Agric 1100
Theories on the Origin and Development
of Agriculture
 Oasis Theory
 Boserup’s Theory
 Nuclear Zone Theory (Hilly Flanks
 Theory)
Oasis Theory (Propinquity
Theory/Desiccation Theory)
- Defined by Australian archaeologist
Gordon Childe (1892-1957) in his book,
The Most Ancient Near.
- A core concept in archaeology, referring
to one of the main hypotheses about the origin
of agriculture; which postulates that people
started to domesticate plants and animals
because they were forced to, due to climate
change.
Boserup’s Theory
- Developed by Ester Boserup in 1965 and
postulates that the population at the end of the
Pleistocene Age increased rapidly and people
reached the carrying capacity (the number of
people or organisms that a given environment
can support) of the environment, therefore
agriculture was developed.
- Boserup believed that population growth is the
major determining factor in forcing people to
invent new ways to intensify food production.
- Given rising population pressure, people
invented sedentary life in order to feed
themselves.
Nuclear Zone Theory (Hilly
Flanks Theory)
- Developed by Robert Braidwood, postulates
that domestication must have risen in natural
habitats of wild ancestors of domesticated
plants and animals.
- In the Zagros Mountains of Anatolia, adjacent to
the Fertile Crescent, he excavated Jarmo to
prove his hypothesis and test Childe’s Oasis
Theory.
*Jarmo is a prehistoric archeological site located in modern
Iraq on the foothills of the Zagros Mountains.
Marginal Zone Theory (Density-
Equilibrium Model)
- Developed by Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery
in 1968, which explains the emergence of
agriculture as a response to cyclical population
pressure on the edges of the Nuclear Zones.
- The basic assumption is that human groups
normally exist in balanced equilibrium with their
physical environment, they don’t normally
intensify their food supplies and live normally in
a state of systemic balance where change is the
exception.
- Thus, they keep their numbers below the
carrying capacity of their food resource.
Sumerian Agriculture
- To provide an overview of Sumerian
Agriculture, one has to know what their
inventions were which contributed to the
development of Agriculture.
- Their top-nine inventions include (i) mass
produced pottery, (ii) writing, (iii) hydraulic
engineering, (iv) the chariot, (v) the plow, (vi)
textile mills, (vii) mass-produced bricks, (viii)
metallurgy, and (ix) mathematics.
- The Sumerian civilization begun and flourished
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
(southern Iraq).
- Of all their inventions, the plow with the
use of an oxen paved the way to
land preparation.
- The Sumerians ushered in the age of
intensive agriculture and irrigation.
- Core agricultural techniques including
large-scale intensive cultivation of
land, mono cropping, organized
irrigation, and the use of a
specialized labor force created a
surplus of storable food.
- “Uruk” or the early Sumerian Period depicted
pictograms of sheep, goat, ox and maybe ass,
which are animals that had been domesticated.
Alongside houses were gardens planted with
trees and other plants.
- Presumably, potted plants were also part of the
household. Barley, chickpeas, lentils, wheat,
dates, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and
mustard were grown, while cattle, sheep,
goats and pigs were domesticated.
- Oxen and equids (donkeys) were the transport
animals.
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 Aztec, Mayan and Incan Agriculture
- Mayan and Aztec together with the Incan
Agriculture, is known for maize production.
- These civilizations are located in Mexico, and in
Central and South American between 1800 and
500 years ago.
- The Mayans were believed to be the
first of the three great civilizations,
estimated to be around 2800 years ago.
- Being located in the highlands, they built earth
terraces or steps on the mountain side, which
created flat lands for planting.
- In the swampy lowlands, they raised earth
platforms surrounded by canals that drained
extra water. In the dense forests, this was
where they practiced slash-and-burn
technique.
- This involved clearing the land by cutting and
burning trees and plants, followed by planting
crops.
- The Mayans are known for making the first corn
tortillas.
- It is easy to conclude that squash, beans, and
chili peppers are other crops they planted.
- Incan civilization settled in the Valley of Cuzco
in the Andes Mountains of Central Peru.
- Their empire expanded between 1440 and 1500,
and included about 16 million people occupying
mountains, coastal desert and low-lying jungle.
- For agriculture, they have developed highly
advanced terracing and irrigation methods to
allow farming in difficult mountain terrain.
- The Aztecs’ center of civilization was in the
Valley of Mexico, a huge high-elevation basin in
the Sierra Madre Mountains. This valley
provided a climate good for agriculture.
- Their capital and largest city, Tenochtitlán was
where the Aztecs settled in 1325.
- They called themselves Mexica and became
accomplished corn farmers, warrior and temple
builders.
- The importance of maize to the Aztecs, was its
storability. Their women boiled maize kernels
and ground them into flour.
- Aside from tortillas, Aztecs are known for their
tamales; tamales are made by wrapping ground
corn kernels into corn husks, then cooked by
steaming.
- When yield of crops were bad or low, Aztecs ate
frogs, shrimps, insect eggs and cakes made of
algae.
Chinese Agriculture
- As in other countries, the cultivation of grain
allowed for the settling of human civilizations, in
what we now call villages.
- Ruins of Stone Age were found throughout
China’s North and South provinces signifying
that using tools have been practiced in their
culture.
- It is not surprising that China had been one of
the first countries to practice agriculture.
- Distinctive primitive cultures dotted the
historical development of Chinese Agriculture:
– Peligiang-Cishan Culture in Henan Province,
where common artifacts discovered were
millstones for husking millet
- Hemudu Culture in Yuyao in Zhejiang
Province (date back to 6000 to 7000 years
include rice, millet and spade like farm tools
made of stone or bone);
- There were indications of abundance of rice
farming, as evidenced by the piles which was
further described as long-grained non-glutinous
rice.
*These relics were also the oldest found
in Asia to date.
- Yangshao Culture along the middle reaches of
the Yellow River
- Maojoayao, Banshan, Machang- all three along
the upper parts of the Yellow River, and the
- Hongshan Culture in Liaoning Province.
- China was also known as the first country in the
world to raise silkworms to make silk.
- There were proofs that during the Shang
Dynasty (1600-1046 BC), sericulture and silk-
fabric production was already a matured
technology.
- Jia Sixie of the Northern Dynasties emerged as
the leading agronomist of the time, authoring
the first book on Agronomy in China with 92
chapters in 10 volumes entitled
“Important Arts for the People’s
Welfare”.
- It was in the Tang Dynasty that China became
one of the most powerful countries in the world
with innovations in farming machinery (curved-
shaft plow and bucket carriage) enlarging their
arable lands.
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 Integumentary System
Ansci 1100 lec Skin derivatives : sweat and oil gland, hair, wool, fur, nails
Functions:
Anatomy and Physiology  Physical protection: barrier against outside
 Prevention of dehydration
Anatomy
 Body temperature regulation
- is the study of the structure of a body and the  Sensory information via cutaneous receptors
relation of its parts  Excretion of wastes
- External and Internal
Sweat gland - specialized structure
Physiology
Eccrine – produces
- deals with the function of living matter and hypotonic water
includes a number of subsidiary disciplines such secretion that derives
as behavior, biochemistry, and biophysics from intertitial fluids
- (water with some
dissolved salts, lactic
Body Systems acid, and other wastes)
 Skeletal & muscular Apocrine gland-
 Cardiovascular located in distinct part
 Respiratory of the body. Secretes
 Nervous watery fluid, fatty acids
 Digestive and some protein. This
 Reproductive gland is affected by sex
 Endocrine and body temperature steroids.
regulations
Sebaceous gland
 Also known as oil gland
Directional Terms  Present in mammals
 Sebaceous gland produces “sebum”
Sebum
 Acts as natural skin cream and hair protector
 Prevents excessive evaporation
 Keep the skin soft
 Has bactericidal
Other Skin Gland
 Submental gland in cats
 Scent gland in goat
 Uropygial gland – oil gland
 Hair

3
SOCSCI 1100
NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY
HISTORY DEFINED
Old French Historie = “Relation of incidents/story
Latin Historia = narrative/account
This itself was derived from the Ancient Greek
ἱστορία, meaning "a learning or knowing by inquiry,
history, record, narrative," from the verb ἱστορεῖν,
historeîn, which means "to inquire". Its German
equivalent ‘geschichle’ means “intelligible and
significant narration of the past events.
Filipino historian Ambeth Ocampo translates history
as “kasaysayan” which means, “salaysay” na may
“saysay” (“story with meaning”)
 Both facts and interpretation
 Refers to the historian’s reconstruction of the
past
 Is about our knowledge of past events and is
based on:
1. Written records
2. Oral traditions
3. Artifacts/Physical evidences
DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORY
Ancient Greek Historians
 HERODOTUS
 THUCYDIDES
SCHOLARS AND HISTORIANS
 EDWARD HALLETT CARR
 JOHN JACOB ANDERSON
 CARL G. GUSTAVSON
 NUMA DENIS FUSTEL DE COULANGES
 TEODORO AGONCILLO
"History is an unending dialogue between the present
and the past and the chief function of historian is to
master and understand the past as a key to the
understanding of present.”
- Edward Hallett Carr
"History is a narration of the events which have
happened among mankind, including an account of
the rise and fall of nations, as well as of other great
changes which have affected the political and social
condition of the human race."
- John Jacob Anderson
"History enables a person to see himself as part of
that living process of human growth which has
emerged out of the past and will inexorably project
itself out beyond our own life time. We are the
product of the past but not the complete product.”
- Carl G. Gustavson
"History is and should be a science ... History is not the
accumulation of events of every kind which happened
in the past. It is the science of human societies.“
- Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges:
“History deals with the past, not with the future. We
use history to avoid the mistakes of the past, not to
recreate the very same events. You cannot.”;
“History is written by every generation. Every
generation writes its own history using the same
sources. The interpretations vary according to time.”
- Teodoro Agoncillo
“History is the recorded struggle of the people for
increasing freedom and for newer and higher
realization of the human person.”
- Renato Constantino
Thinking about history and knowing history.
HISTORY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH
OTHER DISCIPLINES
HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Development of political institutions, rules,
regulations, rights and duties, law and mode of justice,
executive, legislative and administrative functions,
economic and financial implications, nature of
bureaucracy, fundamental principles of state policy
are all defined under the constitution history.
HISTORY AND ECONOMICS
There has been a new orientation in our historical
outlook from the days of the materialistic
interpretation of history by Marx and such class
struggle, man’s skill in earning, arts and crafts, trade,
business andcommerce, land revenue, taxes and a
host of all other economic activities of the past figure
very prominently in history.
At present, history is so closely interlinked with the
study of economic problems that it would not be
possible to reconstruct history without knowledge of
the relevant economic problems.
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HISTORY AND SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is helping history to study ‘social dynamics’
which is a study not of society at rest but constantly in
social change and development social processes and
social causation are giving a new perspective to
history.
HISTORY AND ETHICS
We must know about the ethical principle of the time
which influenced the conduct of the people in the
past. Probably in the past, there was not reliable
ethical science and much of followed were merely a
reflection of the bigotry, partial and complexes of the
different writers.
- Socrates
- Aristotle
- Plato
HISTORY AND PSYCHOLOGY
A historian must have to show some psychological
insights while making an analysis of the motive and
actions of men and societies.
An understanding of the group psychology can enable
a historian to determine the role of masses in the
various revolutions such as Jingoistic patriotism has
been described as the cause of certain wars but
historian can discuss this cause with the help of the
social psychology.
HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY
Geography also plays an important role in the national
character formation and influence the human
behaviour. As we know that climate of a country
greatly affected the civilisation of a country. Hence the
knowledge of geographical is very essential for
historians. It would be wise to accept the limited
interpretation of geographical influence on man’s
conduct or on his history.
BRANCHES OF HISTORY
POLITICAL HISTORY
It deals with the analysis, development and evolution
of political leaders, ideas, events, movements,
activities and so on, along with the making of
government policies (constitutions etc).
This branch of history focuses on the study of
normative beliefs as it is believed to be the reason
behind the historical changes.
SOCIAL HISTORY
Social history primarily devotes to the social life of the
people ‘viz’ religion,national economy, morals,
manners, foods, dress, art, culture etc.
It deals with the general patterns of social
development.
The history which focuses on the study of various
societal norms like ways of living, standard, customs,
disciplines, status and so on of the people, alongside
the demography. Simply, it is a branch of history which
looks at the lived experience of the past. Today, social
history is otherwise called the New Social History.
ECONOMIC HISTORY
The study of the pattern of the production,
consumption alongside industry, market and so on
concerning the past, economic history aims to
understand the historical events of the economical
processes.
LEGAL HISTORY
The study of legal development and tried to show how
the law adjust itself according to the changing social
conditions.
The other contributions in the field of legal history are
the works, like the codification of the Laws of Manu,
the codes of Hummurabi, Napoleonic codes etc.
DIPLOMATIC HISTORY
Diplomatic history is the branch of history that focuses
on the study of international relations between
nations (between states). This history tends to be
more concerned with the history of diplomacy and the
ideas of diplomacy and much more.
INTELLECTUAL HISTORY
Aims to understand the ideas (ideology and
philosophy) by understanding the political, cultural,
intellectual, and social context of the past. Intellectual
history is about the human (historians) actions and
how they developed history.
RELIGIOUS HISTORY
5
It deals with the study and investigation of
ecclesiastical structures, the link between
denominations and social change, the history of
doctrines, study of formal beliefs, and how did these
originate and evolved overtime across cultures and
generations
- Muslims pray at the Grand Mosque in Senegal.
Religion is thriving in the global south,
particularly in countries in sub-Saharan Africa,
which is projected to be home to a growing
share of the world’s Muslims.
- Today, women play an increasingly important
role as religious leaders. The Reverend Amy
Butler is the first woman to hold the job of
senior minister at Riverside Church in New York.
- Members of the Unification Church,founded by
Reverend Sun Myung Moon, participate in a
mass wedding. The Holy Marriage Blessing
Ceremony strengthens participants’ dedication
to the church.
WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY HISTORY?
 To raise our historical consciousness essential
to national development
 To learn what a man did in the past and to
gain insights into the nature of our present
difficulties by projecting people’s history
 To give us a proper perspectives to formulate
correct policies in the future.
PROBLEMS AND DISTORTIONS
 Some Filipino historians were captives of
colonial historiography who
viewed/interpreted our history from the eyes
of the colonizers.
 “One sided approach” had colored our native
history
 Colonial historians has biased and limited
observations that described situations in pure
generalizations and were full of inaccuracies
 History is gender-blind
 Narcissus complex
 National history is Manila-centric
 Early writers of Philippine history were
ethnocentric
 Few history teachers doing historical research

6
Appendages of Skin  Stabilizing joints
 Hoof or claw - It is the horny covering of the  Generating heat
distal end of the digit.  Properties of muscle
 Chestnut - horny mass found in the medial  Excitability
aspect of the forearm about halfway between  Sometimes called irritability
the carpus and the elbow, and on the media  Contractility
aspect of the hind leg just below the hock of  Extensibility
the horse.  Elasticity
 Ergot. A horny mass found in all four legs,
embedded in the hair on the posterior aspect Classification of Muscle
of the fetlock joint.
 Horns - epidermal derivatives bound together
into a solid mass by keratin. It is supported for
a variable distance by the horn core or process
cornus, (which is a bony outgrowth of the
frontal bones of the skull).
 Feathers – it helps protect the body, maintain Examples of muscle types
body temperature in poultry and allows bird  Voluntary and striated
to fly - gastrocnemius (chief muscle of the calf of the
Skeletal System leg)
Functions - gluteus maximus (main extensor muscle of the
hip)
 Protection of vital organs
 Cardiac (heart muscle)
 Rigidity and form to the body
 Involuntary smooth
 Acts as levers
 muscularis mucosae (intestine)
 Storage of minerals and lipids
 Site of blood formation Digestive System
Classification of bone Functions
 Long bones  Ingestion
 Short bones  Mastication
 Flat bones  Digestion and Absorption
 Irregular bones  Excretion
 Sesamoid bones Parts of Digestive System
Mouth
 Tongue, lips, teeth and salivary glands
 Responsible for food breakdown
Division of the body skeleton
 Serves as prehensile (grasping) mechanism,
defensive and offensive
Pharynx - Passage of food and air
Esophagus- Connects pharynx and stomach
Stomach
A. Simple stomach
 Cardia (entrance)
 Fundus ( body)
 Pylorus (terminal)
B. Compound Stomach
Muscular System  Rumen (paunch)
 Reticulum (honeycomb)
Functions
 Omasum (many flies)
 Production of movement  Abomasum (true stomach)
 Maintaining posture