installation
0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Deflection length r0 [ mm ] >
442
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S , C L A S S I F I C A T I O N, R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
Remarks for clock gauging of the crankshaft A B

T,
and measuring the distance between the crank
webs of each cylinder
The measurements should be performed at a certain
distance from the heart line of the crankshaft
d
that is: R + . —2
Cc
In virtually all crankshafts, both webs of the crank

are provided with a centre hole suitable for placing
the crankshaft clock gauge. ~C5S V
T3
5
In normal crankshaft clock -gauging, the connecting < u

rod remains attached to the crankpin . Therefore, the
values T and 1" are an average ( see the figure on the
L
W w*
previous page ).
The location of the centre holes is dependent on the w
type of crankshaft.
One can distinguish four types: A, B, C and D ( see
c
the figures on the right ).
w
T3
The standard measurements for defining the crankshaft
deflection values, rQ, for four different types of crankshafts.
W*
They are all forged steel crankshafts.
Types A, B and C are manufactured in a single throw forging and
installed in four-stroke trunk-piston engines.
§ o
The type D crankshaft is manufactured by joining together single
~C5
y w*-
'throws' consisting of two webs and the crankpin and installed in d*

two-stroke crosshead engines.
Type A: standard crankshaft, negative crankpin/crankshaft -formula

1/1/
solution.
Type B: with milled sections T. and Ta
Type C: positive crankpin/crankshaft-formula solution.
D
T3
•J5 CC
cc
5
T3 ~
e/
H
-
443
33.13 The standard measurements When sections of a crank web have been milled
and calculations to away, the so - called ‘web undercut’, W in the formula
determine the crankshaft must be modified to:
deflection measurement (ro )
( 7, + T )
for four different types of W1 = W -
2
crankshafts
This is crankshaft type B.
33.13 .1 Calculating the deflection length
ro
according to Germanischer Lloyd For crankshaft type D, dw in the formula must be
substituted by d j :
There are separate calculations for shafts forged in a
dw l = - '( d n - d w') + d w
single throw forging, A, B and C and for a crankshaft 3
manufactured by joining single throws together D. For crankshaft type C, with a positive crankpin /
crankshaft overlap > 0 in the formula
The symbols applied are: K + d j - R, the W value in the formula must
s=
R = crank radius/ radius ( mm ) . 2
H = piston stroke ( 2 R ) ( mm ) . be replaced by W l .
dk = crankpin diameter ( mm ).
dw = crankshaft diameter ( mm ). W l + V ( W - T . - T f + [ 0.5 ( dk + dw - H ) ] 2
W = width of the crank web ( mm ) .
R From the abovementioned formulas, it can
B = width of the crank web at distance - ( mm ) . — be inferred that the position of the crankshaft
T. = depth of milled section in the crank web at the measurement for each engine was previously
crankpin side ( mm ) . calculated. Clearly, an engine manufacturer applies
Ta = depth of the milled section in the crank web at the deflection centres when finishing the crankshaft
the crankshaft side ( mm ). rather than leaving it to the mechanic to guess where
S = crankpin / bearing overlap ( mm ). the centres should be located .
( d, + d ) _
„
s = —
r wi
2
R
33.14 Procedure for reconditioning

At a negative crankpin / bearing overlap ( S < o ) the parts
ro
deflection length is in accordance with figure A
and is calculated as follows: Many engine parts repaired after wear has been
detected must be re - tested and approved. The
following amongst others:
ro = 0.5(H + dk + d j - W 1+ -1
- Crankshafts
- Connecting rods
In the other cases; B, C and D the formula must be - Engine blocks
adjusted constantly. - Cylinder covers
Apart from the material , the shape, construction and - Pistons
detailing of the crankshaft , much attention is paid to
the exact location of the deflection measurement. The procedure is often as follows:
- The parts are disassembled and sent to a
All are forged - iron crankshafts. specialised reconditioning company.
Types A, B and C are forged by single throw forging - The parts are cleaned, inspected , measured and
and usually manufactured for four- stroke trunk- the material hardness of the journals measured
piston engines. for, amongst others, a crankshaft .
- Advice is given to the client regarding the repair.
Type A: with a negative result is: It is possible that the advice is to repair the part ;
however, with serious wear or damage, it can be
(v d k, + d )
S < o in de formule S = g recommended that the part should be replaced .
2
2d
r Q = 0.5(H + dk + dw ) - W W ’ W
444
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S , C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , REPAIR A N D D A M A G E
A A
The installation of a new sleeve bearing in the connecting- An overheated crankpin from a medium- speed four- stroke
rod eye is part of the overhaul of engine parts. engine.
Shown here, the new sleeve bearing is cooled using liquid The question is whether this type of damage can be repaired
nitrogen so that the sleeve can be easily fitted in the connecting effectively.
rod eye. If both parts are at ambient temperature, the sleeve will Together with the classification society and the specialised repair
not fit into the eye. company, an overhaul plan is prepared. The final result must
Wearing special 'cold resistant ' gloves is necessary; the material guarantee that the surface hardness of the overheated crankpin
temperatures are below -100 °C! does not deviate excessively from the surface hardness of the
other crankpins.
The repair advice will also include the cost of the 33.15 New parts
repair.
After the repair has been approved by the client, the These are supplied with certificates by classification
part will be repaired according to the specifications societies.
of the engine manufacturer. The reason is that often even after purchase, the
This means for damaged crankshaft journals, that engine manufacturers do not yet know to which class
the crankpin and / or crankshaft is ground to a certain the engine and its spare parts belong.
undersize , and then fitted with oversized bearing Some engine manufacturers are visited by six
shells. classification societies!
In order to achieve this, engine manufacturers
manufacture new crankshafts in such a manner that
the shafts are over- dimensioned so that grinding is 33.16 Special cases of wear and
possible. damage to engine parts
Therefore, the entire repair is performed according
to the manufacturers’ specifications. It can occur in very special cases that with damage
After reconditioning / repair, the classification society to, for instance an engine block or a crankshaft ,
for the particular engine, is invited to perform a the classification society will be asked to partake in
survey. the discussions regarding the repair. An example
When approved , the part is given a number code is, whether the crankshaft of an engine in a vessel
and stamp by the classification society. should be disassembled and removed , or if the
Surveyors of a classification society also have their disassembly of an engine block in a diesel - power
own personal number, which is stamped into the station should be considered.
part.
445
T
In both cases, the disassembly and then assembly

cost a great deal of time and money. During the
repair, the vessel or a part of the diesel power station
is non - operational. A stationary ship costs a huge
amount of money!
A severely damaged cast-

iron engine block.
The question remains: Is the

repair technically possible and
will the engine be reliable after
repair ? How long does the
customer have to use this
engine ?
A
A damaged two-stroke crosshead-engine guide.
Inspection of this camshaft
drive for a fuel pump shows The guide was removed from the A - frame and inspected on the
that both running surfaces engine-room floor.
are still in a good state of The white metal running surface has separated from the guide.
repair. This guide must be repaired.
The running surfaces are
smooth and have no
scratches or damage.
33.16.1 Engine blocks and connecting rods
Occasionally, after notification by a reconditioning

company, a representative of the classification society
will visit for an inspection . When the notification
states that the parts will be reconditioned according
to the specifications of the engine manufacturer and
the parties are known to each other, often a visit does
not take place.
The specifications from the engine manufacturer must also

be strictly adhered to when line-boring commissioned
engines.
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
Damage to crankshafts is costly; when in repair at a

specialised repair company, the crankshaft must be
disassembled and transported.
The complete engine block must be placed on hydraulic jacks.

The rejected crankshaft must be replaced; the costs can reach
hundreds of thousands of euros; especially for category III
engines.
Severe damage to the crankshaft of two-stroke crosshead engines
results in even higher costs. The ship is out of operation for a long
period of time!
33.17 Damages to the engine or 33.18.2 Engine damage, low- speed

engine parts two- stroke crosshead engines
A large number of parties are involved: Total cost Avg. Cost

Claims type Number
- An expert from the company, which carries the (USD) (USD) The turbocharger has the
insurance of the engine. 63 14.057.056
highest rate of damages for
- A surveyor from the classification society Turbocharger 223.128
( 42,6%) (40,7%) the low- speed two-stroke
- The engine supplier and / or manufacturer. crosshead engines,
Entablature, 17 3.505.803
- The owner / user of the engine. 206.224
Staybolts (11,5%) (10,2%) followed by the stay bolts,
cylinder liners, journal
15 3.810.363
Cylinder liner 254.024
Usually, these parties meet on the ship or at the (10,1 %) (11,0%) bearings, pistons and
diesel - power station for deliberations. Journal, 9 2.916.201
piston rods .
324.022
Bearing (6,1 %) ( 8,4%)
7 1.609.588
Piston, Pistonrod 229.941
33.18 Damage (4,7%) ( 4,7%)
Insurance companies, that insure diesel engines,

draw remarkable conclusions regarding damage to 33.18.3 Engine damage, medium- speed
engines. four- stroke engines
33.18.1 Engine damage, all engine types Total cost Avg. Cost
Claims type Number
( USD) (USD) For the four -stroke
Total cost Avg. Cost 21 2.926.417 medium- speed diesel

Claims type Number Turbocharger 139.353
(USD) (USD) ( 25,6%) (8,9%) engines, damage to
84 16.983.474 Crankshaft, 21 13.593.961 turbochargers and

Turbocharger 202.184 647.331
(36,2%) (24,4%) Connecting rod ( 25,6%) (41,5%) crankshafts with
Crankshaft, 23 13.949.870 Camshaft, 8 3.451.850 connecting rods are of

606.516 431.481
Connecting rod (9,9%) (20,0%) Coupling ( 9,8%) (10,5%) an equal number; a
17 4.267.795 Journal, 6 3.737.102 remarkable shift to the

Cylinder liner 251.047 622.850
(7,3%) (6,1%) Bearing ( 7,3%) (11,4%) drive gearing.
Entablature, 17 3.505.803 Fuelpump, 5 765.436 Gearing damage is the

206.224 153.087
Staybolts ( 7,3%) (5,0%) Gears ( 6,1%) ( 2,3%) result of the high thermal-
Journal, 15 6.653.302
and mechanical loads of
443.553
Bearing (6,5%) (9,5%) these engines types. See
Fuelpump, 12 3.161.929
the load numbers in
263.494
Gears ( 5,2%) ( 4,5%) Chapter 5.
Camshaft, 10 3.804.377
380.438
Coupling ( 4,3%) ( 5,5%) Noticeable is the high rates of damage to turbochargers.
Piston, 9 2.702.420 A crucial part for modern highly- loaded diesel engines.
300.269
Pistonrod ( 3,9%) ( 3,9%) The crankshaft, connecting rod and cylinder liner follow.
447
The graph below clarifies the type of propulsion . 33.18.4 Some general remarks
120000 1 Damage to propulsion plants are costly.

104301 2 Primarily medium -speed four-stroke diesel
100000
engines have high risks with respect to damages
80000 and therefore costs. They only represent 20% of
60000
the total number of insured engines, but 50 % of
the total costs of damages.
40000 3 Damage to turbochargers is the largest loss item
29265
20000
in diesel engines.
7453 4 The most costly damage is to the crankshaft
0 and connecting rod; especially for four-stroke
Low Medium Gas
speed speed turbine medium -speed engines.
5 Damage to the crankshaft of a low -speed
two -stroke crosshead engine forms the major part
Conclusion: in the total amount of claims paid out for damage.
The amount of damage to low- speed two- stroke crosshead Think about the disassembly and removal of the
engines is by far the lowest; almost four times lower than damaged crankshaft and the installation of a new
the damage to medium- speed four- stroke engines and crankshaft . A new crankshaft is a very expensive
fourteen times lower than the damage to gas turbines! engine part!
6 The total loss of a medium -speed four-stroke
engine, where the crankshaft and engine block
are beyond repair is also part of damages that
insurance companies must pay out .
Damage to turbochargers
is the most common
occurring damage, for both
four- stroke medium- speed-
and two- stroke crosshead
engines.
448
CH 33 > REGULATIONS FOR PROPULSION ENGINES, CLASSIFICATION, REPAIR AND DAMAGE
33.19 Examples of certificates T

A certificate for 'oil engines' and therefore for diesel
engines.
The certificate is for a Mak 8M32 C propulsion engine for a
tanker built at Volharding Shipyards B.V., Hoogezand, The
Netherlands.
CERTIFIED COPY Certificate no:

Page 1 of 1
HAM 0740246 / 1
Certifical:e For O l Engines

JLIovd
fegfeters
'
(Quality Assurance) '
Office Work's order number
Kiel 261 956
Manufacturer Purchaser
Caterpillar Motoren GmbH & Co. KG Pritchard Gordon Ltd., Slaugham, UK
Name and address of works Purchaser 's order number
Caterpillar Motoren GmbH & Co. KG Tanker
Falckensteiner Strasse 2 Intended service
24159 Kiel
Germany Main engine
intended for ship/yard/engine number
Volharding Shipyards B. V. Hoogezand, Yard No. 603
Particulars
Engine serial number Number of cylinders Diameter of cylinder (mm)
38809 8 320
Manufacturers designation Stroke ( mm)
•MaK ' 8M32C 480
Shaft power kW and RPM (continuous rating) Method of cooling
3840 kW at 600 Water
Design Appraisal Document no. and date
LR EMEA Hamburg, Plan Approcal Centre ref . HMD 11808- 03 / 3 dated 10 November 2006
Testing
The engine has been run on a dynamometer and has satisfied the agreed test schedule
Identification Marks (Serial No. Control No. and Date)
QAM 042 LRS HAM 0740246 (entablature stamped)
Manufacturer's Statement
This is to certify that the oil engine described above has been constructed and tested with satisfactory results in accordance with the current Rules and
Regulations A copy of the applicable Design Appraisal Document is attached
Signed on behalf of manufacture
^ —
.
Signature Date
Name in block capitals Position in company

G. HERRMANN / D . DITTRICH / Dr . GALLUN Quality Supervisor Department CQ 3
This certificate is issued by the manufacturer in accordance with the arrangements authorised by Lloyd’s Register EMEA in Quality Assurance approvai
Certificate number QAM 042 / A1

I certify that these arrangements are being kept under review by regular and^ystematic.auditing of the approved Manufacturing and quality control
procedures Lloyd
's Regis
Date Signature
18 October 2007
Kiel Offio
H PURCZ yiUO
Surveyor to Lloyd 's Register!
A member of the Lloyd's Register Group
This engine will be accepted for fitting m ships classed or intended to be classed with l loyd's Register subject to satisfactory installation under the usual conditions of survey
and testing, and where required by the rules, approval of vibration characteristics
Lloyd's Register, its affiliates and subsidiaries and their respective officers, employees or agents are, individually and collectively, referred to in this clause as the Lloyd 's
Register Group'. The Lloyd's Register Group assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss, damage or expense caused by reliance on the
information or advice in this document or howsoever provided, unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyd's Register Group entity for the provision of
this information or advice and in that case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract
Form QA018 (2004.12)
449
1
Report on the main engine, an internal combustion engine

with all the important engine data, such as, the cylinder
diameter, the stroke, the shaft power, the mean indicated
pressure and the maximum combustion pressure.
The data includes information regarding the torsional-
vibration damper, the crankcase volume, the number of
relief valves, the type of governor, the cylinder-cover
material, piston crowns and oil-mist detector.
Report no HAM 0740246 /2

Page 1 of 3
JLloyd's Report on Main Internal

Regfefer Combustion Reciprocating Engine
Ship's Name Port IMO numbei
Place of Survey, if different from above Office

Kiel
Number of visits in shops First Date last date
1 17 October 2007 17 October 2007
Ship built by Yard number
Volharding Shipyards B.V ., Hoogezand, The Netherlands 603
Engine made by Year and month
Caterpillar Motoren GmbH & Co . KG, Falckensteiner Strasse 2, 24159 Kiel, Germany. 2007 / 10
Engine make and type Engine Serial No
'MaK ' 8M32C 38809
State if cylinders in V or other special formation Number of engines Number of crankshafts
In line 1 1
2 or 4 stroke cycle Maximum kW Number of cylinders, each engine
4 3840 8
Bore Service kW At rpm
320 mm 3840 600
Stroke Corresponding M.I.P Maximum cylinder pressure
480 mm 27.2 bar 191 bar
Is engine of crosshead or trunk piston type7 Are relief valves fitted to each cylinder ?
Trunk piston type Yes
Is welded construction used for:
Bedplate? No Frames? No Entablature? No
Cooling medium for.
Cylinders ? F. W. Pistons? L.O. Fuel Valves? L .O.
Must engine be removed for overhaul of mam bearings, etc. ? T.V.C. approval letter date and reference number
No
if torsional vibration damper or detuner fitted, state type, e. g. spring State where fitted
viscous etc . Spring type Crankshaft free end
Total internal volume of crankcase Number and total area of crankcase explosion relief devices
\
7.7 m3 8 = 1144 cm2
Are relief devices fitted to scavenge/supercharger Is engine reversible7 How is engine started 7
manifold?
No No Compressed air
Type of governor fitted Material of :
UG-40 Dl Cylinder covers Cast iron Piston crowns Forged steel
Are flame guards or traps fitted to:
Crankcase relief devices ? Yes Starting air pipes at cylinder starting air valves 7 Yes
Is an approved type crankcase oii mist detector fitted?
Schaller VN 115 / 87
Flywheel Shaft
Separate, integral with crank or thrust shaft
Integral with crankshaft
Material Approved tensile strength Actual tensile strength
Integral with crankshaft As for crankshaft As for crankshaft
Diameter Flywheel weight Flywheel diameter
As for crankshaft 1405 kg 1439 mm
Thrust Shaft
Separate, integral with crank or thrust shaft
Separate
Material Approved tensile strength Actual tensile strength Diameter adjacent to collar
N/ A N/A N/ A N/A
NOTICE: The particulars in this report are to be given as fully and as clearly' as possible. Where the answer is "NO ~ or " NONE", state Ticks and other signs of a doubtful
meaning are not to be used Wording not applicable to be cancelled.
.
Lloyd 's Register , its affiliates and subsidiaiies and then respective officers, employees or agents are individually and collectively, referred to in this clause as the 'Lloyd's
Register Group ' . The Lloyd 's Register Group assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss, damage or expense caused by reliance on the
information or advice in this document oi howsoever provided, unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyd 's Register Group entity for the provision
of this information or advice and in that case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract.
Form 2011 (2004.11)
450
CH33 > REGULATIONS FOR P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N, REPAIR A N D D A M A G E
Further details of the same engine with the crankshaft

data, a key part.
Documentation on the composition of material used,
the manufacturing method, the tensile strength and
pump data.
Report no HAM 0740246 /2

Page 2 of 3
Two Stroke Engines Only

Number and type of scavenge pumps of blowers each engine and how driven
N/A
For E G blowers state makers name and type Where exhaust gas driven blowers only are fitted, can engine operate
with one out of action N/ A
'
N/ A
State any emergency arrangements fitted Is
’
the exhaust discharged through ports in the cylinders or through
N/ A valves in the cylmdei covers N/ A
Are undersides of pistons used as scavenge pumps? Scavenge air pressure at full power
N/ A N/ A
Four Stroke Engines Only

Is engine supercharged ? Number of exhaust has driven supercharge blowers per engine
Yes 1
Are undersides of pistons used as supercharge pumps7 Supercharge pressure at full power
No 2,937 bar
All Engines
Number of blowet/supercharger air coolers each engine Number of biower/supercharger oil coolers each engine
1 None
Crankshaft
Number of main journals Are main bearings of bail or roller type7 Distance between inner edges of bearings in way of
cranks
9 No 407 mm
Distance between centre lines of side rods Built, semi-built or solid crankshaft
opposed piston engines N/ A Solid crankshaft
Diameter:
journals 300 mm Centre crank pins 280 mm Side crank pins N/A
Breadth of webs at mid throw Axial thickness of webs
420 mm No. 1 web = 130 mm, remainder = 101 mm
If webs shrunk, state radial thickness round eyeholes Nominal shrinkage allowance if dowel pins are not fitted
N/ A N/ A
Material (state whether cast or forged)

Pins Webs journals
50CrMo 4+Ni+V 50CrMo4+Ni+ V 50CrMo4+Ni+V

If forged, state method
Continuous grain flow forged
Approved Tensile Strength

Pins Webs Journals
860 N /mm2 860 N / mm2 860 N/mm2
Actual Tensile Strength
Pins Webs Journals
900 N/mm2 900 N /mm2 900 N/mm2
Materia! of coupling bolts
42 CrMo 4 V
Main Engine Driven Pumps each engine.

State number and purpose of each type of pump (including fuel injection and fuel surcharge), type of drive, and for bilge pumps capacity at normal rpm
1 L .O. pressure pump (gear drive), 2 F. W . circulation pumps (gear drive), 8 F.O. injection pumps (cam drive)
Form 2011 ( 2004 11)
451
i
Identification marks on forgings and castings.
Report no H A M 0740246 /2
Page 3 of 3
Air Compressors
State number and how connected and whether can be declutched
No air compressor attached to the engine
identification Marks of important forgings and castings (Shafting Certificates to be forwarded)

Crankshaft
QA023 STU 0700164, Heat No. 71220, Serial No. G 993 325,
Thrust/flywheel shaft
N/ A
Is a detailed list of certificates attached to the report stating item, manufacturer, port of issue, certificate number, and identification markings?
Yes
Declaration
Declaration to be signed by engine builders
To the best of our knowledge this machinery has been soundly constructed in conformity with the Ruies and Regulations, and the foregoing
particulars of mam engines are correct.
Signature - Manufacture Name in BLOCK CAPITALS Date
V C. MOHR sP fix
Date and Port of Approval of Plans
State if general approval
General Approval
Crankshaft
LR EMEA Hamburg, Plan Approcal Centre ref . HMD 11808-03 /3 dated 10 November 2006
Thrust/flywheel shaft
N/ A
Air Receivers
N/ A
A previous similar case was for (name)
N/ A
Eng. Numbei
N/ A
Port and report numbei
N/ A
The machinery reported above has been built under Special Survey in accordance with the Ruies, approved plans and Secretary' s letters, examined,
running on the test bed and found satisfactory The materials and workmanship are good, the spare gear required by the Rules has been supplied
and the machinery is eligible in my opinion to be fitted in a classed ship
Issued at Kiel on 18 October 2007

Lioyd’s Register EMEA
Kiel Qfftjj i
H purfrzfi.
Surveyoi to Lloyd 's RegisteUH fEA.
^
A member of the LfoRegister Group
Form 2011 (2004.11)
452
-
CH33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N, R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E
Certificate for forged steel crankshafts.

All the important data is given. The identification number,
method of manufacture and material tests.
Certificate no: STU 0700164

Page 1 of 1
Certificate for Forged
Agister Steel Crankshafts
(Quality Assurance)
Office
Stuttgart
Manufacturer Work 's order number
MaschJnenfabrik Alfing Kessler GmbH, Aalen 14560/16
Name and address of works Purchase order number
Maschinenfabrik Alfing Kessler GmbH 58369
Auguste- Kessler- Str. 20 Purchaser
73433 Aalen
Caterpillar Motoren GmbH & Co. KG, Kiel
Client
Manufacturer
Particulars
Crankshaft designation Number of crankshafts
.
One (1) cgf-forged Type: 8 M 32- 500 Forging No(s): G 993 325
Plan number Number of throws
1.94.7-25.10.01-04Hd /dM, Weight: 4400 kg (each) 8- throw
Type and grade of steel Stage of manufacture finished machined
50CrMo4+Ni+ V, quenched and tempered
Design appraisal Document no. and date Forging Process
HMD 11808- 3 Issue 1 dated 09.02.2004 continous grain flow forged
Non-Destructive Examination
Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic
yes yes
Identification
Cast number Test number
71 220 N/ A
s QA023, STU 0700164

Forging No(s): see above
Date
N/ A
This is to certify that the forgings detailed above have been inspected and tested with satisfactory results and conform in all respects to the
specification and order.
Signed on behalf of (Manufacturer)
Maschinenfabrik Alfing Kessler GmbH, Aalen
Remarks Signature - Manufacturer
( N/ A J. Schmidt
Status
Quality Manager
Date
24 August 2007
This certificate is issued by the manufacturer in accordance with the arrangements authorised by Lloyd's Register EMEA in Quality Assurance
Approval Certificate Number QA023
I certify these arrangements are being kept under review by regular and systematic auditing of the approyedmanufacturing and quality control
procedures.
Remarks Signature
For details of Mechanical Properties - see attached Works Test O. Fuchs
Certificate 38068 dated 26.06.07 Surveyor to Lloyd's Register EMEA
A member of the Lloyd 's Register Group
Date 26 September 2007
The crankshafts will be accepted for engines, compressors or other items of machinery which are required to be constructed in accordance with the Rules and Regulations
for the classifications of ships.
I
s.
Lloyd' s Register , its affiliates and subsidiaries and their respective officers, employees or agents are, individually and collectively, referred to in this clause as the 'Lloyd's %
Register Group - The Lloyd's Register Group assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss, damage or expense caused by reliance on the I
information or advice in this document or howsoever provided, unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyd's Register Group entity for the provision of |
this information or advice and tn that case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract i
c
Form 1281 (2006.04)
453
Inspection report for a crankshaft from the engineering

works, Alfing in Aalen, Germany.
MASCHINENFABRIK ALFING KESSLER GMBH pj

73433 AALEN - WASSERALF1NGEN ALFING
Inspection - Certificate MASCHINENFABRIK
acccording to EN 10204 3.1 ALFING KESSIER GMBH
AUTOMOTIVE CRANKSHAFTS
LARGE CRANKSHAFTS
No. 60580 HARDENING EQUIPMENT
Subject Type Drawing-No. Materia!

1 Crankshaft , 8 throw , 8 M 32-500 .
1.94 7-25.10.01-04 “d/d' 50CrMo4+Ni+ V +QT
finished maschlned 263 250 125 quenched and tampers
Purchase Order No . -
Alfing Reference-No
14560/16
Inspection Society
Caterpillar Motoren 58369 LR
GmbH & Co KG . . .
v 19.06 2006 -
HfH 4101
Kiel 4010922
- .
The above mentioned produds have been manufactured and tested in accordance with the order end where appropriate , with the stipulated specifications.
The reautts recorded are documented on the form/ forms
Mech. Eigenschaften Nr. 38068.

.
crankshaft no G 993 325.
'—
V "
'
Which as 3ppendix / appendices to this covering sheet forms / form part of the inspection certificate in accordance with EN 10204.
Remarks:
-
Ultraschall PrOfung am Schmiedeprodukt entspreehend Vorschrift AA 10/02/03 /A durchgefGhrt .
Befund: Innerhalb der Vorschrift
Magnetischs RiRprufung gemaS Vorschrift AA 10 /03/27/B durchgefuhrt.

Befund: Ohne Anzeigen.
-
We hereby certify that the results recorded for the above mentioned products correspond to the customer's requirements or have been approved by the customer .
Maschinenfabrik Alfing Kessler GmbH
Quality Assurance Dept
Date (Work's Inspector)

.
24.08 2007 .
( J Schmidt )
QWA Scho -
Enclosure
^)
454
r
CH3 3 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , R E P A I R A N D D A M A G E

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CH 33 > REGULATIONS F O R P R O P U L S I O N E N G I N E S, C L A S S I F I C A T I O N, REPAIR A N D D A M A G E
A report from Lloyd's Register regarding the reduction

gearing of a main engine.
Manufacturer, Renk AG in Rheine, Germany.
Report n o: DTM 0562069 / 1

Page 1 o f 3
Lloyd's
Kegrster Report on Main Engine Reduction Gearing
Ship's Name IMO number
Port
Dortmund
Place of Survey, if different from above Office
Rheine Dortmund
Number of visits in shops First date Last date
2 29 June 2006 26 September 2006

Ship built by Yard number
NB 101
Gearing made by Gear number Year and month
Renk AG, Rheine / Germany 857936 2006/09
Number of sets and description of gearing, including reversing arrangements, and dutches, if any . State type of bearings
Marine Reduction Gearbox Type RSV- 630 with PTO. Center distance between the input/ output shafts 630 mm . Input shafts and output
shafts mounted on sleeve bearings and the PTO shaft are running in roller bearing.
Diagrammatic Sketch Showing Arrangement of Gearing
Approved maximum total kVV each set Corresponding rpm of main wheel
1520 KW 169 , 5 rpm
State ice class notation, if applicable if single helical, state type and position of gear thrust bearing
no see sketch or approved drawing of gear
Have all pinions, flexible coupling sleeves and service attachments been State if wheels dynamically or statically balanced
dynamically balanced?
no PTO shaft dynamically balanced
Are bodies of cast oi welded construction ? State material. How are bodies connected to shafts?
solid forged shrink fitted

If nms separate, state how secured If rims shrunk, has shrinkage allowance been checked and found as approved ?
no n.a.
Number and diameter of radial or dowels fitted
n.a.
Which gears were cut under controlled temperature conditions How were teeth cut
Yes ground
Machine used for finishing process
Maker’s name Serial number
Niles / Pfauter Kapp
If teeth surface hardened, state method Is gearcase of cast or welded construction
case hardened cast
Note : The particulars in this report are to be given as fully and clearly as possible. Where the answer is " NO " or " NONE ", say so . Ticks and other signs of doubtful
meaning are not to be used.
Lloyd 's Register , its affiliates and subsidiaries and their respective officers, employees or agents are, individually and collectively, referred to in this clause as the 'Lloyd 's
Register Group' . The Lloyd 's Register Group assumes no responsibility and shall not be liable to any person for any loss, damage or expense caused by reliance on the
information or advice in this document or howsoever provided, unless that person has signed a contract with the relevant Lloyd 's Register Group entity for the provision
of this information or advice and in that case any responsibility or liability is exclusively on the terms and conditions set out in that contract.
Form 2016 ( 2005.04)
457
T
Extra data for the same gear box .
Report no: DTM 0562069 /1

Page 2 of 3
If welded construction, has it been stress relieved Have means been supplied for vetifying that gearcase is free from distortion when
secured in ship?
n.a .
Has geaiing been run light loaded in shop, and tooth contact found satisfactory ? State max. rpm reached
light load run main stage at 300 KW, PTO at 300 KW
What is the backlash ? (State whether measured circumferentially or noimal to teeth and if no clearance bearings)
main item 5040 / 5020: 0,30 mm; PTO item 5060/ 5100: 0,57 mm (pitch circle)
Primary Secondary
H.P . L.P. HP . L .P
Pinions
Max. kW to be delivered to item 5040: 1520 KW item 5100: 372 KW
primary pinions
Corresponding rpm . 1000 rpm 1507,7 rpm
Number of teeth 20 65
Total width of gearface 150 mm 55 mm

parallel to axis
Width of gap between helices
Approved pinion material 1080 N/mm2 1080 N/mm2

tensile strength
Actual pinion material tensile 1334 N/mm2 1287 N/mm2
strength
Quillshafts
Approved tensile strength
Actual tensile strength
Flexible Couplings
Type of coupling
Approved diiving member

tensile strength
Actual driving member tensile
strength
Approved driven member
tensile strength
Actual driven member tensile
strength
Material of sleeve
Approved sleeve tensile

strength
Actual sleeve tensile strength
Wheels
Primary H.P. Primary L. P . Main Wheel
Number of teeth item 5020: 118 item 5060: 98
Approved rim material tensile strength 1080 N /mm2 1080 N /mm2
Actual rim material tensile strength 1208 N/mm2 1283 N/mm2
Approved shaft material tensile item 5010: 600 N/mm2

strength
Actual shaft material tensile strength 715 N /mm2
Form 2016 ( 2005.04)
458
CH 33 > REGULATIONS FOR PROPULSION ENGINES , CLASSIFICATION , REPAIR AND DAMAGE
T
Representatives from the manufacturer and the surveyor of
Lloyd's Register must sign the report.
Report no: DTM 0562069/1

Page 3 of 3
Declaration to be Signed by Gearmakers

To the best of our knowledge this reduction gearing has been soundly constructed in conformity with the Rules and Regulations, and the foregoing particulars of
reduction gearing are correct.
Name in BLOCK CAPITALS Date

Dirk Kremkow 19 October 2006
Date and port of approval plans

LLoyd' s Register EMEA, Hamburg, Ref.: HMD 16496-06 Issue no. 0 dated 02 January 2006
A previous similar case was for (name)
Port and Report Number Gear number
Declaration to be Completed and Signed by Surveyor

The reduction gearing reported above has been built under Special Survey in accordance with the Rules, approved plans and Secretary 's letters The materials and
workmanship are good, the spare gear required by the Rules has been supplied and the gearing is eligible, in rfiy opinion to be fitted in a classed ship A detailed list of
,
certificates is attached to the report stating item, manufacturer, port of issue and certificate number
LloydvJB
Issue Date. 03 November 2006
K
^
jjwiteffe
to Uoyjtys Register E
Issue Location: Dortmund Surveyor
Dortmund 11
fegSfer
A member of tnfe Lloyd's Register Group
Declaration to be Completed and Signed by Surveyor at Port of Installation

The above reduction gearing has been fitted on board the MV/SS at in a fit and proper manner and found satisfactory when tested on under full
power conditions for hours and when examined subsequently.
Date:
Location : Surveyor to
A member of the Lloyd ’s Register Group
Form 2016 ( 2005.04)
459
T
The material properties for all the parts of the gear box are
tested.
In this case, a pinion shaft in a gear seating.
The composition of the material and the mechanical
properties are of utmost importance.
The heat treatment is also important, in this case case-
hardening.
Prufbescheinigung nach EN 10204 - Werkstoffprufung

Inspection document acc. to EN 10204 - Material testing / RENK \
Vorgangsdaten / Process data
RENK Auftrags-Nr . Produkt-Type Herstellerzeichen Ext. Abn.-Organisation Abnahme-Zertifikat-Nr.
RENK order no . Product type Manufacturer’ s sign Ext . insp. Organisation Certificate no.
857936 RSV-630 IOCNKI LRS

Positions- Nr. Materia!-Nr. Zeichnungs-Nr. Werkstoff-Norm Werkstoff
Position no. Material no . Drawing no. Material standard Material
5040 W 90662796253 0796253/ 0 TN70484 18CrNiMo7-6+ A
Anzah! Benennung/Denomination Warmebehandiung/Heat treatment
Quantity
RITZELWELLE M.RADSITZ / PINION SHAFT WITH Einsatzharten / case-hardening
1 GEAR SEATING
Anforderungen Rohabmessung Gewicht [kg] Stahllieferant Stahlerzeuger
Specifications Rough dimension Weight Steel supplier Steel maker
TN70481 0 230 241,2 BGH- Siegen BGH- Siegen
Werkszeugnis 2.2 nach EN 10204 tiber chemische Zusammensetzung

Test report 2.2 acc. to EN 10204 - Chemical composition
Schmelzen -Nr. C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Ni Al V
760305 % % % % % % % % % %
Heat no.
Soliwerte 0,15 0 , 40 1, 50 0,25 1 , 40
Theoretical values min.
max. 0,19 0,30 0,60 0,010 0,005 1,80 0,35 1,70 0,040
1
0,006 0 ,001 1,66 0,33 1 ,56 0,033
’ 0,50
1
’
Istwerte / Actual values 0,18 0,24
11Chemische Zusammensetzung gemalS Lieferantenangaben / Chemical composition as indicated by the supplier
Abnahmepriifzeugnis 3.1 nach EN 10204 iiber mechanisch-technologische Eigenschaften

Inspection certificate 3.1 acc. to EN 10204 - Mechanical-technological properties
Kerbschfagbiegeversuch/impact test
Zugversuch/Tensile test gemafJ/acc. to EN 10002-1 gemaft/acc. to EN 10045-1
. 2 Streck- Bruch- Kerbschlagarbeit

Pruf -
Proben-Nr
Specimen no. >
2 ’ 1866 grenze
Yield point
Zugfestigkeit
Tensile strenght
dehnung
Elongation
Einschnurung
Reduction of area Impact work
temp.
Temp.
’
3
Lage (l = 5 d) ISO-V
Location.
3) L Rp 0.2 Rm
N/mm2 N/mm2 Joule 8
% % C
t Soliwerte min. min. min. min.
Theoretical values 785 1080-1500 11 40 40 RT
Istwerte 1032 1334 13,4 60,8 95 91 73 RT
Actual values
3)
Z)
Art der Probe: B nach DIN 50125 / Specimen type: B acc. to DIN 50125 L = langs/longitudinal, T = tangential/ tangential; Q = quer/ transverse
Bemerkungen:
Remarks:
Prufergebnisse /Test results: Die gestellten Anforderupgeg;giy|egfj3llt requirenymts have been complied with.
~~
20.01.2006 Ostholthoff 20.01.2006 WerkWS&b’&T
Prufdatum
Date of test l
\
.
:EN| T Datum
Date
Quak ^
i uifftagter
xcgsentative
Externer Abnehmer
External Inspector
Diese elektronisch erstellte Prufbescheinigung ist ohne Unterschrift gultii m onically issued inspection document is valid without signature.
7m
RENK Aktiengesellschaft • Werk Rheine
Quaiitatsmanagement / Quality Management S3
Postfach 1953 • 48409 Rheine
Tel.: +49 5971 790-0 • Fax: +49 5971 790-208 Sell 1989
Werkstoff de_en / 2005 -06 Fo.1020
460
CH 33 > REGULATIONS FOR P R O P U L S I O N ENGINES , C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , REPAIR A N D D A M A G E
One of the most heavy loaded driving parts of a diesel

engine is the crankshaft. It is also the most expensive part
of diesel engines.
461

Diesel Engines 3 - K.kuiken - 3rd Ed

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DIESEL III

Operation and maintenance

26.1 Introduction 12 28.1 Introduction 126

27.1 Introduction 68 29 Use of materials for diesel engines 156

The catalogues found in this chapter provide a

The number of 'large' diesel engines, dark blue in this overview

_ Small Diesel generating sets

Front left: a smaller MAN diesel

MAN diesel engine with a

1988 1992 1994 1997 2002

China South Korea

cultivate a global network of licensees that build MAN

26.1.3 Licence holders 26.2.1 Characteristics

Situation in 2016 - World- wide production, Fuel

Diesel, Dual-Fuel and Gas Engine Order Trends

Survey Year (June-May)

- A majority of the larger high -speed four -stroke General comment:

MECHANICAL DRIVE MARINE PROPULSION ORDERS, January - December 2015

Engine Operating Speed

2.01 to 3.50 163 386 11 1 149 2 99 57 9 16 14 2 79 52 0 0 0 0 0 0

3.51 to 5.00 57 209 20 0 16 21 32 25 0 3 0 1 49 0 0 0 0 0 0 4

5.01 to 7.50 59 345 47 0 12 0 1 56 2 4 0 1 54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

7.51 to 15.00 737 8295 726 4 4 26 30 724 6 4 1 0 729 0 0 0 0 3 0 0

15.01 to 30.00 232 4472 232 0 0 0 0 225 7 0 0 0 232 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

30.01 to 50.00 42 1571 42 0 0 0 0 42 0 0 0 0 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

50.01 and above 76 4444 76 0 0 0 0 76 0 0 0 0 76 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mechanical drive marine propulsion orders 2015.

Marine auxiliary generating set orders 2015.

MARINE AUXILIARY GENERATING SET ORDERS, January - December 2015

1.01 to 2.00 1579 1556 0 938 266 278 906 19 84 33 0 973 44 0 0 0 58 0 12

2.01 to 3.50 567 1165 0 419 49 92 268 108 56 0 0 381 8 0 0 0 22 1 0

3.51 to 5.00 165 273 0 114 0 25 61 28 6 2 0 93 11 2 0 0 0 0 0

5.01 and above 18 111 0 18 0 8 6 6 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

DIESEL-ELECTRIC MARINE PROPULSION ORDERS, January - December 2015

Engine Operating Regions /Regional Codes

77 209 228 69 130 24 4 145 12 1 0 4 65 0 0

Diesel- electric marine propulsion orders 2015.

The number of engine manufacturers worldwide 26.4 Number of engine

- lifetime of parts. The majority of manufacturers produce these

3 Maximum Brake 3 Maximum Brake

Output Range Output Range

Output Range Output Range

26.4.3 Category II: Larger high- speed MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH

Pistons for Detroit Diesel

3 Rated Speed Range

D C11 ACERT 130 140 11.1 6L 1800 2100 242 336 OH

D C13 ACERT 130 157 12.5 6L 1800 2100 287 388 OH

D C 13 ACERT 130 157 12.5 6L 1800 2100 287 388 OH EPATier 4i

D CO.5 67 72 0.5 2L 2800 3600 8.2 10.2 OH

D C 0.5 67 72 0.5 2L 2000 2800 5.7 7.6 OH EPATier 4f

D C0.7 67 72 0.7 3L 2800 3600 12.2 15.3 OH

D CO.7 67 72 0.7 3L 2200 2200 9 9 OH EPATier 4f

D C1.1 77 81 1.1 3L 2200 3400 13.7 21 OH

D C 1.1 77 81 1.1 3L 2200 3400 13.7 21 OH > 19 kW, EU Stage 3 a

D C 1.5 84 90 1.5 3L 2200 3000 20.9 30 OH EU Stage 3 a

D Cl .5 84 90 1.5 3L 1800 3000 18.4 27.6 OH EPATier 4f

D C1.6 77 81 1.5 4L 2800 3000 24.6 26.5 OH EU Stage 3 a

D C 1.7 84 100 1.7 3L 2400 2600 23.6 26.1 OH EU Stage 3 a

D C 2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2200 2800 31 36.4 OH EU Stage 3 a

D C2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2400 3000 31.4 36.4 OH EPATier 4f

D C2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2600 3000 40 45.5 OH EPA Tier 4f

D C 2.2 84 100 2.2 4L 2600 3000 40 45.5 OH EU Stage 3 b

D C 3.4 94 120 3.3 4L 2500 2500 47 55 OH EPA Tier 4i