FACULTY OF SCIENCE

Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology

STUDY GUIDE

MICROBIOLOGY I

SUBJECT/MODULE
NQF LEVEL QUALIFICATION
CODE

6 Dip: Food Technology (DPFT19) MIB105D

6 Dip: Biotechnology (DPBI19) MIB105D

 © COPYRIGHT: Tshwane University of Technology

Private Bag X680

PRETORIA

0001

All rights reserved. Apart from any reasonable quotations for the
purposes of research criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright
Act, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy and
recording, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed and distributed by:

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

Tshwane University of Technology

Private Bag X680

Pretoria

0001

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 SECTION A ORGANISATIONAL COMPONENT

1. WELCOME

The subject/module, Microbiology I, focuses on the scientific study of unicellular and

multicellular organisms and colonies, and their ecological interaction with human beings
and other life. The course is structured to complement the main offering in the Dip and N
Dip Biotechnology (DPBI19/NDBT01), Dip and N Dip Food Technology
(DPFT19/NDFT01). Discussion of examples specific to the relevant fields of study, will
be used to improve and customize the learning units.

This study guide serves as your guideline throughout the year and does NOT
replace the prescribed textbook. The study guide and presentations used are merely a
guideline, detailed information should be obtained and added from the textbook – all
information is subject to change according to student needs and factors that is
deemed important. Changes will be communicated with the students. Please refer to it
throughout the year for all the information regarding course alignment, scheduling, and
assessment information. The function of a lecturer/facilitator at a tertiary institution is to
make knowledge available to the student. The responsibility to master this
knowledge and to make it your own is entirely yours. It is of the utmost importance
that you master the language of the subject/module as soon as possible, i.e., terms and
definition. Without thorough knowledge of the language of the subject/module, you will
not understand this subject/module area. Should you experience problems with the
work, it is your responsibility to consult the lecturer/facilitator.

We trust you will find the course interesting and informative and of value to your future
endeavours.

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2. Staff

2.1 CONTACT DETAILS

ACADEMIC STAFF
NAME CAMPUS ROOM NO TEL NO CONSULTA- ACADEMIC
TION TIMES FUNCTION

THEORY AND
ARCADIA
Dr E JORDAAN 4-104 (012) 382 6240 Please consult with PRACTICAL
CAMPUS
your designated LECTURER
lecturer regarding
consultation times
ARCADIA PRACTICAL
Mr C VAN ROOI 4-104 (012) 382 6239
CAMPUS LECTURER

MODERATION

NAME CAMPUS ROOM NO TEL NO ACADEMIC FUNCTION

ARCADIA
Ms DM DIMPE 4-104 (012) 382 6351 MODERATOR
CAMPUS

ADMINISTRATION
NAME CAMPUS ROOM TEL NO CONSULTA- ACADEMIC
NO TION TIMES FUNCTION

By prior THEORY AND

ARCADIA
Dr E JORDAAN 4-104 (012) 382 6240 arrangement with PRACTICAL
CAMPUS
Dr Jordaan LECTURER

ARCADIA DEPARTEMENTAL
Ms C BRIEL 4-104 (012) 382 6240 10H00-12H00
CAMPUS ADMINISTRATOR

ARCADIA DEPARTEMENTAL
Ms M VISSER 4-104 (012) 382 6256 10H00-12H00
CAMPUS ADMINISTRATOR

LIBRARY
NAME LOCATION TEL NO CONSULTATION TIMES

Ms MALETE 012 382 6321

LIBRARY MONDAY – FRIDAY
Ms APPELCRYN 012 382 6250

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 STUDY GUIDANCE (SDS – STUDENT DEVELOPMENT AND SUPPORT)
CAMPUS ROOM NO FUNCTION

PRETORIA 4-G08 Student Life & Governance, many support possibilities

ARCADIA BUILDING 1

INTERACTIVE CONTACT – CONTACT OR ONLINE CONTACT

NAME CAMPUS CONSULTATION EMAIL
TIMES

MONDAY TO
Dr E JORDAAN ARCADIA CAMPUS jordaane@tut.ac.za
FRIDAY

2.2 STAFF AVAILABILITY

If, after attending class and making every effort from your side to master content, you still have problems
with understanding concepts or principles or their application, lecturers/facilitators are available for
consultation. Your lecturer/facilitator will be available in the allotted consulting hours, or by appointment.
This information will be provided in class.

3. YEAR PLAN

3.1 CONTACT SESSIONS

Theory and Practical offering

The subject/module requires that you attend all contact sessions as scheduled. 2 contact sessions
(Theory), equal to 4 hours per week (Theory) and 1 contact session (Practical), equal to 3 hours per week
(Practical).

DAY ROOM TIME

Monday 5G01 08:00-09:30

Tuesday 5G01 08:00-11:00

Wednesday 3:113 and 3:115 11:00-12:00

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Information regarding work schedules

• Depending on circumstances, the work schedule may be changed. Any such

changes will be communicated during contact sessions and in advance.

• The work schedules have been developed to facilitate normal academic

procedure. Due dates must be adhered to and no apology will be considered.
Student preparation should be such that assignments (if applicable) are
completed and submitted well in advance, and scheduled test dates are
adhered to. Inability to meet any deadlines at any time throughout the semester
should be reported to the lecturer/facilitator as soon as possible with the
necessary validation (medical certificate or an authoritive avadavat).

• Two weeks after each semester test, there will be a feedback session for the
relevant test. ONLY during these sessions, will marks be amended.

• After all the practical classes there will be certain follow-up periods. Each
student must take responsibility for their own work as the information will be
needed to answer the questions in the laboratory reports and of the tutorials
(where applicable). Marks may be allocated for the tutorials, and these may be
taken into consideration for the final practical mark. ONLY during these
sessions, will marks be amended.

• Should you fail to be at the laboratory in the time slot indicated on the lists,
which will be posted at the laboratory prior to this test, you will forfeit your
position and subsequently will be awarded zero (0).

NOTE: Practical retraining will NOT contribute to the final practical mark or
change it in any way.

• No individual special/ sick tests will be written following each test. One test will
be given (after all three semester tests were written) for students who submitted
a doctor’s letter(s) / death certificate(s) for ANY of the semester tests. This test
will cover ALL chapter/units dealt with and will be written shortly after the third
test (prior to predicate day). This test will count between 50 and 100 marks and
the lecturer/facilitator can ask any questions and need not cover the whole
syllabus (as it is impossible to cover all chapters/units in just 100 marks).

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4. Resources and recommended material

4.1. PRESCRIBED RESOURCES

The following tables indicate what literature and other resources are essential for
successful completion of this course. You are strongly advised to acquire the prescribed
resource.

PRESCRIBED LITERATURE

CATEGORY AUTHOR NAME PUBLISHER ISBN NO

Willey, J.M., Sandman, K. Prescott’s McGraw Hill

Books Microbiology, 11th or 0077350138
and Wood, D. Publishers
12th Edition

4.2 RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

The following recommend resources will enhance your understanding and knowledge in this course, and
you are encouraged to use the following additional resources.

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

CATEGORY AUTHOR NAME PUBLISHER

Madigan, M.T., Martinko, J.M., Brock Biology of

Books Prentice Hall
Dunlap, P.V. and Clark, D.P. 2009. Microorganisms. 12th edition.

5. CODE OF CONDUCT

5.1 ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR

The Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology values student honesty and
ethical behaviour. For this reason, (aligned with TUT policies), it prohibits plagiarism and
violations of the Copyright Act in the preparation of assignments. Plagiarism entails the
use of any published work or part thereof, whether from a book, a Web page, or other
source, without due acknowledgement and the use of the correct citation method. This
prohibits ‘copy and paste’ exercises of written content without rewriting it in own words or
placing it in quotation marks, even if the source is acknowledged. The same applies to
tables. Under all circumstances, the source of any secondary information should be
cited.

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5.2 CLASS ATTENDANCE

Regular attendance of lectures is of primary importance. It is the student’s responsibility

to sign the register during each lecture. A minimum attendance of 80% is mandatory.

5.3 RESPONSIBILITIES OF STUDENTS

It is your responsibility to make a success of acquiring the knowledge offered in this

course. To this end you are encouraged to attend classes, write set tests, attend
practical’s submit assignments (if applicable) on the set due dates.

6. ASSESSMENT METHODS AND CRITERI A

Assessment of this course will include written theory semester tests, practical tests,
tutorials/assignments etc. The purpose of assessment is to determine whether you have
achieved the learning outcomes. The various assessment methods will therefore focus
on criteria that will enable the lecturer/facilitator(s) to determine whether you have
achieved the learning outcomes. The assessment criteria relevant to each learning
outcome are detailed in the relevant section.

6.1 ASSESSMENT RULES

The general rules of TUT regarding assessment apply. You are advised to familiarise
yourself with these rules, as they are applied stringently.

6.1.1. TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS

Assessment: Microbiology I is a year course. This subject/module will be assessed

using written semester tests, practical test or tutorials/assignments etc. The tests are
compulsory; a sick test and can only be written if:

• A valid doctor’s certificate was submitted within 48 HOURS (three workdays) after a
missed test. If you are unable to bring the letter in person within that period, you may
fax a copy within 48 hours, and bring the original ASAP.
• Missed tests for which no letter/reason was received (and accepted) = 0%

Please note that, in concurrence with TUT policy, no optional tests will be
permitted. Assessment for passing the subject/module will take the form of a one three-
hour closed book examination at the end of the year. No work will be written off; the
exam will assess all the work done through the year (Work schedule).

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Test Rules - applicable to theoretical and practical tests:
ALL EXAMINATION RULES APPLY, WITH NECESSARY CHANGES, TO ALL TESTS (Diary with
Students’ Rules and Regulations):

• Students should be seated in the test venue 15 minutes before the test session
commences, ready to start writing.
• On your desk should be pen, pencil, ruler, eraser, and calculator if needed. Have
additional writing aids available in case of an emergency.
• No student may enter the test venue after the test has been in progress for 30
minutes or longer.
• No student may leave the test venue before at least 30 minutes have lapsed after
the test has commenced.
• No student may leave the test venue after entering (for whatever reason, including
going to the toilet) before the commencement of the test or during the test session.
• The student may only leave the venue once his/her script was submitted for
assessment.
The following are not allowed in the test venue and may not be in possession of
the student:

• Hats / pets
• Book bags / cases / or any other bags or containers
• Pencil bags / cases
• Cellular phones, i-phones, mobile phones, MP3 players, i-pods, earphones, or any
other electronic devices
• Textbooks, workbooks, notes, memoranda, sketches or any other form of paper or
document, even blank, unused paper
• Any other aid that has bearing on the test subject, even if it bears no relation to the
test itself.
• Students need to remove everything they might require for the test, from their bags,
before entering the test venue
• Students may not use a pocket calculator in a test unless expressly authorised to do
so by the relevant lecturer/facilitator and then only pocket calculators that are
specifically permitted. The calculator function of a cellular telephone may not be used
during tests.
All students must sign the attendance register when they are submitting the scripts. You
will not be allowed to sign the attendance register later and will thus be considered to be
absent from the test and will receive 0.

6.2 MARKING SYSTEM

Marks in tests and the assignment will be allocated according to a memorandum based
on the prescribed work. Practical applications will be assessed and marked accordingly.

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6.3 PREDICATE MARK

The following is required of students to obtain admission to write examinations:

• 80% class attendance

• A minimum predicate mark of 40% for theory and a minimum predicate mark of 50%
for practicals.

Weight of the tests and assignment when calculating the predicate, are as follows:

PREDICATE MARK

Theory

(Theory test 1 + Theory test 2 + Theory test 3 + Theory test 4) /4 (and / assignment and
project marks, whatever marks apply for a specific year)

= 40 % (minimum)

Practical

Practical evaluations do not all carry the same weight.

[Practical mark A (practical tests/quizzes) + Practical mark B (tutorials)] x 0.40 +

[Practical Mark C (skills test)] x 0.60 (whatever marks apply for a specific year)

= 50% (minimum)

Calculation of final predicate mark

Should the theoretical AND practical minimum be obtained, the predicate will be
calculated as follows:

[(Theory test 1 + 2 + 3 +4)/4] *0.6 + (final practical mark) *0.4 = Final predicate.

NOTE: Practical retraining for students who obtain less than 80%
for the skills test is compulsory. If a student is absent from the re-
training the initial mark obtained will be changed to 0%.

NOTE: Predicate marks published, and students have to view prior to the finalisation of
the predicate marks. If you have queries about your mark, you must immediately
consult your lecturer/facilitator before or on predicate day. Once the predicate mark
is entered on TUT’s mainframe database, the mark cannot be changed.

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SECTION B LEARNING COMPONENTS

6.4 MODERATION

The examination and supplementary examination papers in this course are assessed by
an examiner and moderated by a moderator.

6.5 PROMOTION REQUIREMENTS

The final mark will be calculated as follows (examination assessment):

1. Examination mark 50%

2. Predicate mark 50%

A 40% theory predicate and 50% practical predicate is a prerequisite for admission to the
examination and this predicate count 50% of the combined predicate and examination
mark. A combined predicate and examination mark of at least 50% is necessary to pass
the subject/module. A student fails if he or she does not achieve a sub-minimum of 40%
in the examination, even if the combined mark is 50% or more. A combined mark of 45%
is needed to qualify for a re-examination.

7. OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

The course will familiarise the student to the field of microbiology. The module begins
with rudimentary principles in Microbiology and then applications in Microbiology.
Aspects that will be covered during the course include the evolution of microorganisms;
microbial nutrition; basic principles of cell structure and function; microbial growth and
growth control. Applications in Microbiology will be explained by examples such as plant-
microbial symbiosis, industrial application of microorganisms and animal-microbial
interaction.

7.1 PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

The purpose of the course is to develop a rudimentary understanding of the fundamental

principles and applications in Microbiology.

7.2 LINKS TO OTHER SUBJECT/MODULES

Microbiologist combines the fields of biochemistry, cell biology, genetics, chemistry, cell
biology, and physics in their day-to-day work or experiments.

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8. COURSE CONTENT AND SCHEDULE OF TESTS AND ASSIGNMENTS

This course comprises both a theory and practical component. Your mastery of the
theory and practicals are assessed at regular intervals.

The following outline provides an overview of the content to be covered in this course
and the ways in which your progress will be assessed.

8.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

The following tables clearly indicate what you must achieve (the learning
outcomes) and how you will be assessed (assessment criteria) to determine
whether you have achieved the required knowledge and competences.

The following icons are used throughout the study guide:

This icon denotes the This icon denotes the

start of a new study prescribed and
unit additional resources

This icon denotes the This icon denotes

specific outcomes of preparation required
the unit for the unit

This icon denotes the This icon denotes

chapter/unit outline terms and definitions
and assessment pertaining to the study
criteria of the unit unit

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8.1.1 MODULE INFORMATION THEORY
INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOME (ILO)
CHAPTER/UNIT 1
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining, or
listing) of the main role players
in the history of
Microbiology and their
contribution to the field of
microbiology as well as the
basic microbial divisions
CHAPTER/UNIT 2
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
and basic ability to operate
microscopes.
Students should be able to
effectively stain different
specimens and use light
microscopes to examine their
morphology
CHAPTER/UNIT 3
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining, or
listing) of the main nutritional
groups with the carbon, energy
and electron sources for each
group, as well as its
application with regard to
cultivation media and plating
techniques.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
This will be evident when:
1. Knowledge on the Science of Microbiology, including the Spontaneous
generation theory and supporting evidence to disprove this theory. This
will be explained and discussed in tests and classroom to ensure students’
understanding of the origins of Microbiology.
2. The theory of Koch's Postulates will be described to demonstrate students
understanding of the process as well as to convey their understanding of
how the pathogenicity of a specific organism is verified.
3. The diversity of organisms, their impact on humankind and their role on in
the biosphere is described and discussed by providing relevant examples
in tests and class discussions.
4. The basic differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells should be
discussed with reference to their appearance – size, shape, cellular
arrangement as well as all cellular components and functions, in table form
in tests and discussions hereof in class to show the students
understanding of these major divisions in the microbial world.
This will be evident when:
1. The light microscope and its function is described and applied by obtaining
a clear image of stained specimens.
2. The basic operation of two types of electron microscopes is identified, their
functions described and discussed in tests and in class to show the
students understanding of the specific type of microscope and how to
apply this knowledge to sample preparation to obtain a clear image of
stained specimens.
3. A proper selection of staining techniques is made and applied to enable
the student to identify the morphology of an organism, using the light
microscope. Discussions in class and tests will show the students
understanding of the staining techniques and their functions.
This will be evident when:
1. The differences between the ten elements that microorganisms require in
large amounts (macro nutrients), should be listed in table form in tests
and discussions in class to show the students understanding of this major
group of nutrients.
2. The differences between the six elements that microorganisms require in
trace (small) amounts (micronutrients), should be listed in table form in
tests and discussions in class to show the students understanding of this
major group of nutrients.
3. Knowledge of the four main nutritional groups should be explained and
discussed in tests and class to convey students’ understanding and
importance of the concept.
4. The various processes by which cells obtain their nutrients from the
environment i.e., passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active
transport will be compared and discussed in tests and classroom to
convey students’ understanding and the importance of these concepts
and its applications.
5. Knowledge of the various types of culture media used for cultivating
microorganisms, as well as the techniques used to obtain pure cultures
i.e., spread plate, streak plate and pour plate methods should be
demonstrated by comparing and discussions in tests and classroom to
convey students’ understanding and the importance of these concepts
and its applications.
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 INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOME (ILO)
CHAPTER/UNIT 4
Students should be able to
demonstrate understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining, or
listing) of the differences
between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
CHAPTER/UNIT 5
Students should be able to
demonstrate understanding
(by describing, naming,
comparing, explaining or
microscopic evaluation) of the
eukaryotic cell structure and
functions of the cells.
CHAPTER/UNIT 6
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining or
listing) of fungi
CHAPTER/UNIT 7
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining or
listing) of protists
CHAPTER/UNIT 8
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining or
listing) of viruses
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
This will be evident when:
1. The differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells should be
compared with reference to their appearance – size, shape, cellular
arrangement as well as all cellular components and functions, in table
form in tests and discussions hereof in class to show the students
understanding of these major divisions in the microbial world. A relevant
selection of staining techniques will be selected and applied to enable the
student to identify the gram status of an organism, using the light
microscope.
2. Knowledge on the composition of the cell walls of prokaryotic organisms
will be explained and discussed in tests and classroom discussions to
convey students’ understanding of the contribution to the gram reactions
and subsequent identification of bacteria.
This will be evident when:
1. Knowledge of the eukaryotic cells and cell structure need to be
demonstrated in tests and discussions, in class to show the students
understanding of this important group of organisms.
2. Distribution, importance, nutrition and metabolism of fungi and protists in
general, as well as their morphological characteristics will be explored and
discussed in tests and in class to show the students understanding of this
important group of organisms.
3. Asexual and sexual reproduction will be explained and discussed in tests
and in class to show the students understanding and knowledge thereof.
This will be evident when:
1. Fungi – a general understanding of characteristics of the different
structure of this group of organisms (different divisions)
2. An ability to demonstrate the importance of nutritional patters and
metabolic behaviour of this group.
3. An explanation of economic relevance and importance of this group of
organisms
4. The reproduction methods of this group is understood and can be
explained
5. A discussion on the distribution should be given
This will be evident when:
1. PROTISTS - a general understanding of characteristics of the different
structure of this group of organisms (different divisions)
2. An ability to demonstrate the importance of nutritional patters and
metabolic behaviour of this group.
3. An explanation of economic relevance and importance of this group of
organisms
4. The reproduction methods of this group are understood and can be
explained.
5. A discussion on the distribution should be given
This will be evident when:
1. The general characteristics of viruses, as well as the structure of the four
basic morphological groups of viruses should be discussed and explained
in tests and during class to convey knowledge and understanding thereof.
2. Discussions of reproduction of DNA bacteriophages, emphasising the lytic
cycle of these phages, as well as the lysogenic cycle of bacteriophages
will be evaluated in tests and class to demonstrate students’
understanding thereof.
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 INTENDED LEARNING
OUTCOME (ILO)
CHAPTER/UNIT 9
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining, or
listing) of microbial growth
patterns and different
cultivation systems.
Additionally, students should
be able to divide
microorganism in groups
based on environmental
factors.
CHAPTER/UNIT 10
Students should be able to
demonstrate an understanding
(through discussions,
describing, naming,
comparing, explaining, or
listing) control of
microorganisms by mostly
physical & chemical agents
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
This will be evident when:
1. The different phases of growth in a closed culture system should be named,
discussed and drawings made to demonstrate the stages of growth in tests
and during class discussions to convey knowledge and understanding of
these concepts.
2. Demonstrate knowledge of the measurement of microbial growth, i.e. cell
numbers and cell mass, explained and discussed in tests and classroom
discussions to convey students’ understanding.
3. The differences between a chemostat and turbidostat as continuous culture
systems should be described in tests and during class discussions to
convey knowledge and understanding of these cultivation systems.
4. The influence of different environmental factors on the growth of
microorganisms should be described and explained in tests and during
class discussions to enable the student to divide the microorganisms into
groups based on environmental factors conducive to optimal growth of the
organism.
This will be evident when:
1. The processes of disinfection, sanitation, antisepsis and sterilization
should be explained through comparisons and discussions in tests and
during class to convey knowledge and understanding of the different
applications thereof.
2. Differences in the destruction of vegetative cells, the pattern of microbial
death and the influence of environmental factors on the efficacy of
antimicrobial agents should be explained in tests and during class
discussions.
3. Safety aspects of the various physical and chemical agents to control
microorganisms, as well as safety in the microbiology laboratory will be
discussed and knowledge will be demonstrated in tests and during class
discussions to convey students’ understanding thereof.
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8.1.2 MODULE OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENTS

CHAPTER/UNIT 1:

The evolution of microorganisms and Microbiology

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

At the end of this chapter/unit, you should be able to explain / discuss

the following:
• The science of Microbiology
• The historical concept of spontaneous generation, and the
experiments performed by various persons to disprove this theory
• Koch's Postulates
• Describe some other activities of microorganisms (other than
causing disease)
• Describe basic differences between prokaryotic- and eukaryotic
cells
CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

The Discovery of Microorganisms

Definition of Microbiology
Early discovery of microorganisms. Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1623-
1723) built "first microscope" and was the first person to accurately
observe and describe microorganisms

The Spontaneous Generation Theory

• The concept of spontaneous generation: living organisms
develop from non-living matter
• Francesco Redi (1626-1697)- conducted experiments with
maggots on rotting meat
• Louis Pasteur (1822-1895): conducted experiments to finally
disprove the spontaneous generation theory

The Recognition of the Role of Microorganisms in Diseases

Robert Koch (1843-1910): established the relationship between anthrax
and Bacillus anthracis. Based on this, Koch's Postulates were set up
and are still used to this day in order to associate a specific organism
with a specific disease.

The Composition of the Microbial World

Basic and more important differences between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells

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ASSESSMENT METHODS

• Written or online test(s)

• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)
PREPARATION REQUIRED

Reading of chapter/unit (or supplementary material) prior to class,

This chapter/unit serves as an introductory and orientation unit.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.
A few examples:
• Microbiology, Microorganisms, Prokaryotic, Spontaneous
generation theory etc.
CHAPTER/UNIT 2:

The study of microbial structure: Microscopy and specimen preparation

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

At the end of this chapter/unit, you should be able to:

• Describe the different parts of the light microscope.
• Describe the operation of the different parts of the light
microscope and how they contribute to the functioning of the
microscope
• Describe the fluorescence microscope and its operation
• Compare the different images obtained by the different light
microscopes
• Describe the basic operation of and also the most important
differences between the two types of electron microscopes
• Describe the preparation and principles of staining specimens
• Describe the various stains as well as their uses

CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

The Light Microscope

• The bright-field microscope forms a dark image against a brighter
background
• Definition of resolution and its practical importance
• Use of immersion oil
• Calculation of total magnification of a microscope
• The dark-field microscope forms a bright image against a darker
background and is used to observe unstained preparation.

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• The phase-contrast microscope enhances the contrast between
structures within the cell that exhibit slight differences in their
refractive index; excellent way to observe living cells
• The fluorescence microscope exposes the specimen to ultraviolet-
, violet- or blue light and forms a bright image of the object with
the resulting fluorescent light
The Electron Microscope
• A beam of electrons is used instead of a light source, which
results in an image with a resolution of ± 1000 times better than
that of the light microscope.
• Basic differences between the action of TEM and SEM
(preparation of specimens excluded).
Preparation and Staining of Specimens
Definition of fixation
• Dyes and simple staining are used to make internal and external
cell structures more visible by increasing the contrast with the
background
• Differential staining is used to divide bacteria into different groups,
based on their different reactions to an identical staining procedure
• Gram stain method and use
• Acid fast stain method and use
• Staining of specific structures-
• Negative stain: Capsule stain (method and use)
• Endospore stain: Method and use
• Flagella stain: Principle of the stain

NB: All sketches / and or graphs which may be applicable to the above,
are important.
ASSESSMENT METHODS
• Written or online test(s)
• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)
PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.
A few examples:
• Resolution, Fixation, Working distance, Parfocal etc.

CHAPTER/UNIT 3:

Microbial nutrition

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RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

At the end of this chapter/unit, you should be able to:

• List the ten elements that microorganisms require in large amounts
(macro nutrients)
• List the six elements that microorganisms require in trace (small)
amounts (micronutrients)
• List the four main nutritional groups together with the carbon,
energy and electron sources for each group
• Compare the various processes by which cells obtain their nutrients
from the environment i.e. passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
active transport
• Describe the various types of culture media used for cultivating
microorganism’s i.e. synthetic, defined, selective and differential
media. You must also describe how each of these media are
normally used for studying microorganisms
• Describe the techniques used to obtain pure cultures i.e. spread
plate, streak plate and pour plate methods
CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

Common Nutritional Requirements

• Macro nutrients (C, O, H, N, S, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe) are required in
relatively large amounts
• Micronutrients (Mn, Zn, Co, Mo, Ni, Cu) are required in trace
amounts and are normally present in sufficient concentrations in
water used for the preparation of culture media, or even in the
normal media components themselves

Requirements for Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

Carbon source/Energy source
• Carbon:
o Autotrophs utilize carbon dioxide as main carbon source
o Heterotrophs utilize reduced, pre-formed organic molecules as
carbon sources
• Energy:
o Phototrophs utilize light as their energy source
o Chemotrophs obtain energy from oxidation of organic or inorganic
substances
Hydrogen / Electrons:
o Lithotrophs utilize reduced inorganic substances as electron
source
o Organotrophs utilize reduced organic substances as electron
source
Nutritional types of microorganisms
Most microorganisms may be divided into groups based on their
sources of carbon, energy and electrons.
• Photolithotrophic autotrophs
• Photolithotrophic heterotrophs
• Chemolithotrophic autotrophs
• Chemoorganotrophic heterotrophs

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Requirements for Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulphur
May come from organic or inorganic sources
Uptake of Nutrients by the Cell
• Facilitated diffusion makes use of a carrier molecule to increase
rate of diffusion-, net movement is from a higher to a lower
concentration
• Active transport makes use of metabolic energy to transport
molecules to the inside of the cell, where the concentration of the
substance is already higher (i.e. against a concentration gradient)

Culture Media
• Synthetic (defined) media are media in which all the components
and their concentrations are known
• Complex media contain some ingredients of unknown composition
and or concentration
• Agar is a sulphated polymer which can be used to solidify liquid
media
Types of media - definitions of the following types of media are
important:
• General purpose media
• Enriched media
• Selective media
• Differential media

Isolation of Pure Cultures

The following methods for the isolation of pure cultures must be learnt:
• Spread plate
• Streak plate
• Pour plate
• Colonies are macroscopically visible growths or clusters of micro-
organisms on solid media
• Colonies grow fastest at their edges, where oxygen and nutrients
are available - they grow more slowly in the centre
ASSESSMENT METHODS
• Written or online test(s)
• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)

PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.

A few examples:
- Active transport, Antiport, Chemotrophs, Permeases etc.

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CHAPTER/UNIT 4:

Prokaryotic cell structure and function

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

• The different sizes, shapes and cellular arrangements of bacteria

• The bacterial plasma membrane and internal membrane structures
found in some prokaryotes
• The appearance, composition and function of the various internal
membrane structures found in prokaryotes
• The composition of the gram-positive and gram-negative cell wall
as well as how these differences contribute to the gram reaction
• The role of the bacterial cell wall in protecting the cell against
osmotic pressure
• All the external structures/appendages, as well as their
composition, appearance and functions
• Arrangement of bacterial flagella
• How bacteria react to chemicals
• The production of the bacterial endospore as well as its function,
appearance and possible arrangements (positions)
• Table of differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

An Overview of the Prokaryotic Cell Structure

• Size, shape and arrangement
• Prokaryotic cell organization
• Prokaryotic Cell Membranes
ASSESSMENT METHODS

Written or online test(s); Written exams; In class, peer discussion

forum(s)
PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.

A few examples:
• Amphiphatic molecule, Hydrophillic, Osmosis, Endospore,
Chemotaxis etc.

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CHAPTER/UNIT 5:

Eukaryotic cell structure and function

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

• Describe the common features of Eukaryotic cells

• Describe the Eukaryotic cell envelope
• Discuss the cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
• Elaborate on the organelles of the secretory and endocytic
pathways
• Discuss the organelles involved in genetic control of the cell
• Discuss the organelles involved in energy conservation
• Discuss the external structure of a Eukaryotic cell
CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

Common features of eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells are distinctive because of their use of membranes.
They have membrane delimited nuclei and membranes play a
prominent part in the structure of many other organelles.

Eukaryotic cell envelopes

Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

Organelles of the Secretory and endocytic pathways

• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosymes
• Secretory pathway
• Endocytic pathway

Organelles involved in genetic control of the cell

• Nucleus
• Eukaryotic ribosomes
Organelles involved in energy conservation
• Mitochondria
• Hydrogenesomes
• Chloroplasts
External structures
• Cilia and flagella are the most prominent external structures, they
are associated with motility in eukaryotes
Overview of Protists/fungal structure and function
• Protist/fungal morphology
• Encystment and Excystment
• Protist/fungal reproductive cell and structure

- 22 -
ASSESSMENT METHODS

• Written or online test(s)

• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)
PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.
A few examples
• Cilia, Cristae, Cytoskeleton, Endocytosis

CHAPTER/UNIT 6:
The Fungi

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

• Discuss the distribution and importance of fungi

• Discuss the morphological characteristics of fungi (i.e. structure)
• Discuss nutrition and metabolism of fungi
• Discuss the formation of both asexual and sexual reproduction
• Characteristics of the fungal divisions
CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

Introduction
Fungi are eukaryotic, spore-bearing organisms without chlorophyll
that reproduce sexually and asexually, and whose usually
filamentous structures have cell walls consisting mainly of chitin
(sometimes cellulose as well)
Fungi are a monophyletic group with different divisions.
Chytridiomycota
Mucoromycota (formally considered a single group Zygomycota)
Glomeromycotina
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
Microsporidia
Distribution
• Mainly soil inhabitants; some are inhabitants of fresh- or sea water
• Wide range of temperature preferences (some grow at –6 °C,
while others prefer 55 °C)

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 • Tolerant of unusual environmental conditions
• May form associations with plant roots (mycorrhizae) or algae or
cyanobacteria (lichens)

Importance
Beneficial:
• Decomposition of organic material in nature
• Industrial fermentations eg. beer, wine, bread, antibiotics etc.
• Research
Detrimental:
• Main causes of plant diseases
• Food spoilage
• Cause of some diseases of humans and animals eg. ringworms

Structure
• Thallus - body or vegetative structure of fungus
• Chitin - nitrogen-containing, flexible (yet strong) polysaccharide
found in cell wall
• Yeast - unicellular fungus with single nucleus that reproduces
asexually by budding or sexually by spore formation
• Mould - fungus with long, branched, threadlike filaments
• Hypha - filament of a mould
• Mycelium - a mass of hyphae
• Dimorphism - characteristic of some fungi where they shift
between a yeast form and a mould form

Nutrition and Metabolism

• Most fungi are saprophytes
• Fungi secrete enzymes that hydrolyse polymers in the
environment (extracellular enzymes)
• Heterotrophic
• Most have an optimum pH of 5,5 (range 2-9)
• Most have an optimum temperature of 20-35 °C (some lower-,
pathogens normally higher)

Reproduction
Asexual reproduction:
• Binary Fission
• Fragmentation
• Budding
• Direct spore formation
• Sporangiospores
• Conidia
• Blastopores

Sexual reproduction:
• Involves fusion (union) of compatible nuclei
• Some fungi are self-fertile (male and female gametes on same
mycelium), whilst others bear only male OR female gametes

Characteristics of the Fungal Divisions

ASSESSMENT METHODS

• Written or online test(s)

• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)

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PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.

A few examples: Mycology

• Sporangiospore
• Fungus
• Mycotoxicology etc.
CHAPTER/UNIT 7:
Protists

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

• Discuss the different habitats

• Discuss criteria used to divide the organisms into groups
• Discuss nutrition
• Discuss morphology and structure
• Discuss reproduction

CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

Introduction
• Algae are plants, protists or bacteria that lack roots, stems or leaves
• Algae contain chlorophyll and other pigments to carry out oxygenic
photosynthesis
• Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic protists that are normally motile

Distribution of Protists
• Planktonic - suspended in aqueous environments
o Phytoplankton
o Zooplankton
• Benthic - attached to and live on the bottom of water masses
• Neustonic - live at the air-water interface
• Fresh water, sea water and moist terrestrial environments
• Free-living and parasitic in plants and animals

Morphology and structure of Protists

• The protist cell membrane, the plasmalemma - multicellular
organisms
• Ectoplasm and endoplasm - pellicle

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• Contractile vacuoles - osmoregulation
• Phagocytic vacuoles - food digestion
• Several energy conserving organelles

Encystment and Excystment

• Many are capable of encystment and excystment

Reproduction
• Binary Fission, also budding
• Sexual reproduction found in most species

Protist classification:
Discoba-Metamonada Clade
Metamonada Clade
Amoebozoa Clade
TSAR Clade
Haptista Clade
Archaeplastida Clade

ASSESSMENT METHODS

• Written or online test(s)

• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)

PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.

A few examples
• Phycology, Benthic, Plankton, Fragmentation, Protozoology,
Pseudopodia, Trophozoite, Autogamy etc.
CHAPTER/UNIT 8:
Viruses and other acellular agents

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology11th or 12th. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

• Discuss the general characteristics of viruses

• Discuss the cultivation of different viruses
• Discuss the structure of viruses as well as the four basic
morphological groups

- 26 -
• Discuss the reproduction of DNA bacteriophages with specific
emphasis on the lytic cycle of these phages
• Discuss the lysogenic cycle of bacteriophages

CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

General Characteristics of Viruses

• Simple, acellular organization - one or more molecules of DNA or
RNA surrounded by a protein coat and sometimes by other more
complex layers as well
• Absence of both DNA and RNA in the same virion
• Obligate intracellular parasites

Cultivation of Viruses - requires inoculation of living host

Animal viruses:
• Suitable host animals
• Embryonated eggs
• Tissue cultures (monolayers of animal cells)
Bacteriophages - broth or agar cultures of suitable, young, actively
growing host cells
Plant viruses:
• Plant tissue cultures
• Cultures of separated plant cells
• Whole plants
• Plant protoplast cultures

The Structure of Viruses

Virion size - 10 nm to 400 nm
Nucleic acid - genome:
• May be either RNA or DNA; single strand or double strand; linear or
circular
• May contain same bases as normal DNA or RNA or may contain
other bases (e.g., hydroxymethylcytosine instead of cytosine)
• Capsid - protein coat that surrounds genome; protects viral genetic
material and aids in its transfer between host cells:
• icosahedral - regular polyhedron with 20 equilateral triangular faces
and 12 vertices; appears spherical
• Helical - hollow tubes with a protein wall formed in a helical or spiral
arrangement - may be flexible or rigid
Viral envelopes and enzymes:
• Envelopes - membrane structures which envelop some viruses (not
all); lipids and carbohydrates normally originate from the host, whilst
proteins are virus-specific
• Enzymes - some viruses have capsid-specific enzymes which may
be required for virus attachment or entry into the host cell-, many of
these enzymes are involved in replication of viral nucleic acid

Reproduction of DNA Bacteriophages: The Lytic Cycle

Adsorption to host cell and penetration

• Viruses attach to specific receptor sites, DNA injected into host cell
- leaves empty capsid behind

Synthesis of phage nucleic acid and proteins:

• Host synthesis of DNA, RNA and protein is stopped
• Some virus-specific mRNA's (early MRNA) are formed

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 Early proteins formed and:
a. Take over host cells
b. Degrade host DNA
c. Replicate viral nucleic acid
• Virus nucleic acid is replicated

Assembly of phage particles:

• Capsid proteins are manufactured
• Non-capsid proteins required for assembly and / or lysis are also
manufactured
• Assembly occurs in specific sequence
• Packaging of virus DNA may differ:
• Some phages build capsid around DNA
• Some phages insert DNA in preformed (but incomplete) capsid
structures

Release of phage particles

• Enzymes damage the cytoplasmic membrane
• Other enzymes damage the cell wall
• In some cases phages are released without lysis -mechanism
unknown

Temperate Phages and Lysogeny

• Temperate phages are able to undergo lysogeny
• Lysogeny - the virus genome is integrated into host DNA and
replicates together with it; it does not kill the host cell (no lysis)
• infection may determine whether the virus will be lytic or lysogenic
ASSESSMENT METHODS

• Written online test(s)

• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)

PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams

A few examples
• Bacteriophage, Virulent phage, Virion, Capsid etc.
CHAPTER/UNIT 9:
Microbial growth

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RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 9th or 10th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

OUTCOME

• Name and discuss the different phases of growth in a closed

culture system
• Describe and apply the term generation time
• Briefly describe measurement of microbial growth, i.e. cell numbers
and cell mass
• Describe the chemostat and turbidostat as continuous culture
systems, as well as the differences between the two
• Describe the influence of the different environmental factors on the
growth of microorganisms, viz. water activity, pH, temperature,
oxygen concentration, pressure, radiation
• Divide microorganisms into groups based on environmental factors
conducive to optimal growth of the organism
CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

The Growth Curve

• Lag phase - organisms are busy adapting to their new environment
before growth can begin
• Logarithmic (exponential) phase - organisms grow at their
maximum rate which is determined by a number of factors
• Stationary phase - number of viable micro-organisms remains
constant due to a number of reasons
• Death phase- cells die at exponential rate
• Mathematics of growth
• Generation time is the time required for the entire population to
double

Measuring Microbial Growth

Measuring cell numbers:
• Direct count methods
• Viable cell counts
• Measurement of cell mass

The Influence of Environmental Factors on Growth

Water activity is inversely related to osmotic pressure and may have a

profound effect on cell growth. The following types of organisms are
important:
• Osmotolerant organisms
• Halophilic organisms

pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

Organisms may be divided into groups based on the pH ranges at
which they grow best:
• Acidophiles - pH 1,0-5,5
• Neutrophiles -pH 5,5-8,5
• Alkalophiles - pH 8,5-11,5

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Temperature
• Psychrophiles grow well at 0 °C. Optimum at 15 °C or lower. Will
not grow above 20 °C
• Psychrotrophs can also grow at 0 °C. Growth-optimum between
20-30 °C and growth-maximum at ± 35 °C
• Mesophiles: growth-minimum between 15-20 °C; growth-optimum
between 20-45 °C; growth-maximum at 45 °C or lower
• Thermophiles: growth-minimum ± 45 °C; growth-optimum
between 55-65 °C or higher; growth-maxima may be higher than
100 °C

Oxygen - the following terms are important:

• Obligate aerobes
• Facultative anaerobes
• Aerotolerant anaerobes
• Obligate anaerobes
• Micro-aerophiles

Pressure
• Barotolerant organisms, Barophilic organisms

Radiation - the following types of radiation are important:

• Ultraviolet irradiation, Ionizing irradiation
ASSESSMENT METHODS
• Written or online test(s)
• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)

PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.

A few examples:
• Acidophiles, Psychrophiles, Obligate aerobes

CHAPTER/UNIT 10:
The control of microorganisms by physical, mechanical, chemical and
biological agents

RESOURCE(S) Prescribed textbook:

Willey, J.M., Sherwood, L.M. and Woolverton, C.J. Prescott’s

Microbiology. 11th or 12th Edition. McGraw Hill Publishers.

- 30 -
OUTCOME

• Know and compare the processes of disinfection, sanitation,

antisepsis and sterilization with one another
• Discuss the differences in application in the destruction comparison
to the destruction of vegetative cells
• Discuss the exponential pattern of microbial death
• Discuss the influence of environmental factors on the efficacy of
antimicrobial agents
• Discuss the uses and limitations of various physical and chemical
agents to control microorganisms
• Discuss safety in the microbiology laboratory
CHAPTER/UNIT OUTLINE

Terminology
• -cide - a suffix indicating that a specific agent will kill a particular
organism (e.g., virucide, fungicide, bactericide)
• -static - a suffix indicating that a specific agent will prevent the
growth of a particular organism

The Pattern of Microbial Death

Microorganisms do not die immediately when exposed to lethal
agent - the population decreases constantly at the same rate
(exponential death)

Conditions which Influence the Efficacy of an Antimicrobial Agent

• Population size
• Population composition
• Concentration / intensity of antimicrobial agent
• Duration of exposure
• Temperature
• Local environment

The Use of Physical Methods for Control

Heat:
Moist heat
• Boiling water is effective against vegetative cells
• Autoclaving (steam under pressure) is effective against all
vegetative cells and most endospores
• Pasteurization is especially effective for heat sensitive substances
which cannot be exposed to high temperatures for long periods of
time
• Tyndallisation is especially effective to sterilize heat sensitive
substances or to destroy extremely resistant endospores
Dry heat
• Dry heat can be used to sterilize moisture-sensitive substances
e.g., powders, oils; it is not as effective as moist heat, as higher
temperatures and longer exposure times must be applied
Filtration
• sterilizes heat sensitive liquids and gases by removing
microorganisms rather than destroying them
Radiation
• Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is effective only for surface sterilization
as it cannot penetrate glass, water, layers of dirt and other
substances
• Ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, etc) is effective and has
good penetration abilities, but is expensive and long-term effects

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 do occur

The Use of Chemical Agents for Control

• Phenols laboratory and hospital disinfectants
• Alcohols - widely used as disinfectants and antiseptics; will not
destroy endospores
• Halogens - widely used as disinfectants and antiseptics
• Heavy metals - effective but normally toxic
• Quaternary ammonium compounds - cationic detergents which
are used as disinfectants for food equipment and small
instruments also antiseptic due to low toxicity
• Aldehydes - chemical sterilants, but may cause skin irritation
• Sterilizing gases (e.g., ethylene oxide, beta-propiolactone, etc.) -
may be used for sterilization of heat sensitive substances such as
plastic petri dishes

The Use of Biological Agents for Control

Safety in the Microbiology Laboratory

• Important safety aspects are named and discussed
ASSESSMENT METHODS

• Written or online test(s)

• Written exams
• In class, peer discussion forum(s)

PREPARATION REQUIRED

Learners are required to prepare the relevant chapter/unit in the

prescribed textbook before attending class.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

It is your responsibility to compile and master a list of terms and

definitions considering that these are always asked in tests and exams.

A few examples:
• Sterilization, Disinfection, Disinfectant, Pasteurization etc.

Glossary of terms

Specific keywords will be used in the questions to guide your response, for example: discuss,
evaluate, explain, compare, criticize, discuss critically, etc. Always read questions carefully to ensure
that you answer them correctly. Several keywords are explained in more detail below:

Define
This requires a short and concise description of the meaning of a specific word, concept or idea. Where
possible, elements should be specified and explained by means of examples. Where necessary, similarities
and contrasts between the word, concept or idea and other related words, concepts or ideas should be
spelled out.

Analyse

This requires that distinguishing elements be highlighted, causes and effects identified, and the underlying
relationships pointed out.

- 32 -
Discuss

This requires a detailed review of the phenomenon, matter or event on the basis of arguments about
cause-effect relationships, advantages and disadvantages, as well as reasons why these specific
relationships exist or why a specific result ensues. Discussion requires insight into the matter discussed
and the ability to argue a case. Please note that you may be asked to discuss only a specified aspect - for
example the disadvantages of a method or the most important causes of a problem.

Explain

This requires an indication of the logical relationship between events, activities or actions in such a way
that the reader can deduct how and why a process follows a given path. In addition, the reader must be
able to recognise that you (as the person giving the explanation) have a good grasp of the matter. In order
to explain, you must give a considerable amount of detail. You must explain how things are connected, why
they are connected in precisely that way and no other, and why a certain result is achieved. Explanation
therefore requires both knowledge and insight.

Set out

This requires the organisation of material. In order to "set out", you must first sort and arrange facts,
arguments, characteristics, etc, according to specific points of departure in a new, often original, way.
Thereafter the material is discussed, and, where necessary, explained.

Describe

This requires a reflection of the characteristics of a phenomenon, without any detailed commentary about
the why’s and how’s of the matter. In other words, this involves, firstly, a description of what characteristics
are present and how characteristic these are, and, secondly, an indication of the ways in which the
phenomenon is similar to, or differs from, other phenomena. In some cases, the verb "describe" refers to
the description of a process. In such cases, you are required to set out the sequence of actions, activities
or events leading to a specific outcome. Sketches and diagrams may be used fruitfully to illustrate the
process. You are not required to discuss advantages or disadvantages - all you are required to do is to
"present a picture" of the process for the reader.

Compare

This requires a comparison between two or more phenomena, methods or techniques, being weighed
against each other with regard to dimensions such as exceptional characteristics, advantages and
disadvantages, similarities and differences as well as the relative strong and weak points of each. Normally
a reasoned conclusion is reached on the basis of the comparison.

Indicate

The term is synonymous to the term ‘explain’.

Name, list and tabulate

This requires a list of names, dates, reasons, facts, advantages, characteristics, etc. You are not required
to provide arguments or to explain processes. Tabulation usually refers to the organisation of information
so as to provide a clear and systematic overview.

Evaluate

- 33 -
This requires the application of criteria against which to measure a technique, method or approach.
Evaluation is usually followed by a deduction or conclusion. In such a case, you are required, firstly, to
indicate which criteria were applied in the evaluation, and, secondly, to set out your conclusion.

Differentiate

This requires an indication of differences – i.e. distinguishing characteristics. Two or more phenomena,
events or processes are analysed and described in such a way that differences or distinctions are clearly
identified.

Prove/support

This requires the logical ordering of information, facts and arguments to substantiate or motivate a specific
conclusion. In this regard, extensive use may be made of statistics, research findings, historical facts, as
well as of inductive and deductive reasoning.

10 REFERENCES
Willey, J.M., Sandman, K. and Wood, D. 2019. Prescott’s Microbiology. 11th Edition. McGraw-Hill LLC,
1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019

Willey, J.M., Sandman, K. and Wood, D., 2023. Prescott’s Microbiology. 12th Edition. McGraw-Hill LLC,
1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019

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