Chemistry Notes - Final Term

ASSUMPTIONS OF KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY (IDEAL GASES)

1. There is no force of attraction between and among gas molecules.
2. The distance between gas molecules is significantly larger than the molecules’ size.
3. Gas molecules are in constant, random, and linear motion
4. The gas particles undergo perfectly elastic collision, no energy lost during collision.
5. The average kinetic energy of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature
expressed in Kelvin.
6. Gas consists of minute particles (atoms or molecules), so small that it has a negligible
volume.
PROPERTIES
1. Gases have no definite shape and volume.
2. Gases can be compressed readily.
3. Gases diffuse readily and any two gases will mix evenly when combined.
4. Gases have much lower densities.
MEASURABLE PROPERTIES OF GAS
- Pressure
o the amount of force applied on a surface area
o how often do they hit the sides
o (1 atm (standard pressure) = 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 14.7 psi = 101.3kPa)
o Barometer – measures the atmospheric pressure. It was invented by Evangelista
Torricelli
o Manometer or pressure gauge – measures the pressure in a closed system
- Temperature
o reflects the average kinetic energy of the system
o how fast do the particles move
o (273 K (standard temperature) = 0 degrees Celsius = 32 degrees Fahrenheit)
- Mass/Mole (mass in g, while mole in mol)
o the amount of substance or matter within itself
o how many particles/molecules/atoms
𝑚
o 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑤
- Volume
o the amount of space the substance occupies
o how big is the container
o (1 L = 1000 ml = 1000 cm³ = 1000 cc)
 GAS LAWS

Law Scientist Definition Formula Applications

Boyle’s Law Robert States that the pressure of P₁V₁ = P₂V₂ abdominal
Boyle a fixed amount of gas is thrust
inversely proportional to its maneuver,
volume at constant breathing
temperature process,
syringe

Charle’s Law Jacques States that the volume of a 𝑉1 𝑉2 Hot air

=
Charles gas is directly proportional 𝑇1 𝑇2 balloons
to its absolute temperature
at a constant pressure Where T is
expressed in
Kelvin

Gay-Lussac’s Joseph-Louis States that the pressure of 𝑃1 𝑃2 Pressure

=
Law Gay-Lussac a fixed amount of gas is 𝑇1 𝑇2 cooker
directly proportional to its
absolute temperature at a Where T is
constant volume expressed in
Kelvin

Avogadro’s Amedeo States that the volume of a 𝑉1 𝑉2 Inflating

=
Law Avogadro gas is directly proportional 𝑛1 𝑛2 balloons
to the number of particles
at the same pressure and Where n is the
absolute temperature, number of
regardless of the nature of moles of the
the gas gas

Ideal Gas - Links all three 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 Gas tanks

Equation variables to the
amount of a gas Where R is
𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚
expressed in mole 0.0821 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙𝐾
- Ideal gas – a (Universal Gas
theoretical gas, Constant)
which satisfies the
assumptions of the
kinetic molecular
theory
 Combined The gas laws of Boyle, 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 Scuba Diving
=
Gas Law Charles, and Gay-Lussac 𝑇1 𝑇2
can be combined into a
single equation to
examine the behavior of a
constant amount of gas
when the three gas
conditions are changed

Dalton’s Law John Dalton States that the total 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃𝑛

of Partial pressure of a mixture of
Pressure gases in a container is
equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of the
individual gases

(Partial pressure – refers to

the pressure that would be
exerted by a gas in the
mixture if it was the only
gas present in the
container)

Scientists of Lesson 6:
1. Max Planck
• Proposed the quantum theory
2. Albert Einstein
• Light also exists as tiny particles (photons)
• Dual nature of light
3. Niels Bohr
• When an atom absorbs energy, its electrons jump from one orbit to another with
a higher energy (excited state)
• When the electron falls back, energy is released in the form of light (photons)
(electron relaxation)
• The atom can absorb quantized amounts of energy
4. Louis de Broglie
• Wavelike property of electrons
5. Werner Heisenberg
• Uncertainty principle
• Impossible to simultaneously determine its exact location and momentum at a
per time
6. Erwin Schrödinger
• Came up with an equation, which describes how a wave propagates over time
 7. Wolfgang Pauli
• Pauli exclusion principle
• Only a maximum of two electrons can occupy an orbital, and they must have
opposite spins to minimize repulsion between them
Other terms/principles
1. Aufbau Principle/building up principle
• Electrons must first occupy the orbitals with lower energies than those with higher
energies
• 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 (the order)
2. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
• For degenerate orbitals (orbitals with similar energies such as three p orbitals),
the electrons will singly occupy each orbital and with parallel spins before they
pair up
• The up arrow will first occupy all boxes before the down arrow will
Atomic Orbitals
➢ s
o spherical
o 1 degenerate
o 2 electrons
➢ p
o Dumbbell-shaped
o 3 degenerates
o 6 electrons
➢ d
o Double dumbbell-shaped
o 5 degenerates
o 10 electrons
➢ f
o Diffused shaped
o 7 degenerates
o 14 electrons
Aufbau Principle

Quantum Numbers
- A set of quantum numbers gives information about the atomic orbital where an
electron may be found

1. Principal ( n )
• Indicates the energy level or shell where an atomic orbital can be found
• n = 1, 2, 3, and so on
 2. Azimuthal ( l )
• Specifies the sublevel (or subshell) within a particular principal energy level
• - 0 to n – 1
▪ s–0
▪ p–1
▪ d–2
▪ f–3

3. Magnetic ( m )
• Indicates the specific orbital within the sublevel where the electron is found
• Also gives the number or orbitals in a sublevel and the spatial orientation of
these orbitals
• - l to + l

4. Spin ( s )
• Describes the intrinsic spin of the electron in the orbital
• + ½ (up arrow) or – ½ (down arrow)
Other terms:
➢ Electron configuration – how these electrons are distributed among the orbitals in an
atom
➢ Valence shell – the outermost energy level of an atom
➢ Valence electrons – the electrons occupying valence shells
➢ Closed shells – the inner shells that are completely filled
➢ Noble gas electron configuration – the electron configuration of heavier gases which
uses a noble gas with a similar closed-shell configuration to the atom of interest, which
is used as a shortcut and is referred to as a core symbol written inside brackets.
➢ Paramagnetism
o Refers to the characteristic of an element to be slightly attracted to a magnet
o Results from the presence of unpaired electrons in some of the atomic orbitals of
an atom
➢ Diamagnetism
o Is characterized by non-attraction, or even a slight repulsion, of an element to a
magnet
o When the electrons in an atom’s orbital are all paired
➢ Ferromagnetism
o Is a phenomenon that greatly enhances the paramagnetism of a material in
such a way that it becomes permanently attracted to a magnet

➢ Common exceptions to Aufbau Principle: copper, cobalt, mercury

Scientists of Lesson 7:

1. Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner

• Recognized the similarities in the chemical properties of some triads of elements, which
establishes his law of triads
2. Alexandre-Émile Beguyer de Chancourtois
• Arranged the elements in increasing atomic weights
3. Lothar Meyer
• Organized the elements based on the valency of the elements
• Later published in 1870 an improved version that related atomic volume and atomic
number
4. John A. R. Newlands
• Proposed the law of octaves, which recognized the periodic properties of every eighth
element in his list
5. Dmitri Mendeleev
• Published the first version of a systematically organized periodic table of elements
o Arranged in order of increasing atomic mass
o The basis of the currently used periodic table
o Groups or families – columns
o Periods or series – rows
o Periodic law – which asserts that when elements are arranged according to
increasing atomic mass, their properties will follow a periodic pattern
6. Henry Moseley
• Observed a direct relation between the X-ray spectrum of an atom and its nuclear
charge, and developed a system for assigning atomic numbers based on increasing
number of protons

Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals

• Metals
o Are generally lustrous substances that conduct heat and electricity
o Ductile and malleable
o Almost all are solid and have high melting point
o Tend to give off their valence electrons and become cations
• Nonmetals
o Are not shiny and have varied colors
o Gain electrons and form anions
• Metalloids
o Are the elements that are found along the “ladder” that divides the metals and the
nonmetals
o They exhibit some characteristics of metals and some of nonmetals

The Elements of the Periodic Table

- The modern periodic table has 118 elements officially recognized by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
- Representative elements or main group elements – the A group elements (longer columns)
- Transition elements – the B group elements (in shorter columns)
GROUP GROUP NAME PROPERTIES
- Very reactive
- React vigorously with water
- Producing strongly basic hydroxides and hydrogen
1A Alkali metals gas, which may lead to an explosion
- Generally soft and have low densities, melting
points, and boiling points
- Silver-colored but tarnish with atmospheric oxygen

- Silver-colored and soft

- Low densities, and melting and boiling points
2A Alkaline earth metals - React with water to form strongly alkaline
hydroxides

3A Boron group
4A Carbon group
5A Pnictogens or nitrogen
group
6A Chalcogens or oxygen
group
- Form acids when bonded with hydrogen
- Can bind with each other, forming diatomic
7A Halogens molecules
- Highly reactive

- Completely filled valence shell

- Relatively inert; rarely form compounds with other
8A Noble gases elements
- Can exist as monoatomic gases
Periodic Variations in Atomic Properties/Trends

• Atomic Radius
o Refers to the distance from the center of the nucleus to the surface of the neighboring
atom
o Decreases from left to right across a period
▪ The increasing effective nuclear charge pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus,
compressing the atom
o Increases down a group
▪ The valence electrons would occupy higher energy shells
▪ The larger valence atomic orbitals result in bigger atomic size
o Effective nuclear charge – pulls electrons towards the center of an atom
o Shielding parameter – is attributed to the repulsion between/among the electrons in the
outer shell away from the nucleus
• Ionic Radius
o The cation is smaller than the parent atom, while the anion is bigger
o When an atom gains electrons, there will be more repulsion
• Ionization Energy
o Is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from an atom
o Increases from left to right across a period
o Decreases down a group
• Electron Affinity
o Is the energy that an atom releases when it accepts an electron
o A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract an electron
o Increases from left to right across a period
▪ Increasing nuclear charge means an increasing attraction for the electrons; thus,
more energy is released when the atom accepts an electron
o Decreases down a group
▪ As the size of the atom becomes bigger, the attraction for the electron becomes
weaker due to the greater distance of the valence shell from the positively
charged nucleus
• Electronegativity
o Is the ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward itself
o Increases from left to right across a period
o Decreases down a group
Stability of Noble Gases

- Elements in Group 8A
- Most stable elements in the periodic table, nonreactive under ordinary conditions, inert
- General valence configuration of 𝑛𝑠 2 𝑛𝑝6
- Eight valence electrons in their highest occupied energy level
- Very little or no tendency to lose, gain, or share electrons

Octet rule

- Other elements in the periodic table often follow the configuration of the nearest noble gas by
reacting with the same element or with other elements to form more stable compounds (eight
valence electrons in their highest occupied energy level)

Lewis Structures of Representative Elements

- Gilbert Lewis
o Developed a system of representing the valence electrons of an atom using diagrams
called Lewis electron-dot structures or Lewis structures
▪ Consists of a symbol of an element surrounded by one or more dots; each dot
corresponds to a valence electron in an atom of the element
▪ Lone electron pairs/Lone pairs – paired dots in the structures
▪ Unpaired electron – a single dot
Lewis Structures of Ions

- Ions may be represented using LEDS by simply removing (or adding) the number of dots that
corresponds to the electrons lost (or gained) by the neutral atom
- Losing valence electrons
o You add a +n on the upper righthand corner of the symbol (n is the number of how
many electrons are lost)
- Gaining valence electrons
o You add additional dots in the configuration of the neutral atom, basically forming an
octet enclosed in bracket
o The charge of the ion is added at the upper righthand corner of the configuration

Ionic compounds – compounds formed as a result of ionic bonding

Binary ionic compounds – those composed of two elements

Properties of Ionic Compounds

- High melting points and boiling points

- Conduct electricity when in an aqueous solution
- Also exist as hard but brittle solids at room temperature