Steady Uniform Flow

through Circular
Pipes
Lecture#2
 Turbulent Flow
through Circular
Pipes
 Turbulent Flow
• It is that type of flow in which fluid particles don’t move in
laminations and paths of the fluid particles intersected by each
other. In this flow inertial forces are dominant and viscous
forces are very low. This type of flow occurs at very high
velocity.
• Consider part (a) and (b) of the figure for laminar flow where
velocity increases with ‘y’. While the fluid particle (finite fluid
masses) are moving horizontally to the right, because of
molecular motion, molecules will cross the line ‘ab’ thereby
transfer momentum. The velocity of molecules below line ‘ab’
is lesser as compared to the molecules moving above this line.
Turbulent Flow
 Turbulent Flow
• Therefore molecules which cross from below tend to slow
down faster moving fluid and molecules which cross line ‘ab’
from above will tend to speed up the slower moving fluid
below. This results in production of viscous shear stress along
the surface whose trace is ‘ab’ given by newton’s equation of
viscosity.
• In part (c) of the figure turbulent flow is explained where
instead of molecules fluid particles move across line ‘ab’ and
turbulent flow velocity of any fluid particle fluctuates both in
magnitude and direction. As a consequence a multitude of
small eddies are created by viscous shear between the
adjacent particles. These eddies grow in size and then
disappear as their particles merge into adjacent eddies. Thus
there is continuous mixing of particles with consequent
transfer of momentum.
Shear stresses in Turbulent Flow

r
 Shear stresses in Turbulent Flow
• In turbulent flow the shear stress distribution is similar to
laminar flow i.e. zero at center and maximum at the pipe wall.
Total shear stress at any point/distance ‘r’ from the centerline
is equal to viscous shear stress (τvis) plus turbulent shear
stress (τtur). Where viscous shear stress id due to molecular
momentum interchange and turbulent shear stress is the result
of exchange of momentum of fluid particles..
• There are two important concepts/expressions/theories to
describe shear stress in turbulent flow.
• First expression (Boussinesq’s theory)
• Second expression (Prandtl’s mixing length theory)
 Shear stresses in Turbulent Flow
• First expression (Boussinesq’s theory)
• According to this expression the turbulent shear stress (τtur) is
proportional to velocity gradient i.e.

𝑡𝑢𝑟

𝑡𝑢𝑟

Where is eddy-viscosity and is not constant for a given fluid at

a given temperature but depends on turbulence of flow. It is also
termed as coefficient of momentum transfer. Its magnitude may
range from zero to many thousand times the value of ‘μ’.
The total shear stress in turbulent flow is
vis 𝑡𝑢𝑟
 Shear stresses in Turbulent Flow
vis 𝑡𝑢𝑟

Where is kinematic eddy viscosity. In turbulent flow 𝑡𝑢𝑟 is many

times larger than 𝑣𝑖s
In turbulent flow, the local axial velocity (u) fluctuates in x, y and z
direction. It is clear that there can be no value of v’ next to and
perpendicular to smooth wall therefore no turbulent flow will
exist there and shear stress will only be due to laminar flow i.e.
𝑣𝑖𝑠
 Shear stresses in Turbulent Flow
At some distance from the wall such as 0.2r, the value of du/dy is
small and viscous shear becomes negligible as compared to
turbulent shear stress due to large value of eddy-viscosity. At
center of pipe du/dy is zero so the total shear stress is also zero.
Hence, in turbulent flow or laminar flow the shear stress is
maximum at the wall and decreases linearly to zero at the center.
 Shear stresses in Turbulent Flow
• Second expression (Prandtl’s mixing length theory)
• Prandtl introduced concept of mixing length in turbulent
flow which is defined as the transverse distance of a fluid
particle to the direction of flow before having its original
momentum changed to suddenly acquire new momentum
to set up the shear stresses.
• According to him, mixing length is proportional to the
direction from the pipe wall

• Where ‘k’ is universal turbulent constant and its value near

the pipe wall is 0.4.
 Shear stresses in Turbulent Flow
The turbulent shear stress is given as
2 2
𝑡𝑢𝑟

The total shear stress 𝑣𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟

2

Combining both theories i.e. 𝑡𝑢𝑟 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑞 𝑡𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑡𝑙

2
Entrance conditions for turbulent
flow
 Entrance conditions for turbulent flow
Consider a pipe of uniform diameter ‘D’ connected to a
reservoir with rounded entrance. The flow is turbulent in the
pipe. As the liquid enters the pipe it may be divided into two
portions,:
i. Central frictionless cone having zero velocity gradient
and shear stress
ii. Boundary Layer in which velocity gradient and shear
stress exist.
Initially there will be development of laminar boundary layer
having zero thickness at entrance and it increases along the
distance from pipe entrance up to distance Xc. At this
distance ‘Xc’ laminar boundary layer changes to turbulent
boundary. This distance can be determined from local critical
Reynolds number i.e. 500,000.
 Entrance conditions for turbulent flow

The thickness of turbulent boundary layer increases at a

higher rate as compared to laminar BL and finally meets the
centerline at a particular section where the velocity profile is
fully consistent and the flow is fully developed turbulent flow.
Developing length in turbulent is the distance from the pipe
entrance to the section where the turbulent flow is fully
developed. Within this length the turbulent flow is
unestablished or not fully developed.
It is experimentally found that the developing length in
turbulent flow is approximately equal to ‘50D’. Where ‘D’ pipe
diameter.
 Entrance conditions for turbulent flow
Viscous Sublayer/Laminar Sublayer:
When the flow is turbulent through circular pipes there
always exists flow adjacent to the pipe wall in a very thin fluid
layer. The thickness of this layer is very small only few
hundredths of a millimeter but its effect is great because of
very steep velocity gradient within it and there is only viscous
shear stress within this layer.
Viscous sublayer exists as there can be no turbulence next to
a smooth wall since it is impossible for lateral component of
velocity (v’) to a any value at a solid boundary.
There is zero velocity at wall and very low velocity near the
pipe wall making it a laminar flow.
 Thickness of Viscous Sublayer
By plotting velocity profile from the pipe wall consider flow as
fully laminar and then plotting another profile considering fully
turbulent flow, the two profiles will intersect as shown is figure.
Experimental data points show that the change is not abrupt but
gradual. Nominal thickness ( 𝑙), true thickness ( 𝑙) of viscous
sublayer and thickness up to transition zone are given as:
𝒍
𝒐

𝒍
𝒐

𝒐
Viscous Sublayer/Laminar Sublayer
 Thickness of Viscous Sublayer

As

𝑙
2

It is clear that higher the velocity or the lower kinematic viscosity,

the thinner the viscous sublayer. Therefore, for a given diameter
of the pipe, thickness of viscous sublayer decreases with increase
in Reynolds number.
 Hydraulically Smooth and rough pipe
There is no mathematical smooth surface in reality. There are
always projections on the internal surface of the pip the average
height of which is known as absolute roughness ‘e’ of pipe.
Hydraulically the smoothness and roughness of pipe depends on
comparison between absolute roughness ‘e’ and nominal
thickness of viscous sublayer.
A surface is hydraulically smooth if height of projections remain
less than nominal thickness of viscous sublayer i.e. projections
don’t pierce through the viscous sublayer. But if the projections
extend beyond the sublayer, the viscous layer is broken up and
surface becomes a rough as shown in figure. Part (a) of figure
shows smooth pipe while part (b) shows rough pipe.
Hydraulically Smooth and rough pipe
 Hydraulically Smooth and rough pipe
A hydraulically smooth pipe is the one for which nominal
thickness of viscous sublayer is greater than 6 times the absolute
roughness i.e. 𝑙
A wholly rough pipe is the one for which nominal thickness of
viscous sublayer is less than 0.3 times the absolute roughness i.e.
𝑙
A transitional pipe is the one for which 𝑙 is neither greater than
nor less than i.e. 𝑙 The pipe will neither
behave hydraulically nor wholly rough.
As the thickness of viscous sublayer for a given pipe decreases
with increase in Reynolds number, hence the same pipe may be
hydraulically smooth at low Reynolds number and rough at higher
Reynolds number.
Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow
 Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow
Consider a steady turbulent flow of incompressible fluid through
a circular pipe of constant diameter ‘D’. Take a point ‘P’ close to
the pipe wall but outside the viscous sublayer as shown in figure.
The total shear stress at this point is 𝑣𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑢𝑟
As in case of turbulent flow viscous shear stress is very low and
may be ignored. Therefore at point ‘P’ the total shear stress is
approximately equal to turbulent shear stress i.e. 𝑡𝑢𝑟
As the point is very close to pipe wall so 𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑟
According to Prandtl’s mixing length theory
2
𝑡𝑢𝑟

Where and ‘k’ is universal turbulent constant and its value

near the pipe wall is 0.4.
 Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow
2
𝑡𝑢𝑟

2 2 2
𝑜

Integrating equation (1)

𝑜
 Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow
𝑜

o
max

𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥

o
Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow
𝑜 𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑜 𝑜

2
𝑜

𝑜
Velocity Profile in Turbulent Flow
Relationship between average velocity (V)
and centerline velocity (umax)

umax
Relationship between V and umax for Turbulent Flow

πrdr

2
𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑜

2
𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑜
Relationship between V and umax for Turbulent Flow

2
𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑜

𝑜
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑚𝑎𝑥
Relationship between V and umax for Turbulent Flow

𝑚𝑎𝑥
Pipe Roughness/determination of friction factor
•
•
 Nikuradse’s Experiment
Nikuradse, a German Engineer and student of Prandtl, perfomed
experiments on artificially roughened pipes coated internally with
closely packed uniform sand grains. The mean diameter of sand
grains was termed as absolute roughness of pipe and ‘e/D’ was
taken as relative roughness of pipe of diameter ‘D’.
The effect of ‘RN’ and ‘e/D’ on friction factor ‘f’ was investigated
experimentally by plotting a graph between ‘RN’ ,’e/D’ and ‘f’ on a
logarithmic scale as shown in figure.
According to the diagram, up to RN 2000 flow is laminar and ‘f =
64/RN’ is function of RN only and it in independent of pipe
roughness. From RN 2000 to 3000 flow in critical/uncertain (may
be laminar of turbulent). From RN 3000 to 100,000 and for
turbulent smooth flow ‘f’ is only function of RN and can be
determined by Blasius equation ‘f = 0.316/RN(1/4).
 Nikuradse’s Experiment
From RN 3000 to 100,000 and for turbulent rough flow and ‘f’ is
function of both RN and e/D and can be determined by Blasius
equation ‘f = 0.316/RN(1/4). Beyond RN value 100,000 ‘f’ is
independent of RN and only depends on ‘e/D’.
 Nikuradse’s Diagram

Q=vol/time
V=Q/A
RN=VD/v
f =2gD/LV2
 Determination of friction factor (Pipe Roughness)
Uses of friction factor:
1) To determine head loss (hL) in pipes
2) To estimate shear stress (τo)
3) To analyze turbulent velocity profile
 Determination of friction factor (Pipe Roughness)
Methods determine friction factor:
1) Using empirical methods/equations
2) By Moody’s diagram
i) By simple approach
ii) By hit and trial method
 Using empirical methods/equations
1) For Laminar Flow

𝑁
2) Blasius equation for Turbulent smooth flow applicable for
very smooth pipe with RN =3000 to 100,000

3) Von Karman equation for Turbulent flow with wholly

smooth pipe ( 𝑙 ) RN >4000.
 Using empirical methods/equations
4) Von Karman equation for Turbulent flow with wholly rough
pipe ( 𝑙 ).

5) Colebrook equation for transitional pipe i.e. pipe is neither

smooth not rough ( l ).
 Using Moody’s Diagram
Moody’s diagram is a graphical representation of friction factor (f)
as a function of Reynold’s number (RN) and relative roughness
(e/D). Friction factor has been computed using its equations.
There four zones of this diagram i.e 1) Laminar Zone where
friction factor is only function of RN, II) Critical Zone where
values of friction factor are uncertain because the flow might be
either laminar of turbulent, III) Transition Zone where the
friction factor is function of both RN and e/D, IV) Zone of
Complete Turbulence, where friction factor is independent of
RN and only depends on e/D.
The values of ‘e’ used in the diagram are for new, clean pipes. For
practical purposes the value of friction factor may be in error of
±5 % for smooth pipes and by ±10% for rough pipes.
 Using Moody’s Diagram
There is a contrasting difference between Moody’s diagram and
Nikuradse diagram in the transitional flow zone where according
to Moody’s diagram f decreases with increase in RN and e/D
whereas it is opposite trend in Nikuradse diagram.
In Simple Method using Moody’s diagram we are given size of pipe
and velocity and we can calculate RN and e/D and friction factor
can be determined from the diagram, the solution is a direct one.
In Hit and Trail Method the unknown quantities are either
diameter or velocity or both, the Reynold’s number is unknown.
In such cases the problem may be solved by assuming either RN
or value of friction factor to start with and then obtaining the
final solution by trial. As the value of ‘f’ is generally between 0.01
to 0.07, it is best to assume some middle value of ‘f’
approximately 0.03 initially and work from there.
 Home Assignment
Go through the topic “Branching Pipes” from Chapter 8 of
Fluid Mechanics by Daugherty page 246-248.
Numericals
Numericals
Numericals
Numericals
Numericals
Numericals
Numericals
 Home Assignment
Submission Date: 02-07-2021
 Solved examples 8.1, 8.2, 8,3 and 8.4 from Daugherty Book
Chapter 8
 Problems 8.1, 8.2, 8.8, 8.9, 8.10, 8.11, 8.14, 8.18, 8.19, 8.20,
8.21, 8.22, 8.23, 8.25, 8.26, 8.27, 8.28, 8.29, 8.30, 8.31, 8.32,
8.33, 4.34, 8.37, 8.38, 8.44, 8.46 from Daugherty Book
Chapter 5