Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohol or compounds which yield these

derivatives on hydrolysis.
Example: glycerol (trihydric alcohol) ------ oxidation → D-glyceraldehyde (carbohydrate)
 They are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones
 Polyhydric / polyhydroxy = containing more than one hydroxyl (-OH) group
 -OH group is also known as alcohol group

Classification of carbohydrate:
1. Monosaccharide/simple sugar [Cn(H2O)n]: the simplest form of carbohydrate which cannot be
hydrolyzed further.
Usually 3-9 carbon compounds.
Are building blocks for di, oligo and polysaccharides.
e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose, ribose, ribulose.
2. Disaccharides [Cn(H2O)n-1]: carbohydrates made of condensation of two monosaccharide units by
glycosidic bond.
These produce two monosaccharides on hydrolysis. e.g.,
maltose = glucose + glucose
lactose = glucose + galactose
sucrose = glucose + fructose
3. Oligosaccharides: carbohydrates made of condensation of 3-10 monosaccharide units by
glycosidic bonds.
e.g., maltotriose, raffinose, blood group substances.
4. Polysaccharides [C6(H10O5)n]: carbohydrates made of condensation of more than 10
monosaccharide units by glycosidic bond.
These are polymers of monosaccharides.
e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose, MPS, glycoprotein.

Sugar: carbohydrates which are water soluble, crystalline and sweet in taste.
e.g., all monosaccharides and disaccharides.

Non-sugar: carbohydrates which are water insoluble and amorphous.

e.g., polysaccharides.

Reducing sugars: sugars which act as reducing agent in alkaline media.

Because they have free anomeric carbon with free aldehyde/ketone functional group.
e.g., all mono and disaccharides except sucrose.

Nonreducing sugars: sugars having no free aldehyde/ketone functional group.

Their functional groups are usually engaged in glycosidic bond formation.
Aldehyde group (C1) of glucose forms glycosidic bond with ketone group (C2) of fructose leaving no
functional group free. So, sucrose is non-reducing.

Tests for reducing sugar: Reducing sugar

1. reduce alkaline CuSO4 solution (positive Benedict’s test)
2. form osazone crystal with phenylhydrazine.

Classification of polysaccharides:
1. Homopolysaccharides / homoglycans: polymer of similar type of monosaccharide units
connected by glycosidic bonds.
e.g., starch, glycogen, dextrin, dextran, cellulose, inulin.
2. Heteropolysaccharides / heteroglycans: polymer of different types of monosaccharide units or
their derivatives connected by glycosidic bonds.
e.g., MPS / GAG
Carbohydrate part of glycoprotein

Amylose Amylopectin
10-20% of starch 80-90% of starch
Low molecular weight High molecular weight
200-1000 glucose molecules Few thousands of glucose molecules
Sparingly water soluble Water insoluble
Unbranched / straight chain Highly branched
Gives blue color with dilute iodine solution Gives reddish-violet color with dilute iodine
solution

Glycogen Starch
Animal source Plant source
Highly branched Less branched (amylopectin)
Unbranched (amylose)
Molecular weight 10-40 lacs About 5 lacs
Gives deep red color with iodine solution Gives reddish violet color with iodine solution
Storage form of carbohydrate in human Main dietary carbohydrate in human

Dextrin: polymer of α-D-glucose produced by partial hydrolysis of starch.

α-amylase causes random cleavage of glycosidic bonds inside the starch to produce dextrin.

Dextran: polymer of α-D-glucose produced by microbes (bacteria, yeast).

Branched, non-digestible, and colloidal.
Used as plasma expander.

Cellulose: polymer of β-D-glucose, straight chain structure.

Plant sourced, gives no energy.

Inulin: polymer of fructose and water soluble. Low molecular weight (about 5000) and found of onion,
garlic etc.
No dietary importance.
Used for GFR measurement.

Types of MPS/GAG
Hyaluronic acid Connective tissue, synovial fluid
Chondroitin sulfate-A Cartilage, bone, tendon
Chondroitin sulfate-C Cartilage, bone, tendon
Chondroitin sulfate-B Skin, blood vessels
Heparan sulfate Cell surface, basement membrane
Keratan sulfate Cartilage, cornea
Heparin Mast cells

Properties of Carbohydrates

Physical Properties of Carbohydrates

 Stereoisomerism – Compound shaving the same structural formula but they differ in spatial
configuration. Example: Glucose has two isomers with respect to the penultimate carbon
atom. They are D-glucose and L-glucose.
  Optical Activity – It is the rotation of plane-polarized light forming (+) glucose and (-)
glucose.
 Diastereo isomers – It the configurational changes with regard to C2, C3, or C4 in glucose.
Example: Mannose, galactose.
 Annomerism – It is the spatial configuration with respect to the first carbon atom in aldoses
and second carbon atom in ketoses.
Chemical Properties of Carbohydrates
 Osazone formation: Osazone are carbohydrate derivatives when sugars are reacted with an
excess of phenylhydrazine. eg. Glucosazone
 Benedict’s test: Reducing sugars when heated in the presence of an alkali gets converted to
powerful reducing species known as enediols. When Benedict’s reagent solution and
reducing sugars are heated together, the solution changes its color to orange-red/ brick
red.
 Oxidation: Monosaccharides are reducing sugars if their carbonyl groups oxidize to give
carboxylic acids. In Benedict’s test, D-glucose is oxidized to D-gluconic acid thus, glucose is
considered a reducing sugar.
 Reduction to alcohols: The C=O groups in open-chain forms of carbohydrates can be
reduced to alcohols by sodium borohydride, NaBH4, or catalytic hydrogenation (H2, Ni,
EtOH/H2O). The products are known as “alditols”.

Properties of Monosaccharides
 Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructose is sweetest; 73% sweeter than
sucrose).
 They are solids at room temperature.
 They are extremely soluble in water: – Despite their high molecular weights, the presence
of large numbers of OH groups make the monosaccharides much more water-soluble than
most molecules of similar MW.
 Glucose can dissolve in minute amounts of water to make a syrup (1 g / 1 ml H2O).
 Chemistry of lipid

Lipids are heterogenous group of organic substances related either actually or potentially to fatty acid
that are soluble in fat solvent but insoluble in water.
Examples of common fat solvents are: benzene, ether, chloroform and alcohol.
Lipids are not polymers.

Classification of lipid:
o Simple lipids are esters of FA with alcohol.
(Simple lipid = FA + alcohol)
e.g. neutral fat / TAG / TG and wax.
o Complex / compound lipids are esters of FA with alcohol along with other non-lipid substances.
(Complex / compound lipid = FA + alcohol + non-lipid substance).
e.g. phospholipid, glycolipid, lipoprotein.
o Derived lipids are derivativities of simple and complex lipid obtained by their hydrolysis which
still possess the general characteristics of lipid.
e.g. FA, alcohol, glycerol, steroid, cholesterol, fat soluble vitamins, prostaglandins and ketone
bodies.

Neutral fat / TG / TAG is the triester of fatty acids with glycerol.

TAG = 3 FA + glycerol. Draw TAG.

o They are neutral because they don’t carry any charge at physiological pH.
o FAs in TAG are mostly palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid.
o Neutral fats of plant source (e.g. vegetable oil) have more UFA and that of animal source (e.g.
ghee, egg) have more SFA.
o If fats are solid at room temperature (25° C) they are simply called fat, but if they are liquid, they
are called oil. Fats contain more SFAs but oil contain more UFAs.

Wax are esters of FA with long chain monohydric alcohol.

e.g. retinol ester, cholesterol ester, vitamin D ester.

Complex / compound lipids

Phospholipids are esters of FA with alcohol attached to phosphoric acid (with or without nitrogen base).
Phospholipid = FA + alcohol + H3PO4 + nitrogen base.

Classification of phospholipid:
Two types (depending on type the alcohol present).
1. Glycerophospholipid (alcohol is glycerol)
So, Glycerophospholipid = FA + glycerol + H3PO4 ± nitrogen base
2. Sphingophospholipid / sphingomyelin (alcohol is sphingol or sphingosine) So,
Sphingophospholipid = FA + sphingol + H3PO4 + choline
= ceramide + H3PO4 + choline.
Examples of Glycerophospholipid and their importance:
Glycerophospholipid Composition Nitrogen base
Phosphatidic acid (PA) FA + glycerol + H3PO4 -
Lecithin (Phosphatidylcholine) PA + choline choline
Cephalin (Phosphatidylethanol PA + ethanol amine ethanol amine
amine)
Phosphatidylserine PA + serine serine
Phosphatidylinositol (lipositol) PA + inositol -
Phosphatidylglycerol PA + glycerol -
Diphosphatidylglycerol 2(PA + glycerol) -
(cardiolipin)
Lysophospholipid Glycerophospholipid – 1 FA Mostly present
from C1 or C2

o Sphingophospholipids / Sphingomyelins are components of biological membrane and myelin sheath.

o Sphingolipid = ceramide
= FA + Sphingol
So, sphingolipids are ceramide based complex lipids. Two types:
1. Sphingophospholipid / sphingomyelin
2. Glycolipid / glycosphingolipid.
Importance of sphingolipids:
 Are components of biological membrane
 Sphingophospholipids / sphingomyelins form myelin sheath.

Classification of lipids

Based on polarity: Polar & nonpolar

1. Polar lipid / amphipathic lipid has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions and show limited water
solubility.

Amphipathic lipid Polar / hydrophilic portion

FA -COOH group
Phospholipid Phosphate, nitrogen base
Glycolipid Carbohydrate moiety
Bile salt -OH, taurine, glycine
Bile acid -OH
Cholesterol -OH
2-MAG -OH

2. Nonpolar lipid: TAG, CE, retinol ester, vitamin D ester.

* FA: -COOH group containing aliphatic, organic acid.
* FAs are weak acids with pK values 3-5.
* Short chain FAs (<10 C) are water soluble and directly absorbed from intestine.
* Long chain FAs (>10 C) are water insoluble and cannot be directly absorbed from intestine.
* 90% of FAs in human are of even number C.