BUSITAT 2

MOD 2 : SAMPLING & DATA 1. Using A Census for Small Population

2. Using Sample Size of a Similar Study
GATHERING TECHNIQUES 3. Using Published Tables
4. Using Formulas to Determine Sample Size
Slovin’s Formula
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
N is the population size
e is the margin of error
- According Webster (1986), to research is to search or n is the sample size
investigate exhaustively.
- Research is information gathering, and it is having The "margin of error" is a value which quantifies possible
information which allows us to make informed decisions. sampling errors.

ETHICAL STANDARDS A RESEARCHER Sampling error means that the results in the sample differ from
SHOULD ADHERE TO: the target population because of the "luck of the draw".

- Adapted from Shamoo A and Resnik D. 2009. Responsible Analysis of the votes for Candidates A & M in the Dec. 27-28
Conduct of Research, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford
University Press).
survey using a sample of 2,100 and a margin of error of +/-2%...
1. Honesty 1. Vote for Candidate A = 44%:
2. Objectivity This implies that in the population, the votes for candidate
3. Integrity A could range from 42% - 46% if election was held on Dec.
4. Carefulness 27 - 28.
5. Openness 2. Vote for Candidate M was = 33%:
6. Respect for Intellectual Property This implies that in the population, the votes for candidate
7. Confidentiality M could range from 31% - 35% if election was held on
8. Responsible Publication Dec. 27-28.
N=8,756 9. Respect for Colleagues
Votes for A: Dec. 27-28 survey using a sample of 1200 was 44%: This
implies that in the population, the votes for A could range from 42% - 46%
DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE
if election is held on
n=2,123
Sample size is number of members of the sample. Dес. 27-28.
Example: Questions: If during election, the votes for A
You may want to take a survey of cell phone owner’s 1. is 45%, was there a sampling error?
brand preferences. 2. is 40%, was there a sampling error?
BUSITAT 2
SWS found that 70% of Filipino men have experienced falling in love at first Sampling
sight, as compared to only 58% of Filipino women. The survey used +/-3% - is the process of selecting samples from the given
margin of error and surveyed 1,200 adults. population
- This implies that in the population 67% - 73% of Filipino Sample
men have experienced falling in love at First sight as
compared to only 55% - 61% of Filipino women. - group of individuals who will actually participate
in the research
Example 1:Find n if N = 10,000 & e = 5%
**To draw valid conclusions from your results, you
𝑁 10,000 have to carefully decide how you will select a sample
𝑛= =
1 + 𝑁𝑒 ! 1 + 10,000 (. 05)! that is representative of the group as a whole.
10,000
= = 𝟑𝟖𝟓
1 + 25
PROBABILITY VS SAMPLE
Example 2:Find n if N = 10,000 & e = 1%
𝑁 10,000
𝑛= = First, you need to understand the difference between a
1 + 𝑁𝑒 ! 1 + 10,000 (.01)!
10,000 population and a sample, and identify the target
= = 𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
1+1 population of your research.
Example 3: Find "e" if N = 10,000 & n =2,000 - The population is the entire group that you want
𝑁 10,000 to draw conclusions about.
𝑛= ; 2,000 =
1 + 𝑁𝑒 ! 1 + 10,000 (𝑒)! - The sample is the specific group of individuals
that you will collect data from.
Cross Multiply
2,000 (1 + 10,000 𝑒 ! ) = 10,000
2,000 + 20,000,000𝑒 ! = 10,000 TWO TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
20,000,000𝑒 ! = 8, 000
Biased Sampling
8,000 - Non-probability sampling
𝑒! = - involves non-random selection based on convenience or
20,000,000
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect initial data.
- In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based
! !,###
!$#,###,### = 0.02 or e = 2% on non-random criteria, and not every individual has a
chance of being included.
BUSITAT 2
- This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it
has a higher risk of sampling bias, and you can’t use it to
make valid statistical inferences about the whole
population.
- Non-random sampling
o Each member of the population does not have a
known chance of being included in the sample.
o Instead, personal judgment plays a very important
role in the selection.
o Non-probability sampling is one of the sources of
errors in research. The samples are called
BIASED SAMPLES!
Unbiased Sampling
- Probability sampling
Þ involves random selection, allowing you to make
statistical inferences about the whole group.
- Random sampling
o Samples are chosen in such a way that each
member of the population has a known though not
necessarily equal chance of being included in the
sample.
o Probability sampling avoids biases that might
arise if samples were selected based on the whims
of the researcher. The samples are called
UNBIASED SAMPLES!
Example 1: Anthony selected 100 adults visiting a Zoo and asked them if
they own pets. He found that 86 of them did own a pet. He concluded that
86% of all adults own pets. Explain why Anthony's conclusion is NOT
valid.
Anthony's conclusion is NOT VALID because his samples
usually fond of pets. This is an example of biased sampling, and
the 100 samples are called biased samples.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: PROBABILITY
SAMPLING – UNBIASED SAMPLES
1. Simple Random Sampling
- all members of the population have an equal chance
of being included in the sample
Ex. - Lottery Method
Þ "Glass Bowl" Technique
Þ Roulette Wheel Method
Þ You want to select a simple random sample
of 100 employees of Company X. You
assign a number to every employee in the
company database from 1 to 1000, and use a
random number generator to select 100
numbers.
2. Systematic Sampling
- Every member of the population is listed with a
number, but instead of randomly generating
numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
- It selects every Kth member of the population with
the starting point determine at random.
Ex. - Selecting every 4th member of N = 100 with 5
as a random start gives us: 5, 9, 13,...
Þ All employees of the company are
listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10
numbers, you randomly select a starting point:
number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th
person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and
so on), and you end up with a sample of 100
people.
3. Cluster Sampling
- This is sometimes called area sampling. It is usually
used when the population is very-very large. Instead
of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.
- This method is good for dealing with large and
dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error
BUSITAT 2
in the sample, as there could be substantial 3. Using equal allocation, how many from each group should be taken as
differences between clusters. It’s difficult to sample?
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really 𝑛! 𝑛!
representative of the whole population. No. of No. of Samples No. of
Strata Families Percent %
(Proportional) Samples
Ex. - The company has offices in 10 cities across the (Equal)
country (all with roughly the same number of Class A 1,000 1,000
employees in similar roles). You don’t have the 5,000 0.2(370) = 74 123
= 0.20 𝑜𝑟 20%
capacity to travel to every office to collect your Class B 1,500 1,500
data, so you use random sampling to select 3 5,000 0.3(370) = 111 123
offices – these are your clusters. = 0.30 𝑜𝑟 30%
Class C 2,500 2,500
5,000 0.5(370) = 185 123
4. Stratified Random Sampling = 0.50 𝑜𝑟 50%
- involves dividing the population into N= 5,000 n = 370 N = 369
subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It
allows you draw more precise conclusions by 𝑁 5000
ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented 1] 𝑛 = = 370
1 + 𝑁𝑒 ! 1 + 5000(.05)!
in the sample.
- Classification may be based on districts, socio-
economic status, sex, work, etc. depending on the SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: NON-PROBABILITY
problem being studied. SAMPLING – BIASED SAMPLES
- This is used when the population can be sub-divided
into several smaller groups or strata, and then
samples are randomly selected from each stratum. • In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based
on non-random criteria, and not every individual has a
Ex. A community in which the total population
consists of individuals whose religious affiliations chance of being included.
are found to be Catholics, 50%; Protestants, 25%; • This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it
Muslims, 15%, Non-Affiliated, 10%. has a higher risk of sampling bias, and you can’t use it to
make valid statistical inferences about the whole
Proportional Allocation Equal Allocation population.

Ex. 3. Stratified random sampling
1. Using e= 5%, how many families should be included in the sample?
2. Using proportional allocation, how many from each group should be taken as
sample?
Convenience Sampling
- A convenience sample simply includes the individuals
who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
- This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial
data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
- representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results.
BUSITAT 2
Ex. You are researching opinions about student
support services in your university, so after each
of your classes, you ask your fellow students to
complete a survey on the topic. This is a
convenient way to gather data, but as you only
surveyed students taking the same classes as you
at the same level, the sample is not
representative of all the students at your
university.
**You decide to use a mixed-methods approach to collect both
quantitative and qualitative data.
Based on the data you want to collect, decide which method is best
suited for your research.
• Experimental research is primarily a quantitative method.
• Interviews/focus groups and ethnography are qualitative
methods.
• Surveys, observations, archival research and secondary data
collection can be quantitative or qualitative methods.

DATA COLLECTION DATA COLLECTION METHODS

• Data collection is a systematic process of gathering

observations or measurements. Whether you are performing
research for business, governmental or academic purposes,
data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and
original insights into your research problem.

• While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall
process of data collection remains largely the same.

Before you begin collecting data, you need to consider:

1. The aim of the research
2. The type of data that you will collect
3. The methods and procedures you will use to collect,
store, and process the data

Examples of quantitative and qualitative research aims:

You are researching employee perceptions of their direct

managers in a large organization.
1. Your first aim is to assess whether there are significant
differences in perceptions of managers across different
departments and office locations.
2. Your second aim is to gather meaningful feedback from
employees to explore new ideas for how managers can
improve.
BUSITAT 2
DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES
1. The Direct or Interview Method:
- In this method, the researcher has a direct contact with the
respondents.
- andeffect relationships.
- The researcher obtains the information needed by asking
questions and inquiries from the interviewee. The
researcher can get more accurate answers or responses since
clarifications can be made if the interviewee or respondent
does not understand the question. Is costly and time-
consuming.
Ex. A researcher would interview respondents regarding
their stand or view on a particular issue.
2. The Indirect or Questionnaire Method/Survey:
- The researcher gives or distributes the questionnaire to the
respondents either by personal delivery or by mail. makes
use of written questionnaire.
-
- The researcher can save a lot of time and money in
gathering the information needed because questionnaires
can be given to large number of respondents at the same
time.
- The researcher cannot expect that all distributed
questionnaires will be retrieved because some respondents
simply ignore the questionnaires
- Clarification cannot be made if the respondents do not
understand the questions.
Ex. A researcher makes a survey regarding the opinion of
CSB students on the implementation of dress code.
3. The Registration Method:
- This method of gathering data is governed by laws.
Ex. If a researcher wants to know the number of registered cars,
she just have to go to the Land Transportation Office; the
list of registered voters in the Philippines is found at the
COMELEC; etc...
4. The Experimental Method:
- This method of gathering data is used to find out cause
Ex. The researcher wants to know if Online Statistics will
increase the academic performance of the students. What
s/he has to do is to get two Statistics classes of equal
intelligence. Give ordinary classroom lecture in one group
while the other will be enrolled online. At the end of the
term, give the same test to both groups, compare their
scores and by the use of some statistical tools, find out if
their academic performance are significantly different.
5. Observation Method
- is used for respondents that cannot talk, write or think.
Ex. The researcher wants to see how the plant is growing
when a certain soil is being used.
Types of Questionnaire:
• Open
• Closed
• Combination
Types of Questions:
• Multiple Choice
• Ranking
• Scales
Reliability & consistency should be tested by getting
Cronbach's Alpha
• Open-ended-essay type
aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to
develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched
population.