gear

Understanding
your propeller
Choosing the correct propeller for your boat involves complex formulae and an
understanding of how a prop works – but in the end getting best performance
still boils down to some trial and error, as Pat Manley and Mike Taylor explain

F
or all craft fitted with
an engine, whether it’s
a sailing yacht or a
motorboat with a
displacement or
planing hull, having the right
propeller is critical.
The propeller should allow the
engine to reach the maximum rpm
recommended by the
manufacturer in normal operating
conditions: get it wrong and the
engine will over-rev, causing
possible damage to the motor, or
alternatively will be unable to reach
its maximum power delivery
because it cannot supply adequate
torque to turn the propeller,
resulting in poor performance,
high fuel consumption and an
unhappy owner.
But for leisure boats in particular,
propeller design remains a bit of a
black art. There are books dealing
with the subject that allow you to
calculate, rather laboriously, the
shape and size of a propeller for a
given application, and now there’s
computer software to do the job
effortlessly. What do they have in
common? All the methods are
based on trial and error, they use
assumptions, and at the end of the
day will get you a prop of roughly
the correct design that only sea
trials will verify.
Not surprisingly, yacht owners
and motorboaters look at engine
and propeller criteria very
differently: the sailor will normally
use the engine in either a ‘sails
down’ mode, or as a ‘motor-sailer’
to quicken the pace provided by
the sails. The motor cruiser owner
will also be thinking in terms of
leisurely progress. In both
instances the engine will be
working at mid/two thirds throttle
opening with proportional
expectations on propeller
performance. In contrast, a
sportsboat enthusiast will often be
using the engine at full throttle
openings to gain maximum speed
and acceleration, placing greater
demands on the propeller.
But in all cases the critical factors
affecting a boat’s performance
under power are weight, engine
horsepower and propeller design.

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Props_fjp.indd 66 6/9/10 11:40:21


HOW DOES A PROPELLER WORK?
N ewton’s third law of motion
says that for every force,
there’s an equal force in the
opposite direction. We want to
push the boat forward, so to
achieve this we have to push the
water backwards.
When a propeller rotates, the
turning blades push water
backwards causing the boat to
move. Also, as the propeller
pushes the water back, the
pressure reduces on the forward
side of each propeller blade which
helps to suck the boat forward.
This pressure differential increases
as the propeller spins faster.
Thus, the pressure differential
and the greater volume of water
moved combine to increase the
speed of the boat.
Propeller design has managed
to keep pace with most marine
technology over recent years while
more and more is being
understood about a propeller’s
hydrodynamics. Naturally, one of
the primary drivers behind all this
research effort is efficiency: to help
engines use less fuel, and/or make
the boat go faster.
With the advent of computer-
aided design (CAD), much work
can be done before a prototype
prop is even manufactured and
placed in the water.
To work out what the diameter
and pitch of a propeller should be,
the designer needs to consider
several other factors:
Slip
Slip is the difference between the
pitch of the propeller and the
actual amount the propeller pulls
itself through the water for each
revolution of the prop.
With no slip, no water is moved
backwards by the prop. With 50%
slip, a water volume equivalent to
the propeller disc area times half
the pitch is moved backwards (ie
50% of the water is moved
backwards). With 100% slip, the
whole water volume would be
moved backward. This is the case
if you carry out a bollard pull
measurement with the boat
tethered to the dock.
So if there were no slip, there
would be no thrust, as no water is
moved backwards. In reality, it’s
the slip that creates thrust and thus
we get propulsion.
The amount of slip is determined
by a balancing act of water
density, blade shape, boat drag,
engine power, gearbox ratio and
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Props_fjp.indd 67
Choosing the right prop
other factors including the hull
shape, all ending up in equilibrium.
The benefit of experience has
thrust that the prop develops.
Major factors affecting the prop’s
efficiency are the plan shape of the
taught propeller designers that the blade, the cross section shape of
value of slip appropriate to smaller the blade, the ratio of the pitch to
sailing yachts and displacement the diameter, whether the blade
motor cruisers varies from around has correct twist and the angle the
40% to 55% when at maximum blade makes to the water entering
boat speed. the prop, which of course depends
on the slip.
Efficiency The blade shape chosen will vary
according to the speed and type of
The efficiency of a propeller is the hull, and in the case of a sailing
ratio of the power that is making boat, whether performance under
the prop turn compared with the power or sail is paramount.
PITCH AND SLIP EXPLAINED
PITCH SLIP
Pitch angle
Diameter
Pitch Slip
Pitch is the distance the prop
‘screws’ forward in one
complete revolution
ANOTHER WAY OF LOOKING AT A SLIP
No water moved
No thrust
No slip
50% of
water Thrust
moved
50% slip
All water
moved Thrust
100% slip
Thrust
The thrust developed by the
propeller is determined by its
diameter, pitch, blade area and its
speed of rotation.
The speed of rotation of a prop is
determined by the horsepower
delivered to it.
At a steady boat speed, the
thrust from the propeller equals
the drag of the boat, so the thrust
depends on the shape of the hull,
its speed through the water, and
the propeller shape.
Slip angle
Slip angle is the
angle the blade
makes to the
water as the
blade rotates
Angle of Prop rotation
attack
This situation is normally
not possible as this
produces no thrust. It can
occur when motorsailing
when all the thrust is
provided by sail
This is how the propeller
normally operates at
maximum boat speed and
engine power
Thrust = Drag
This is what occurs when
the boat is moored to the
pontoon with the engine
running in gear. The boat
speed is zero. In reality,
maximum rpm will not be
achieved and maximum
thrust will be reduced
➜
67
6/9/10 11:40:37
 Gear
HOW DOES A PROPELLER WORK? – CONTINUED
Blade area
Up to the point at which blade
loading makes cavitation (see
page 70) likely, the blade area is
not a big factor, as reduced blade
area is made up by increased
pitch. If the prop is working close
to the cavitation point, extra blade
area will reduce the likelihood of
cavitation.
So if the prop is working well
within its limits, such as when
cruising, a two-blade prop (of
correct pitch) will produce a thrust
similar to a three-bladed one. In
fact, because each blade has
more room, it is likely to be more
efficient than a three-bladed prop
and deliver more thrust. However,
when the two-blade prop is
running under adverse conditions,
such as rough weather, or under
maximum acceleration, the
three-blade prop will then deliver
more thrust because its blade
loading will be lower.
Blade twist
The speed at which the propeller
blade meets the water varies along
its length, because the tip speed of
rotation is much faster than at the
root. In order that the blade’s
angle of attack is the same all the
way along, the propeller blade
must be twisted.
Specifying your propeller
A ll of the factors mentioned
are the concern of the
propeller designer, so by the time
you are considering buying a
prop they have been distilled into
two numbers – diameter and
pitch. These are the factors you
must get right to match your prop
to your boat. In addition, you will
need to specify the propeller
rotation, the material from which
it is made and its type.
Starting with a new installation, if
you know the dimension and
weight of your boat and the
desired maximum working speed,
you can then calculate the
required prop size and the engine
and gearbox necessary to drive it.
Some propeller manufacturers
even say you should decide on the
propeller dimensions first before
choosing the engine and gearbox
to match. If you suspect your
current prop is not providing your
boat with the best performance
and economy or if you are
overhauling your engine and
68
Props_fjp.indd 68
Water flow
We might well expect that the
water flow into the propeller disc is
the same as the boat’s forward
speed, but unfortunately life’s
never that simple.
Because of the friction between
the hull and the water, the flow
close to the hull is slowed down
and the water’s speed at the rear
of the hull is reduced.
Also, because the hull is curving
in towards the stern, this exerts
another slowing effect and if the
prop is mounted in a cutout in the
keel the slowing effect is
exaggerated.
Depending on the hull’s shape
and size and how close the prop is
to the hull, this reduction of water
speed into the propeller may be as
much as 40%.
So, when calculating the
propeller size, we must use only a
proportion of the boat speed in
order to get the flow into the prop.
Like slip, there are no hard and
fast figures, so again experience
supplies the numbers. Various
experts use figures between 20%
and 40% as the reduction in water
speed into the prop for
displacement motorboats and
sailing boats. The more the prop
protrudes into the fast flowing
water stream, the lower the
number.
gearbox unit, now is the time to
check the prop dimensions are the
best for the power delivery.
For existing installations, you’ll
need to know the power output of
your engine and the ratio of your
gearbox: the manufacturers
should be able to help. There is
also often technical assistance
available from the owners’
association for your type of boat.
Failing either of these options,
you can test the power yourself
using a rev counter with the boat in
the water. If the engine is able to
reach maximum revs at only
two-thirds throttle opening, for
example, the propeller needs to be
changed for one with a steeper
pitch. If the engine fails to reach
maximum revs altogether, a
shallower pitch should solve the
problem. As a rule of thumb, a 1in
reduction in pitch will increase the
engine’s rev capacity by 200rpm.
Many propeller suppliers offer a
propeller specification service, and
there are several ‘prop calculators’
BLADE AREA RATIO, TWIST AND SIZE
BLADE AREA RATIO (BAR)
20% 30%
Typical two-blade Typical two-blade
folding propeller fixed propeller
BLADE TWIST
– same angle of attack all along the propeller blade
Boat speed
Boat speed
Blade tip
speed
Blade
speed
through
water
on the internet which can help you
to work out which is the right one
for your boat. Even so, the
software is based on graphical
solutions incorporating
approximations of the various
factors. In the end, the calculations
will get you into the correct ‘ball
park’ but fine-tuning may be
needed after sea trials, so it’s best
to let the engine/propeller supplier
carry out the calculations. That
way, if the prop is not correct, at
least there’s some comeback.
Look at your existing propeller
and you’ll find stamped on the hub
something like 17 x 11 LH. The first
number (17) is the diameter of the
propeller in inches. The second
number (11) is the pitch of the
prop, also in inches, and the LH
denotes left-handed rotation.
Diameter
A slow-turning, large-diameter
prop is preferable to a smaller,
faster-spinning version. Exceptions
Practical Boat Owner 527 October 2010 • www.pbo.co.uk
45% 55%
Typical three-blade Typical three-blade
sailing propeller displacement
motorboat propeller
Boat speed
⁄ diam
23
speed ⁄ diam
13
speed
The actual pitch of a fixed blade
propeller varies from blade root
to tip, so that the angle of attack
is constant along the blade
occur when the prop reaches a
size that places significant twisting
moments on the shaft, leading to
severe vibration, or in the case of a
surface-piercing prop.
Increasing prop diameter
increases thrust, but you need a
minimum of 15% of the prop’s
diameter as clearance between
the prop tip and the hull. But in
general, go for the biggest prop
you can. A 1in increase in diameter
will allow you to reduce pitch by
around 2-3in for the same load.
Pitch
This is effectively the angle of
attack of the blade to the water (see
diagram, page 67). A propeller with
a high pitch angle will move greater
volumes of water than one whose
angle is less. This in turn is affected
by the shaft rotation speed and is
itself governed by the boat’s
engine and gearbox design.
The pitch is defined as how far
the propeller would push itself
6/9/10 11:52:26
 Choosing the right prop

Types of propeller
A PROP’S OPTIMUM OPERATING RANGE
Fixed pitch propellers
A fixed pitch propeller is the correct
Fig.1 Slip angle Fig.2 size only for one set of conditions.
Pitch angle Normally it’s designed to be
correct at the boat’s designed
Blade angle maximum speed and with the
of attack
engine developing maximum
power at the rated (maximum)
rpm. Under any other conditions
Prop shaft it’s the wrong size! This is because
Propeller thrust
the angle at which the blade is
Propeller drag* meeting the water changes as the
*The greater the prop drag, the more the engine torque needed to turn it forward speed of the boat changes
The best operating range for a propeller will be found with a pitch somewhere (see diagram, left).
between figure 1 and figure 2 where there’s the best compromise between the A fixed blade prop has very good
thrust produced by the prop and the torque (power) required to turn it. propulsive efficiency at the speed
for which it’s designed when under
power. In astern, the leading edge
PROPELLER SIZED FOR MAX SPEED, POWER AND RPM becomes the trailing edge
because the direction of rotation is
Boat speed Boat speed Boat speed of 0 knots reversed and thrust is reduced by
of 6 knots of 3 knots (boat stationary in water)
Resultant as much as 50%.
waterflow
onto blade
due to prop Waterflow
rotation due to
and boat rotation of
speed propeller

Blade angle Some props can be no larger than

of attack
Optimum angle of attack: Less speed through water,
maximum boat speed, greater angle of attack. More angle of attack. Insufficient
maximum engine power power required to turn prop.
Pitch ‘too big’
through the water with no slip. For
example, a simple woodscrew that
moves forward into the wood by
3mm each revolution has a 3mm
pitch. But there the difference
ends. The woodscrew works with
no slip because the wood is solid.
The water screw pulls itself forward
only because it can exert a force
on the water, working like an
aeroplane’s wing, so only a small
part of the water is accelerated by
the propeller.
Increasing pitch increases thrust,
but only up to the point that the
propeller blade stalls, when there’s
a dramatic fall in thrust and a large
increase in blade drag. Prior to
reaching this point, the pressure
on the ‘upper’ side of the blade is
reduced to such an extent that
cavitation occurs.
If you specify the wrong pitch, a
propeller specialist will be able to
adjust the pitch of a fixed pitch
prop by up to 2in to ‘tune’ the prop
to the boat if it’s not quite right.
Rotation
A right-handed prop turns
clockwise when viewed from
astern in forward gear, a left-
the constraints of their surroundings
Boat stationary, very large Under sail the drag is very high
engine power to turn
and for a three-blade prop a
prop=reduced rpm reduction in speed of 15% (0.9
knots at 6 knots) is possible when
compared with a feathering prop.
Typically a fixed three-blade prop
handed propeller turns anti- will have a Blade Area Ratio (BAR)
clockwise. This is dictated by the of about 50%, ie the area of the
engine and gearbox combination blades will be 50% of the area of
on your boat, so is rarely a matter the circle defined by the diameter.
of choice. A two-blade prop will have a BAR
of about 33% so it would have less
Materials sailing drag than the three-blader.
Slim two-blade props of 25%
This prop is mounted clear of the
It hasn’t just been propeller design hull on a P-bracket BAR are also available.
that has been affected by the
march of modern technology.
While bronze retains its
popularity, particularly in the
sailing market, there is now a
range of other materials for
propeller manufacture.
Aluminium propellers are in
common use on motorboats, while
stainless steel, though pricey, is
stronger than other propeller
materials, offering longer life and
high hydrodynamic efficiency
derived from stiffer blades for the
same given blade thickness.
Composite or plastic propellers
are also expanding from their niche
as small outboard propellers, with
Kiwiprop making a hybrid design
with replaceable plastic blades, or
various manufacturers producing
composite props for use in an
emergency when your main one ➜
is damaged. A typical three-bladed bronze propeller

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Props_fjp.indd 69 6/9/10 11:41:19

 Gear

Folding propellers
Under sail the blades come
together to offer minimal drag.
Folding props have considerably
less drag than a fixed prop when
sailing but some tend to slam or
jerk as they open and there’s
some lag as the throttle is opened.
They tend to be pretty poor in
astern because they don’t open
fully, and may also have less than
the optimum amount of twist and
hence are less efficient. Some are
more complex than others and
this is reflected in their price.
Folding two-blade props have a
small blade area (around 25%
BAR), so end up with high blade
loading and a risk of cavitation.
Folding three-blade props have
more blade area so run at a
satisfactory blade loading but still
have little twist. They need room
behind them to allow the blades to
fold backwards.
An interesting variation on the
folding prop is the Gori three-blade
propeller, which features an
overdrive mode allowing you to
move between a fine pitch for
maximum power and a coarse
pitch for cruising.
Feathering propellers
With the engine switched off, the
blades of feathering propellers
turn at their roots instead of folding
so that the blades are edge on to
Folding props offer reduced drag for a yacht
appropriate pitch for your boat.
They come in two- and three-
blade forms and have a greater
blade area (similar to a fixed prop)
than their folding brethren so have
a reasonable blade loading and
are less susceptible to cavitation.
However, they have no twist at all
so lose out on propulsive
efficiency, but are much better
than a fixed prop in astern
because the leading edge of the
blade remains the same as the
A composite
variable-
pitch
Kiwiprop
blade flips round when going
backwards.
Feathering props need room for
the blades to swivel, but not a lot
more than a conventional prop so
are often appropriate for long-
keeled boats with limited propeller
diameter clearance.
Self-pitching props
Brunton Propellers’ Autoprop
cleverly balances centrifugal force,
water load on the blade and
engine power using swivelling
blades, to give a continuously
variable pitch matched to the load.
This means that over quite a large
boat speed/engine power band,
the prop is always the ‘right size’,
MAINTENANCE
AND CORROSION
A Brunton Autoprop
with claimed advantages of better
fuel efficiency, more thrust and
lower cruising rpm. It’s also said to
work well when motoring in rough
weather.
Sailing drag is low, only a little
more than a feathering prop, and
like the feathering prop, the blades
flip round in astern so give good
reverse thrust. Additionally the
blades are properly twisted to
maintain a constant angle of
attack. Annual maintenance is
required to lubricate the ball races
and it would be as well to invest in
the special prop puller to avoid
damage if you have to remove it.
This type of prop needs room
both in front of and behind the
propeller to allow the blades
adequate room to swing.

A
the water flow past the prop. prop should be checked annually for
Under power, they swivel to an end condition and possible damage. Even a slight
stop, which is pre-set to an kink or a blade with a small section missing from
hitting a submerged object can cause the screw
to be out of balance resulting in a vibration,
CAVITATION, VENTILATION AND STALLING putting stresses on the shaft bearings and seals.
If the prop is made from bronze, once the

C avitation, ventilation and

stalling are sometimes
confused, although they’re
not the same thing.
Cavitation can occur at
any depth of water, and is
caused by the reduction in
pressure at the propeller
blade surface as the blades
spin faster. The faster the
blades move, the lower the
pressure around them will
become, until it reaches
vapour pressure – the point
where the water vapourises,
forming small gas bubbles.
As the bubbles collapse,
they release very strong,
localised shock waves,
which can cause severe
pitting damage to the
blades. Stainless steel
propellers can withstand
cavitation better than
aluminium or bronze ones.
Ventilation occurs when
surface air or exhaust gases
are drawn onto the propeller
Cavitation
Once a propeller begins working outside its optimum operating range forces
such as cavitation, ventilation and stalling can create problems.
blades. The load on the
propeller is reduced by
these gases mixing with the
water causing the engine to
over-rev. On outboard
engines this problem is
often overcome by the
installation of an anti-
ventilation plate cast into
the gear case housing
retaining nut and washer have been removed it
should be just a matter of a tap with a mallet and a
suitable block of wood to loosen it from the shaft.
Modern aluminium props may well need
encouragement with a heat source and a
professional
prop puller to
overcome sea
salt corrosion.
The more
Turbulence metal there is
due to stalled in the prop, the
prop blade
more anodic
protection it
needs. Some
folding and
feathering
props have Props sometimes need persuasion
directly above the propeller. anodes to release them from their shaft
Stalling occurs when the incorporated,
angle of attack of a prop’s but these are relatively small and may not last a
blades to the incoming water full season. Newer Volvo Penta saildrive legs are
is too great, just as an electrically isolated from the engine and rely
aeroplane’s wings will stall if solely on the anode at the bottom of the leg. Their
it climbs too steeply. If the heavy three-blade folding props can exhibit signs
blade pitch is too steep, slip of surface corrosion, so timely replacement of the
becomes too high and the leg anode is important.
propeller loses all thrust.

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Props_fjp.indd 70 6/9/10 11:41:40


WHICH PROP FOR WHICH BOAT?
N ormally propellers are sized
for maximum speed, so at
cruising power the prop will have
too fine a pitch. Size the prop for
cruising revs and the pitch will be
too great at higher rpm and the
engine won’t deliver maximum
power and the boat won’t reach its
design speed.
Many owners, given the choice,
will opt for the ‘cruising prop’ and
accept a lower top speed. This
gives more relaxed cruising and
better miles per gallon. However,
at maximum throttle there’s likely
to be dark smoke at the exhaust
and the engine may become
overloaded leading to premature
failure. This is the thinking behind
the Gori folding prop and Brunton
Autoprop – to give the best of both
worlds by changing pitch.
When sailing, we would like our
boat to have minimum drag. For
this we need a small blade area
propeller or even better, a folding
or feathering one. Once you try
and move away from a fixed prop,
you may need room for the blades
to fold or swing and lack of room
may dictate that only a certain type
of prop will fit.
If your prop size is restricted, be
wary of fitting too big an engine or
you may not be able to utilise all
the engine’s power because the
prop will cavitate.
Doing the sums
The sailing yacht owner needs to
consider several factors. Is speed
under sail paramount? Is cost
all-important? Is thrust under
power the primary concern?
For a 10.6m (35ft) sailing boat,
powered by a 30hp engine, the
accompanying graphs give some
idea of the effect of the propeller
GEAR RATIOS
T he gearbox is the mechanical interface
between the engine and the propeller
converting the engine’s revs, power and
torque curves into dimensions the
propeller can transmit to the water,
combining both gears and a simple clutch
device allowing the drive to be engaged
and reversed by the movement of, usually,
one lever. A typical ratio for a small boat
would be 2:1.
The choice of gear ratio is an integral part
of choosing the correct propeller,
especially where the diameter or the blade
is restricted. This fact often seems to be
ignored when installing a replacement
Practical Boat Owner 527 October 2010 • www.pbo.co.uk
Props_fjp.indd 71
Choosing the right prop
parameters on drag and hence
sailing performance.
It’s important, however, to read
depends on what boat it’s used
on. The same prop will give a
different performance on two
them has been derived from
several different sources.
The curves really just give an
the propeller performance curves different boats, which is why the indication of what the different
with a certain amount of caution. drag is not quantified in the props are capable of to give you
What you get with a given prop following graphs. The data to draw a starting point.
PROPELLER COMPARISON DATA
Drag of hull compared to drag of prop Reduction in drag without a propeller Propeller drag by type
Hull and
prop drag
0.4 knot
Hull drag
Hull drag
(no prop)
0.5 knot
Drag
Drag
Drag
0.6 knot
Fixed 3-blade Fixed
3-blade
prop drag
0.7 knot prop drag
2 6
0 2 4 6 8 0 4 8 0 2 4 6 8
Speed (knots) Speed (knots) Speed (knots)
At low speeds the sailing drag of This curve allows us to estimate The fixed three-blade prop has
a three-blade fixed prop is very the increase in sailing speed that significant drag, followed by the
significant, but this reduces at can be gained by removing the fixed two-blade prop. All the
higher hull speeds when wave drag of the prop. The improvement feathering and folding props
drag of the hull takes effect. is best at lower speeds. have significantly reduced drag.
Forward thrust Reverse thrust at 3 knots forward speed
Normally you don’t go rushing
100% 100%
backwards at 6 knots, so I
haven’t shown maximum power
in astern. To indicate the
75% 75% stopping power of the prop, I
show performance of the prop
Reverse thrust
in astern (see graph, left) with
50% 50% the boat moving forward at 3
Thrust
knots and the rpm increased as
you would when approaching a
25% 25% dock. The two-blade folder is
particularly poor and the
Brunton, although poor at very
low rpm, outperforms the
rpm rpm others as rpm is increased and
it adjusts its pitch.
Forward thrust of all the props
except the Brunton Autoprop Key to graphs
follow the propeller law principle
of being matched to the engine 3-blade fixed prop 2-blade fixed
power only at the ‘design’ speed.
3-blade folding (Volvo) Brunton Autoprop
The Brunton follows the engine
power output much more closely 3-blade feathering 2-blade folding
over a wide speed range.
More reading
Diesels Afloat by Pat
engine, especially if engine power is being
increased over the original.
If the prop diameter were restricted,
Manley, £19.99, Wiley,
includes 17 pages of
information on propellers.
gear ratio would become important to ISBN 978-0-470-06176-3
avoid overloading.
The relationship between the engine, Dave Gerr’s
gearbox and propeller is critical if the Propeller
drivetrain is to work at its best Handbook, £14.99,
performance. Generally the torque curve of Nautical Books,
a diesel engine is ‘flatter’ than a petrol covers propeller
engine, the unit delivering its maximum theory in an
power at lower revs (say 2,500-3,000rpm) easy-to-understand
while a high performance marinised petrol format.
engine will rev considerably higher to ISBN 0-7136-5751-0
create its maximum power.
71
6/9/10 11:41:55