Amorites

The Amorites (/ˈæməˌraɪts/;

Sumerian: !"[1],
romanized: MAR.TU; Akkadian:
#$%&, romanized: Amurrūm or
'()&/* Tidnum;
Hebrew: ‫אֱמ ִֹרי‬, romanized: ʾĔmōrī;
Ancient Greek: Ἀµορραῖοι) were an
ancient Northwest Semitic-speaking
Bronze Age people from the Levant.
Initially appearing in Sumerian
records c. 2500 BC, they expanded
and ruled most of the Levant, Cuneiform clay tablets from the Amorite
Mesopotamia and parts of Egypt Kingdom of Mari, 1st half of the 2nd
from the 21st century BC to the late millennium BC.
17th century BC.

They established several prominent city-states in existing locations, such as Isin,

Larsa, Mari and Ebla, and later founded Babylon and the Old Babylonian Empire.
They also founded the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt in the Nile Delta, which was
characterized by rulers bearing Amorite names such as Yakbim, and were likely
part of the later Hyksos.[2][3] The term Amurru in Akkadian and Sumerian texts
refers to the Amorites, their principal deity, and an Amorite kingdom. The
Amorites are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as inhabitants of Canaan both before
and after the conquest of the land under Joshua.[4]

History

Third millennium BC
:
 In two Sumerian literary compositions written
long afterward in the Old Babylonian period,
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta and
Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird, the Early
Dynastic ruler of Uruk Enmerkar (listed in the
Sumerian King List) mentions "the land of the
MAR.TU". It is not known to what extent these
reflect historical facts.[5]

There are also sparse mentions about Amorites

(often as MAR-DUki) in tablets from the East
Semitic-speaking kingdom of Ebla, dating from
2500 BC to the destruction of the city in c. 2250
BC.[6] From the perspective of the Eblaites, the Various Amorite states
Amorites were a rural group living in the narrow (Yamhad, Qatna, Mari,
basin of the middle and upper Euphrates in Andarig, Babylon and
northern Syria.[7] The Eblaites used the term Eshnunna) and Assyria c.
MAR.TU in an early time for a state and people 1764 BC
east to Ebla (around Emar and Tuttul), which
means the name Amurru for the west is later than
the name for the state or the people.[8]

For the Akkadian kings of central Mesopotamia,

MAR.TU was one of the "Four Quarters"
surrounding Akkad, along with Subartu (north),
Sumer (south), and Elam (east).[8] Naram-Sin of
Akkad records in a royal inscription defeating a
coalition of Sumerian cities and Amorites near
Jebel Bishri in northern Syria c. 2240 BC.[9] His
successor, Shar-Kali-Sharri, recorded in one of his
year names "In the year in which Szarkaliszarri
was victorious over Amurru in the Djebel
Biszri".[10]

By the time of the last days of the Third Dynasty of

Ur, the immigrating Amorites had become such a
force that kings such as Shu-Sin were obliged to
construct a 270-kilometre (170 mi) wall from the
Tigris to the Euphrates to hold them off.[11][12]
:
 The Amorites are depicted in contemporary
records as nomadic tribes under chiefs, who
forced themselves into lands they needed to graze
their herds. Some of the Akkadian literature of
this era speaks disparagingly of the Amorites and
implies that the Akkadian- and Sumerian-
speakers of Mesopotamia viewed their nomadic
and primitive way of life with disgust and
contempt. In the Sumerian myth "Marriage of
Martu", written early in the 2nd millennium BC, a
goddess considering marriage to the god of the
Amorites is warned:

Now listen, their hands are destructive

and their features are those of monkeys;
(An Amorite) is one who eats what (the
Moon-god) Nanna forbids and does not
show reverence. They never stop
roaming about ..., they are an
abomination to the gods’ dwellings.
Their ideas are confused; they cause
only disturbance. (The Amorite) is Fifteenth dynasty of Egypt of
clothed in sack-leather ... , lives in a the Hyksos, of whom the
tent, exposed to wind and rain, and Amorites were part.
cannot properly recite prayers. He lives
in the mountains and ignores the places
of gods, digs up truffles in the foothills,
does not know how to bend the knee (in
prayer), and eats raw flesh. He has no
house during his life, and when he dies
he will not be carried to a burial-place.
My girlfriend, why would you marry
Martu?[13]
Artifacts from Amorite
Kingdom of Mari, first half of
As the centralized structure of the Third Dynasty
2nd millennium BC
of Ur slowly collapsed, the city-states of the south
such as Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna, began to
reassert their former independence, and the areas in southern Mesopotamia with
:
 Amorites were no exception.[14] Elsewhere, the armies of Elam were attacking
and weakening the empire, making it vulnerable. Ur was eventually occupied by
the Elamites. They remained until they were rejected by the Isin ruler Ishbi-Erra,
which marked the beginning of the Isin-Larsa period.[15]

2nd millennium BC

After the decline of Ur III, Amorite rulers gained

power in a number of Mesopotamian city-states
beginning in the Isin-Larsa period and peaking in
the Old Babylonian period. In the north, the
Amorite ruler of Ekallatum, Shamshi-Adad I
conquered Assur and formed the large, though
short-lived Kingdom of Upper Mesoptamia.[17] In
the south, Babylon became the major power under
the Amorite ruler Sumu-la-El and his successors,
including the notable Hammurabi. Higher up the
Euphrates, to the northwest, the Amorite kingdom
of Mari arose, later to be destroyed by
Hammurabi. Babylon itself would later be sacked
by the Hittites, with its empire assumed by the
Kassites. West of Mari, Yamhad ruled from its
capital Halab, today's Aleppo, until it was
destroyed by the Hittites in 16th century BC. The
city of Ebla, under the control of Yamhad in this
period, also had Amorite rulership.[18]

There is thought to have been an Amorite

presence in Egypt from the 19th century BC. The
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt, centred in the Nile
Delta, had rulers bearing Amorite names such as
Yakbim. Furthermore, increasing evidence
suggests that the succeeding Hyksos of Egypt were
an amalgam of peoples from Syria of which the One of the Ramesses III
prisoner tiles, which is
Amorites were also part.[2] Based on temple
speculated by some
architecture, Manfred Bietak argues for strong
scholars to represent an
parallels between the religious practices of the
Amorite man.[16]
Hyksos at Avaris with those of the area around
:
 Byblos, Ugarit, Alalakh and Tell Brak and defines the "spiritual home" of the
Hyksos as "in northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia", areas typically
associated with Amorites at the time.[3]

In 1650 BC, the Hyksos established the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt and ruled most
of Lower and Middle Egypt contemporaneously with the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth dynasties of Thebes during the chaotic Second Intermediate
Period.[19]

Fall

In the 16th century BC, the Amorite era ended in Mesopotamia with the decline
and fall of Babylon and other Amorite-ruled cities. The Kassites occupied Babylon
and reconstituted it under the Kassite dynasty under the name of Karduniaš
around 1595 BC. In far southern Mesopotamia, the native First Sealand dynasty
had reigned over the Mesopotamian Marshes region until the Kassites brought the
region under their control. In northern Mesopotamia, the power vacuum left by
the Amorites brought the rise of the Mitanni (Ḫanigalbat) c. 1600 BC.

From the 15th century BC onward, the term Amurru is usually applied to the
region extending north of Canaan as far as Kadesh on the Orontes River in
northern Syria.[20]

After the mid-2nd millennium BC, Syrian Amorites came under the domination of
first the Hittites and, from the 14th century BC, the Middle Assyrian Empire. They
then appear to have been displaced or absorbed by other semi-nomadic West
Semitic-speaking peoples, known collectively as the Ahlamu during the Late
Bronze Age collapse. The Arameans rose to be the prominent group amongst the
Ahlamu.[20] From c. 1200 BC onward, the Amorites disappeared from the pages
of history, but the name reappeared in the Hebrew Bible.[21]

Language
The language was first attested in the 21st-20th centuries BC and was found to be
closely related to the Canaanite, Aramaic and Sam'alian languages.[22] In the 18th
century BC at Mari Amorite scribes wrote in an Eshnunna dialect of east Semitic
Akkadian language. Since the texts contain northwest Semitic forms, words and
constructions, the Amorite language is thought to be a Northwest Semitic
language. The main sources for the extremely limited extant knowledge of the
:
 Amorite language are the proper names and loanwords, not Akkadian in style, that
are preserved in such texts.[23][15][24] Amorite proper names were found
throughout Mesopotamia in the Old Babylonian period, as well as places as far
afield as Alalakh in Turkey and modern day Bahrain (Dilmun).[25] They are also
found in Egyptian records.[26]

Ugaritic is also a Northwest Semitic language and is possibly an Amorite

dialect.[27]

Religion
A bilingual list of the names of ten Amorite deities alongside Akkadian
counterparts from the Old Babylonian period was translated in 2022. These
deities are as follows:[28]: 118–119

Dagan, who is identified with Enlil. Dagan was the supreme god in many cities
in the Upper Euphrates, especially at sites such as Mari, Tuttul, and Terqa.
Babylonian texts refer to the chief god of the Amorites as Amurru (Ilu Amurru,
DMAR.TU), corresponding to their name for the ethnic group. They also

identify his consort as the goddess Asheratum.[29]

Kamiš, an otherwise poorly attested deity largely known from Akkadian and
Amorite theophoric names. He was significant at Ebla, where a month was
named after him. The bilingual identifies him with the god Ea though other god
lists identify him with Nergal.
Aṯeratum, whose name is cognate with Asherah and is identified with Belet-ili.
Yaraḫum, the moon god, who is named Yarikh at Ugarit. He is identified with
the Mesopotamian Sin.
Rašapum, equated with Nergal and also known from Ebla.
A god with an incompletely reconstructed name (possibly /ʔārum/) who is
identified with Išum.
Ḫalamu, identified with Šubula, a deity in the netherworld god's circle.
Ḫanatum, who is here identified with Ištar.
Pidray, previously known only from the Late Bronze Age Ugaritic texts and
later. In the bilingual list she is identified with Nanaya.
Aštiulḫālti, who is identified with Ištaran, the tutelary deity of the city of Der.
:
 This list is not thought to represent a full Amorite pantheon, as it does not include
important members such as the sun and weather deities.[28]: 139

Biblical Amorites
The term Amorites is used in the Bible to refer to
certain highland mountaineers who inhabited the
land of Canaan, described in Genesis as
descendants of Canaan, the son of Ham (Gen.
10:16 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesi
s%2010:16&version=nrsv)). This aligns with
Akkadian and Babylonian traditions that equated
Syro-Palestine with the "land of the
Amorites". [30] They are described as a powerful
people of great stature "like the height of the
cedars" (Amos 2:9 (https://bible.oremus.org/?pas
sage=Amos%202:9&version=nrsv)) who had
occupied the land east and west of the Jordan. The
height and strength mentioned in Amos 2:9 has Destruction of the Army of
led some Christian scholars, including Orville J. the Amorites by Gustave
Nave, who wrote the Nave's Topical Bible, to refer Doré.
to the Amorites as "giants".[31]

In Deuteronomy, the Amorite king, Og, was described as the last "of the remnant
of the Rephaim" (Deut 3:11 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%2
03:11&version=nrsv)). The terms Amorite and Canaanite seem to be used more or
less interchangeably, Canaan being more general and Amorite a specific
component among the Canaanites who inhabited the land.

The Biblical Amorites seem to have originally occupied the region stretching from
the heights west of the Dead Sea (Gen. 14:7 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=G
enesis%2014:7&version=nrsv)) to Hebron (Gen. 13:8; Deut. 3:8; 4:46–48 (https:/
/www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Gen.+13:8;+Deut.+3:8;+4:46–48&ver
sion=NRSV)), embracing "all Gilead and all Bashan" (Deut. 3:10 (https://bible.ore
mus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%203:10&version=nrsv)), with the Jordan valley
on the east of the river (Deut. 4:49 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteron
omy%204:49&version=nrsv)), the land of the "two kings of the Amorites", Sihon
and Og (Deut. 31:4 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%2031:4&v
ersion=nrsv) and Joshua 2:10; 9:10 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?se
:
 arch=Joshua+2:10;+9:10&version=NRSV)). Sihon and Og were independent
kings whose people were displaced from their land in battle with the Israelites
(Numbers 21:21–35 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Numbers%2021:21–35&
version=nrsv))—though in the case of the war led by Og/Bashan it appears none of
them survived and the land became part of Israel (Numbers 21:35 (https://bible.o
remus.org/?passage=Numbers%2021:35&version=nrsv)). The Amorites seem to
have been linked to the Jerusalem region, and the Jebusites may have been a
subgroup of them (Ezek. 16:3 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ezekiel%2016:
3&version=nrsv)). The southern slopes of the mountains of Judea are called the
"mount of the Amorites" (Deut. 1:7, 19, 20 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passa
ge/?search=Deut.+1:7,+19,+20&version=NRSV)).

The Book of Joshua speaks of the five kings of the Amorites were first defeated
with great slaughter by Joshua (Josh. 10:5 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Jo
shua%2010:5&version=nrsv)). Then, more Amorite kings were defeated at the
waters of Merom by Joshua (Josh. 11:8 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Josh
ua%2011:8&version=nrsv)). It is mentioned that in the days of Samuel, there was
peace between them and the Israelites (1 Sam. 7:14 (https://bible.oremus.org/?pa
ssage=1%20Samuel%207:14&version=nrsv)). The Gibeonites were said to be their
descendants, being an offshoot of the Amorites who made a covenant with the
Hebrews (2 Samuel 21:2 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Samuel%2021
:2&version=nrsv)). When Saul later broke that vow and killed some of the
Gibeonites, God is said to have sent a famine to Israel (2 Samuel 21:1 (https://bibl
e.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Samuel%2021:1&version=nrsv)).

Origin
There are a wide range of views regarding the Amorite homeland.[32] One
extreme is the view that KUR MAR.TU/māt amurrim covered the whole area between
the Euphrates and the Mediterranean Sea, the Arabian Peninsula included. The
most common view is that the "homeland" of the Amorites was a limited area in
central Syria identified with the mountainous region of Jebel Bishri.[33][34]

Genetics

Ancient DNA analysis on 28 human remains dating to the Middle and Late Bronze
Age from ancient Alalakh, an Amorite city with a Hurrian minority, found that the
inhabitants of Alalakh were a mixture of Copper age Levantines and
Mesopotamians, and were genetically similar to contemporaneous Levantines.[35]
:
 Racialism

The view that Amorites were fierce and tall

nomads led to an anachronistic theory among
some racialist writers in the 19th century that they
were a tribe of "Aryan" warriors, who at one point
dominated the Israelites. This belief, which
originated with Felix von Luschan, fit models of
Indo-European migrations posited during his
time, but Luschan later abandoned that
theory.[36] Houston Stewart Chamberlain claimed
that King David and Jesus were both Aryans of
Amorite extraction. The argument was repeated
by the Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.[37]

However, the Amorites certainly spoke exclusively

a Semitic language, followed Semitic religions of
the Near East and had distinctly Semitic personal
names. Their origins are believed to have been the
lands immediately to the west of Mesopotamia, in
the Levant (now Syria), and so they are regarded
as one of the ancient Semitic-speaking
peoples.[38][39][40]

Amorite states

Terracotta of a couple,
probably Inanna and
Dumuzi, Girsu, Amorite
period, 2000-1600 BC.
Louvre Museum AO 16676.

In the Levant: In Mesopotamia: In Egypt:

:
 Amurru kingdom Andarig Fourteenth Dynasty of
Ebla's Third Apum Egypt
Dynasty First Babylonian Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of
Mukish Ekallatum Egypt?
Qatna Kurda
Ugarit Mari's Lim Dynasty
Yamhad Ṭābetu
Kingdom of Upper
Mesopotamia

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39. Semitic Studies, Volume 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=NffLn98SoIQC
&dq=amorites%20semitic&pg=PA867), by Alan Kaye, Otto Harrassowitz
Verlag, 1991, p.867 ISBN 9783447031684
40. The Semitic Languages (https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC
&dq=amorites%20semitic&pg=PA361), by Stefan Weninger, Walter de Gruyter,
23 Dec 2011, p.361 ISBN 9783110251586

Further reading
Albright, W. F., "The Amorite Form of the Name Ḫammurabi", The American
Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 140–41, 1922
Bailey, Lloyd R, "Israelite ’Ēl Šadday and Amorite Bêl Šadê", Journal of
Biblical Literature, vol. 87, no. 4, pp. 434–38, 1968
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 Burke, S., "Entanglement, the Amorite koine, and the Amorite Cultures in the
Levant (https://www.academia.edu/5751827/Entanglement_the_Amorite_koin
%C3%A9_and_Amorite_Cultures_in_the_Levant)", Aram Society for the Syro-
Mesopotamian Studies 26, pp. 357–373, 2014
Burke, Aaron A., "Amorites and Canaanites: Memory, Tradition, and Legacy in
Ancient Israel and Judah", The Ancient Israelite World. Routledge, pp. 523–
536, 2022 ISBN 9780367815691
George, Andrew, and Manfred Krebernik, "Two Remarkable Vocabularies:
Amorite-Akkadian Bilinguals!", Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale
116.1, pp. 113–166, 2022
Højlund, Flemming, "The Formation Of The Dilmun State And The Amorite
Tribes (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41223081)", Proceedings of the Seminar
for Arabian Studies, vol. 19, pp. 45–59, 1989
Homsher, R. and Cradic, M., "The Amorite Problem: Resolving a Historical
Dilemma", Levant 49, pp. 259–283, 2018
[4] (https://academic.oup.com/jss/advance-article-pdf/doi/10.1093/jss/fgac027/
48626601/fgac027.pdf) Howard, J. Caleb, "Amorite Names through Time and
Space", Journal of Semitic Studies, 2023
Streck, Michael P., Das amurritische Onomastikon der altbabylonischen Zeit.
Band 1: Die Amurriter, die onomastische Forschung, Orthographie und
Phonologie, Nominalmorphologie, Ugarit-Verlag, 2000
Torczyner, H. Tur-Sinai, "The Amorite and the Amurrû of the Inscriptions", The
Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 249–258, 1949
Vidal, Jordi, "Prestige Weapons in an Amorite Context (https://www.academia.
edu/1522515/Prestige_weapons_in_an_Amorite_context)", Journal of Near
Eastern Studies, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 247–52, 2011
Wallis, Louis, "Amorite Influence in the Religion of the Bible (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/3142895)", The Biblical World, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 216–23, 1915
Wasserman, Nathan, and Yigal Bloch, "The Amorites: A Political History of
Mesopotamia in the Early Second Millennium BCE", The Amorites, Brill, 2023
ISBN 978-90-04-54658-5
Zeynivand, Mohsen, "A Cylinder Seal With An Amorite Name From Tepe
Musiyan, Deh Luran Plain (https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/
703853)", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 71, pp. 77–83, 2019
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 External links
Cryptic lost Canaanite language decoded on 'Rosetta Stone'-like tablets –
LiveScience – Tom Metcalfe – 30 January 2023 (https://www.livescience.com/t
ablets-with-lost-canaanite-language)
Two 3,800-year-old Cuneiform Tablets Found in Iraq Give First Glimpse of
Hebrew Precursor – Haaretz – Jan 20, 2023 (https://www.haaretz.com/archae
ology/2023-01-20/ty-article/two-3-800-year-old-cuneiform-tablets-found-in-iraq
-give-first-glimpse-of-hebrew-precursor/00000185-ca23-d3a8-a3cf-cf3326430
000)
Amorites (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1422&letter=A) in the
Jewish Encyclopedia

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