PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY II: FINAL EXAM

FOUR MAIN THEMATIC UNITS

1) TONALITY

INTONATION
- It’s the melody of the speech.
- It’s the linguistic use of pitch in spoken discourse.
- It carries meaning (changing the intonation of an utterance can easily change the
meaning of that utterance) —> TONALITY
- It contains suprasegmental features: accent, pitch, rhythm, stress and strong/weak
syllables.

INTONATION BREAKS
- It’s the boundary between 2 successive intonation sentences, clauses, phrases and
words [last one is an unusual case for special emphasis]. i.e. intonation breaks are
placed between those 2 successive intonation sentences, etc.
- It signals to the hearer the syntactic structure of the sentence.
- It signals a syntactic boundary.
- It often corresponds to punctuation marks. However, there are many cases where
punctuation is used, but an I.B. is optional. e.g. “oh” “well” “yes” “no” at the beginning
of a sentence followed by a comma, are not I.B. in speaking/spoken discourse.

FUNCTION OF PAUSES
- Used not only to indicate the end of one piece of information and the beginning of a
second one.
- Also used to indicate hesitation (speaker is thinking about what she/he is going to
say next). These pauses can be put intentionally in the discourse to not change the
meaning of the message.

TONALITY
- Chunking.
- System in intonation that divides the spoken discourse into its separate individual
intonation units.
- Speaker’s way to manage the information of a whole message. = It represents the
way the speaker perceives the information and then organises it into units of
intonation.
- Each piece of information is conveyed by a unit of intonation (tone units, tone groups,
intonation contours, intonation phrases).
- It often corresponds to grammatical units. = When you are dividing speech into units,
it corresponds to the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word.
EXAMPLE: (DIFFERENT MEANINGS)
|| That woman | said the husband | had been unfaithful ||
|| That woman said | the husband had been unfaithful ||
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GRAMMAR AND TONALITY
- Tonality can help to identify grammatical structures in speech.
- There are some cases in which a change in tonality signals a difference in grammar
(restrictive and non-restrictive clauses; apposition and complements; manner and
sentence adverbs; negative domain; complex verbal groups; clauses of purpose).

NEUTRAL TONALITY (REGULAR CASES)

- A single unit of intonation representing a single piece of information worded as a
single clause.
- An intonation unit matches a single clause when the clause is:
➔ SIMPLE: it has full complementation (without adjuncts, tags, apposition, etc).
➔ STRAIGHTFORWARD: usual/common structure.
➔ SHORT: no more than five stressed syllables.
EXAMPLE:
|| I visited my grandparents last week ||
|| I play videogames all day ||
|| The flags are red, white and blue ||
|| We’d better consider them individually ||
|| Oh, I quite understand || - || Well, I’m not sure || → A punctuation mark is used,
but an intonation break is optional or even unlikely
|| I hope you haven’t forgotten || - || I don’t think he’s right || → Single structures like
this count as a single clause and are usually said as a single IP (intonational
phrase)
|| Do you have the book Kate? || → Vocatives (Kate) at the end are usually
attached to what precedes.

MARKED TONALITY (REGULAR CASES)

- It occurs when a clause and an intonation unit do not have common boundaries.
- It is chosen when the speaker decides to present more than one piece of information.
➔ MARKED DISTRIBUTION OF INFORMATION
Information about the circumstances of a situation is added
EXAMPLE: || The couple hopes to move to England | in the near future ||
➔ APPOSITION
A second reference to an item is added
EXAMPLE: || This is Lisa | my sister ||
|| What’s that? It’s Spatula, | for cleaning the bowl with || → NPs in
apposition ???
➔ LISTING
Each item in a list constitutes an EXTRA piece of information within a clause.
EXAMPLE: || I was at the part with Sophie | Cindy | and Jack ||
|| You can have cheese salad | or quiche ||
|| You can have cheese | salad | or quiche ||
|| The flags are red, | white | and blue ||
➔ MARKED THEME
The CLAUSE STRUCTURE is marked, i.e. a clause element precedes the
subject.
EXAMPLE: || However | Lisa is very friendly || - || Yesterday | My mum
travelled to Europe ||
 ➔ LONG CLAUSES
Long clauses of 5 stressed syllables or more are regularly split up into two or
more intonation units.
EXAMPLE: || The ‘train is now ar’riving at ‘platform ‘three | is the e’leven
‘twenty ‘five | from ‘swansea to ‘london ‘paddington ||
➔ [OTHER CASES]
- Adverbials at the beginning of the clause are usually followed by an
IP.
EXAMPLE: || Unfortunately, | we’re not going to be able to make it ||
- Heavy noun phrases or heavy objects are followed by an intonation
break.
EXAMPLE: || I gave the book you asked about | to the girl at the checkout ||
- There is usually an IP between the subject and the rest of the
clause/sentence.
EXAMPLE: || The subject I like best | is IT ||
|| The head of a large school | has a lot of responsibility ||
- Pseudo cleft sentences: 2 intonation units
EXAMPLE: || What they didn't like | was the noise ||
- Topic - Comment
EXAMPLE: || What did you make of the performance? | The choir | wasn’t too
bad. | But the soloists | were a great disappointment ||

REGULAR CASES OF TONALITY AND GRAMMAR CONTRASTS (CASES

WHERE A CHANGE IN TONALITY SIGNALS A DIFFERENCE IN GRAMMAR)

➔ RESTRICTIVE AND NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES / DEFINING

AND NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
- A RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE restricts/defines the reference
to the particular case.
EXAMPLE: || This is the girl I jotted down last night || → In this case, the
relative clause “I jotted down last night” restricts the reference of the girl = It
defines which girl the speaker is referring to.
- A NON-RESTRICTIVE CLAUSE simply adds extra information that
the speaker thinks is relevant to the discourse.
EXAMPLE:
|| My aunt who lives in London | is a teacher || → REST. REL. CLA.
= Having more than 1 sister.
|| My aunt | who lives in London | is a teacher || → NON-REST. REL. CLA.
= Having only 1 sister and adding extra info (she lives in London) about her.
➔ APPOSITION AND COMPLEMENTS
Some verbs can require more than one complement. This sets up the
possibility of a sequence of nominal groups that can be interpreted as either A
SEQUENCE OF COMPLEMENTS OR A SINGLE COMPLEMENT AND A
CASE OF APPOSITION.
EXAMPLE:
|| She considers her teacher a good person || → A SEQUENCE OF
COMPLEMENTS
 || She considers her teacher | a good person || → A SINGLE COMPLEMENT
AND A CASE OF APPOSITION
➔ APPOSITION VS. VOCATIVES
EXAMPLE:
|| This is my cat | Tom || → APPOSITION
↳ A second reference to the subject “cat”. = “Tom” is the name of the cat.
|| This is my cat Tom || → VOCATIVE
↳ “Tom” is the name of the person we are actually addressing. = “Tom” is
the name of the person we are talking to.
|| John | can I talk to you for a second? || → VOCATIVE
↳ Vocatives at the beginning tend to form a separate IP.
➔ COMPLEMENTS AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
Some verbs (like wash and dress) can function either TRANSITIVELY (i.e.
with complements) OR INTRANSITIVELY (i.e. without a complement).
EXAMPLE:
|| She washed and brushed her hair || → se limpió su pelo y se peinó su pelo
|| She washed | and brushed her hair || → se limpió (bañó) a ella misma y se
peinó su pelo
|| She dressed and fed the baby || → cambió al bebé y alimentó al bebé
|| She dressed | and fed the baby || → se cambió a ella misma y alimentó al
bebé
|| Empty cases and boxes || → both the cases and the boxes are empty
|| Empty cases | and boxes || → only the cases are empty
➔ MANNER AND SENTENCE ADVERBS
Some adverbs (like honestly) may sometimes function as an ADVERB OF
MANNER AND sometimes as a COMMENT ON THE MESSAGE.
EXAMPLE:
|| He spoke to her honestly || → ADVERB OF MANNER
|| He spoke to her | honestly || → COMMENT ON THE MESSAGE
➔ NEGATIVE DOMAIN
Tonality plays a dramatic effect in cases where the domain of negation may
be ambiguous.
EXAMPLE:
|| She didn’t go | so that she could take the promotion || → she got the
promotion by staying
|| She didn’t go so that she could take the promotion || → she did go, but no
with the intention of getting the promotion
|| He won’t take notes | like last night || → he didn’t take notes like last night,
and he won’t now
|| He won’t take notes like last night || → he took notes last night, but he won’t
do it in the same way now (with a falling-rising tone)
➔ COMPLEX VERBAL GROUPS AND CLAUSES OF PURPOSE
- Sometimes a COMPLEX VERBAL GROUP contains a second verb in
the infinitive form.
- Sometimes a CLAUSE OF PURPOSE begins with the infinitive form of
the verb, meaning ‘in order to’.
EXAMPLE:
|| She came to hear about the lessons || → COMPLEX VERBAL GROUP
 ↳ “Come to hear” means ‘happen, by chance, to hear’. → IDIOM
|| She came | to hear about the lessons || → CLAUSE OF PURPOSE
|| She left him to think about it || → COMPLEX VERBAL GROUP
↳ “Leave someone to do something” means ‘someone had to think about it’.
|| She left him | to think about it || → CLAUSE OF PURPOSE
↳ An explanation why she left him, so that she could think about it

AMBIGUOUS CASES
- || Help | keep the dog off || → asking for help to keep the dog off
- || Help keep the dog off || → helping to keep the dog off
- || What’s that in the road | ahead? || → arriba en el camino
- || What’s that in the road ahead? || → en el camino de arriba
- || This will give teachers time | to prepare and mark work || → tiempo para
preparar y corregir trabajos (clause of purpose)
- || This will give teachers time to prepare | and mark work || → tiempo para
prepararse ellos mismos y corregir trabajos

2) TONICITY (PROMINENCE & ACCENTUATION)

TONICITY
- It’s the location of the most prominent syllable in an intonation unit; i.e. it
identifies the focus of each piece of information. = TONICITY tells you what
the focus of information is. → TONICITY is the placement of the
nucleus/focus element in an utterance.
- A sentence can have different tonicity depending on where the speaker
decides to place the focus or the intonation unit.
EXAMPLE:
- || They’re meeting on \Tuesday || TUESDAY → FOCUS
- || They’re \meeting on Tuesday || MEETING → FOCUS
TO TAKE INTO ACCOUNT…
- An intonation unit normally contains one tonic syllable (one focus).
- The presence of the tonic syllable is obligatory for the delivery of a complete
intonation unit.
- A tonic syllable is the syllable that is more prominent than the others. It is made
more prominent by a degree of loudness greater than the other syllables, and it is
accompanied by a distinctive pitch movement.
- TYPES OF TONICITY: NEUTRAL (BROAD FOCUS) and MARKED (NARROW
FOCUS).

NEUTRAL TONICITY
- It refers to the phenomenon that the tonic syllable will occur within the final
lexical item in its intonation unit.
EXAMPLE:
|| They’re meeting on \Tuesday || TUESDAY → FINAL LEXICAL ITEM

MARKED TONICITY
- It refers to those cases where the tonic occurs within a lexical item that is
not final.
 EXAMPLE:
- || They \are meeting on Tuesday || ARE → NON-FINAL LEXICAL
ITEM
- || My BROTHER | bought ME | a new BICYCLE || → IMPLIES: MY
BROTHER (NOT MY SISTER) BOUGHT ME (NOT YOU) A NEW
BICYCLE (NOT A PONY).

CASES OF MARKED TONICITY

- MARKED TONICITY will always need a very particular context.
➔ NUMBERS
If the final digit of the second group is identical to the final digit of
the first one, it is treated as given/repeated. Therefore, the tonic
syllable shifts to the previous digit, creating MARKED TONICITY.
1. TELEPHONE NUMBERS
= NOT CONTRAST. AVOIDANCE OF FOCUSING ON A
REPEATED ITEM.
EXAMPLE: || 7 5 1 | 2 8 1 ||
2. FOOTBALL SCORES
= NOT CONTRAST. AVOIDANCE OF FOCUSING ON A
REPEATED ITEM
EXAMPLE: || Belgium ONE || WALES one ||
➔ PARTS OF WORDS LIKE ELEMENTS OF COMPOUNDS WORDS
AND AFFIXES
These are cases of COMPOUNDS formed by two WORDS, but
treated as single lexical items which are normally stressed on the
first element. However, the unstressed part of the compound – the
second element – can occasionally receive the tonic. = CONTRAST
EXAMPLE:
- || He’s got a BOOK shelf | but we need a book CASE ||
- || He was taken with the rest of them in the poLICE van ||
- || No, he WASN’T || He was taken in the police CAR ||
➔ EVENT CLAUSES / SENTENCES
- A kind of MARKED TONICITY takes place when the final
lexical item is a common verb of movement OR happening
which does not seem to add anything to the message.
- In these examples, these verbs are technically lexical items in
final position, but since they do not take the tonic syllable, the
TONICITY is MARKED.
EXAMPLE:
- || The PHONE rang ||
- || An ACCIDENT has happened ||
➔ FINAL ADJUNCTS
They are also called ADVERBIALS.
F.A. are one of the five major elements of a clause structure (subject,
verb, object, complements and final adjunct).
1. ADJUNCTS that contain lexical items which appear in final
position in the clause.
EXAMPLE: || Where did you GO last week? ||
 2. ADJUNCTS in final position with no lexical content do not
take the tonic syllable.
EXAMPLE: || What did you DO today? ||
3. FINAL ADJUNCTS which function for comment, viewpoint,
reporting and glosses on the subject are usually ‘out of
focus’, i.e. non-tonic, whether they contain lexical items or
not.
EXAMPLE: || She wanted to speak like a LADY of course ||
4. VOCATIVES in final position are usually non-tonic.
EXAMPLE: || Don’t SHOOT Joe || JOE → VOCATIVE
5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS functioning as a direct object.
EXAMPLE: || She ASKED herself || HERSELF → REFLEX. P.

CONTRAST DANGERS
- If a person consistently stresses “contrast words” as opposed to “new
information words”, he/she can end up sounding permanently
argumentative”.
EXAMPLE:
- || I said it is good. ||
- || He DOESN’T like it. | Where ARE you going? ||
- Mixed messages occur when modals or verbs of perception are stressed –
you end up with the opposite meaning.
EXAMPLE TO DEMONSTRATE THE OPPOSITE MEANING:
- || People SHOULD exercise more, → but … || SHOULD → MODAL
- || They WOULD help us, → if … || WOULD → MODAL
- || It LOOKS like Chanel, → but at that price it’s a knock-off. || LOOKS
→ V.O.P
- || He SEEMS like a nice guy, → but once you get to know him … ||
SEEMS → V.O.P.
EXAMPLE TO DEMONSTRATE THE VARIETY OF MEANING THROUGH
INTONATION CHANGES:
- “I didn’t say he stole the money”.
1. I didn’t say he stole the money, someone ELSE said it.
2. I DIDN’T say he stole the money, that’s NOT TRUE at ALL.
3. I didn’t SAY he stole the money, I only SUGGESTED the
POSSIBILITY.
4. I didn’t say HE stole the money, I think someone ELSE took it.
5. I didn’t say he STOLE the money, maybe he just BORROWED
it.
6. I didn’t say he stole THE money, but rather some OTHER
money.
7. I didn’t say he stole the MONEY, he may have taken some
JEWELLERY.
BROAD FOCUS (NEUTRAL TONICITY)
- It refers to all the information in an intonation unit being new.
EXAMPLE:
|| What are you \eating? || → This can be the beginning of a new topic in a
conversation that continues. Here the focus is BROAD. = Tonic syllable in
final lexical item.

NARROW FOCUS (MARKED TONICITY)

- It refers to only a part of the information being new.
EXAMPLE:
|| What are \you eating? || → This question is a repetition of S1. However,
“you” is referring to S1, not S2. Here the focus is NARROW. = Tonic syllable
in non-final lexical item.

NEW INFORMATION AND OLD (GIVEN) INFORMATION

- The location of the nucleus is strongly affected by the words in the
utterance that contain OLD or NEW INFORMATION.
- We accent NEW INFORMATION.
- We deaccent OLD INFORMATION.
EXAMPLE:
|| How about a gin and \tonic? || TONIC → New information = accented.
EXAMPLE:
|| Oh, I’d prefer \vodka and tonic. || TONIC → Old information = deaccented.

PROMINENCE
- Prominent syllables are highlighted in some way, or made to be more
noticeable or sound more important. (Brazil, 1994)
- Prominence is the element of intonation which determines the ‘noticeability’
of words. (Bradford, 1998)
- Prominence:
25% PITCH - 25% LOUDNESS - 25% LENGTH - 25% QUALITY
EXAMPLE:
SARA, we have to talk
Sara, WE have to talk
Sara, we HAVE to talk
Sara, we have to TALK
EXAMPLE:
I’m reading
I’m READING
I’M reading
I AM reading
Who’s reading? → I’M reading
Why aren’t you reading? I AM reading
What are you doing? → I’m READing
PITCH
Differences in pitch are produced at the vocal folds: The tenser the vocal folds, the
faster they vibrate, and the higher the note that is produced. [Pitch can be prominent,
making the sentence have pitch movement]
➔ ARTICULATORILY: it depends on the tension and rate of vibration
of the vocal folds.
➔ AUDITORILY: it is that property of a sound, in terms of which it can be
placed on a scale running from high to low.

LOUDNESS
➔ ARTICULATORILY: caused by greater muscular energy and breath
force.
➔ AUDITORILY: the property of a sound which enables us, using only
our ears, to place it on a scale going from loud to soft. [if I’m stressing
something, it would be louder]

LENGTH
➔ AUDITORILY: the property of a sound which enables us, using only
our ears, to place it on a scale going from long to short. [usually, a
stressed syllable is going to be longer]

QUALITY
➔ ARTICULATORILY: it depends on the shape of the resonators.
➔ AUDITORILY: strong [æ] – weak [ə]

PROMINENCE AND THE DISCOURSE CONTEXT

- The allocation of PROMINENCE is not automatic: it is both variable and
meaningful (Brazil, 1994).
- When choosing to put prominent syllables in some words but not others,
you help the listener follow the message. It helps them to know which
words they should pay special attention to (Brazil, 1994).

PROMINENCE IN ENGLISH
Prominence in English is used to:
➔ HIGHLIGHT NEW OR IMPORTANT INFORMATION
- Words expressing old or given information are unstressed and
spoken with lower pitch.
- Words expressing new or important information are spoken with
strong stress and higher pitch.
EXAMPLE:
S1: I’ve lost an umBRElla.
S2: A LAdy’s umbrella?
S1: Yes. A lady’s umbrella with STARS on it. GREEN stars.
EXAMPLE:
Waiter: Can I HELP you?
Customer: SURE. Are you still serving BREAKfast.
Waiter: SORRY. We only serve breakfast until eLEVen.
 EXAMPLE:
S1: I have a new PET.
S2: What KIND of pet?
S1: It’s a BIRD, a BAby bird, a baby PIGeon.
S2: REALLY? Is it a HOming pigeon?
S1: No, just an ordinary STREET pigeon. It fell out of its NEST and lost its
MOTHer.
S2: Poor THING!
EXAMPLE:
S1: I lost my HAT.
S2: What KIND of hat?
S1: It was a RAIN hat.
S2: What COLOUR rain hat?
S1: It was WHITE.
S2: There was a white hat in the CAR.
S1: WHICH car?
S2: The one I SOLD!
➔ PLACE SPECIAL EMPHASIS
The speaker wishes to place special emphasis on a particular element.
EXAMPLE:
“It was ABsoLUTely FASCiNATing”.
EXAMPLE:
“SHE was REALly FURIous”.
EXAMPLE:
“Sorry Linda. You don’t know how much I HATE to tell you this, but after you
left me I found somebody wonderful. Me!”
EXAMPLE:
S1: “BOB studies ENGLISH”
S2: “Bob STUDIES English, but he DOESN’T use it”
➔ SHOW CONTRAST
Two parallel elements – either explicitly or by implication – can receive
prominence within a given utterance.
EXAMPLE:
“YOUR books are on the TAble, not MINE”
EXAMPLE:
“The Serengeti has both a DRY and a WET season” → EXPLICIT MENTION
OF CONTRAST
EXAMPLE:
“I’m planning on visiting in the DRY season” → IMPLIES: NOT THE WET
SEASON
EXAMPLE:
“I’m hoping to see some BLACK rhinos when I’m there” → IMPLIES: IN
ADDITION TO THE MORE COMMON WHITE RHINOS
EXAMPLE:
S1: “BOB studies ENGLISH”
S2: “Bob STUDIES English, but he DOESN’T use it”
 ACCENTUATION

PRIMARY ACCENT: where the pitch movement starts

SECONDARY ACCENT: previous accent(s), less likely to start pitch movement
PROMINENT SYLLABLE: accented syllable
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE: non-prominent syllable

1. SIMPLE WORDS: TWO AND THREE SYLLABLE WORDS

SIMPLE WORDS:
- They are made up of roots alone or with the addition of affixes.
- It’s difficult to establish rules for the accentuation of simple words, so
students should learn the accentual pattern of each new word.

SYLLABLE:
- It’s a group of one or more sounds.
- The essential part of a syllable is a vowel sound.
- Some syllables are just one vowel sound.
EXAMPLE:
- eye /aɪ/
- owe /əʊ/

TWO SYLLABLE WORDS:

- Letters are not the same as sounds.
- They might be written with a different number of syllables.
EXAMPLE:
- chocolate /ˈtʃɒk.lət/
- language /ˈlæŋ.ɡwɪdʒ/
- teacher /ˈtiː.tʃə/
1. PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
\teacher
2. PRIMARY ACCENT + PROMINENT SYLLABLE:
\conduct
3. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT:
a\gain
4. PROMINENT SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT:
car\toon
5. SECONDARY ACCENT + PRIMARY ACCENT:
‘chi\nese
THREE SYLLABLE WORDS:
- They have three units of pronunciation → they could be pronounced in
three steps.
EXAMPLE:
- astronaut /ˈæs.trə.nɔːt/
- basketball /ˈbɑːs.kɪt.,bɔːl/
- cosmetics /kɒzˈ.me.tɪks/
1. PRIMARY ACCENT + 2 UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: \lunatic
2. PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE +
PROMINENT SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: \triangle
3. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: im\portant
4. PROMINENT SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: am\bition
5. SECONDARY ACCENT + PRIMARY ACCENT +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: ‘pre\judgement
6. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE ++
PRIMARY ACCENT:
EXAMPLE: ‘guaran\tee
2. FOUR AND FIVE SYLLABLE WORDS

FOUR SYLLABLE WORDS:

1. PRIMARY ACCENT + 3 UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: \category
2. PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PROMINENT
SYLLABLE + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE, PRIMARY ACCENT + 2
UNACCENTED SYLLABLES + PROMINENT SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: \calculator
3. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + 2
UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: cer\tificate
4. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED
SYLLABLE + PROMINENT SYLLABLE, PROMINENT SYLLABLE +
PRIMARY ACCENT + 2 UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: a\pologize
5. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: ‘conver\sation
6. SECONDARY ACCENT + PROMINENT SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: ‘expec\tation

FIVE SYLLABLE WORDS:

1. PRIMARY ACCENT + 4 UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: \capitalism
2. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + 3
UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: vo\cabulary
3. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED
SYLLABLE + PROMINENT SYLLABLE + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: a\pologizing
4. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + TWO UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: ‘incon\siderable
5. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + SECONDARY TONE:
EXAMPLE: ‘under\estimate
6. SECONDARY ACCENT + TWO UNACCENTED SYLLABLES +
PRIMARY ACCENT + ONE UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: ‘classifi\cation
7. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + SECONDARY ACCENT +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED
SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: pro‘nunci\ation
8. TWO SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE +
PROMINENT ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: ‘re‘valu\ation
3. SIX AND SEVEN SYLLABLE WORDS

SIX SYLLABLE WORDS:

1. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: indi\vidualism
2. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED
SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: ‘irrita\bility
3. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + SECONDARY ACCENT +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED
SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: fa’mili\arity
4. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + SECONDARY ACCENT +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED
SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: per’sonifi\cation
5. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE +
SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE:
EXAMPLE: ‘mispro’nunci\ation

SEVEN SYLLABLE WORDS:

1. UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + SECONDARY ACCENT +
UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: in’telligi\bility
2. SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE +
SECONDARY ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLE + PRIMARY
ACCENT + UNACCENTED SYLLABLES:
EXAMPLE: ‘indi’vidu\ality
4. ALTERNATIVE ACCENTUAL PATTERNS AND THE DISTINCTIVE
FUNCTION OF ACCENT (what words are likely to have the accent?)

ALTERNATIVE ACCENTUAL PATTERNS:

- There are several words with optional accentuations:
EXAMPLE: ADULT → | ˈædʌlt | - | əˈdʌlt |
● TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS:
EXAMPLE: WEEKEND → |ˌwiːkˈend | - | ˈwiːkend |
● THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS:
EXAMPLE: SONOROUS → | ˈsɒnərəs | - | səˈnɔːrəs |
● FOUR-SYLLABLE WORDS:
EXAMPLE: APPLICABLE → | əˈplɪkəbəl | - | ˈæplɪkəbəl |
● FIVE-SYLLABLE WORDS:
EXAMPLE: NECESSARILY → | ˈnesəsərəli | - |ˌnesəˈserəli |

THE DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION OF ACCENT:

- In English, only the accentual pattern can distinguish between pair of
words of identical spelling.
EXAMPLE: ACCENT → noun: | ˈæksent | - verb: | ækˈsent |

- In the case of SIMPLE WORDS the tendency is for:

● NOUNS / ADJECTIVES TO BE STRESSED ON THE FIRST
SYLLABLE
● VERBS ON THE LAST
EXAMPLE: OBJECT → noun: | ˈɒbdʒɪkt | - verb: | əbˈdʒekt |

- Only the accentual pattern can distinguish between nouns and verbs:
EXAMPLE: TRANSPORT → noun: | ˈtrænspɔːt | - verb: | trænˈspɔːt |

- There are few cases where accent does not function distinctively:
EXAMPLE: ADDRESS → noun: | əˈdres | - verb: | əˈdres |

- Different accentual patterns may distinguish between NP and

establish compounds:
● NOUN PHRASES VS. COMPOUNDS
EXAMPLE:
NOUN PHRASE: ‘Green \house → a house painted green.
COMPOUND: \Greenhouse → a building used for growing plants.
 5. SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES IN ACCENTUATION

SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES

- They may be added to a ROOT as a STEM ( → STEM: root of a word, together
with any derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added).
- ACCENTUATION may differ according to SOME RULES determined
by SUFFIXES and PREFIXES.

SUFFIXES: ACCENTUATION

● -OUS There are many cases in which - \DANGER - \DANGEROUS

● -ER SUFFIXES determine the DI\SASTER - DI\SASTROUS
● -LESS ACCENTUATION: - \AMPLIFY - \AMPLIFIER
● -AGE - RE\GARD - RE\GARDLESS
● -FUL - PER\CENT - PER\CENTAGE
In some words, the STRESS stays on the
● -NESS - RE\GRET - RE\GRETFUL
● -FY SAME SYLLABLE as in the ROOT: These - \FOOLISH - \FOOLISHNESS
● -AL SUFFIXES DO NOT CHANGE the - \BEAUTY - \BEATIFY
● -ABLE STRESS PATTERN in a WORD. - E\LECTRIC - E\LECTRICAL
→ - \COMFORT - \COMFORTABLE

---------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
● -AL -------------------------------------------------------- - \MEDICINE - ME\DICINAL
● -ABLE There are some exceptions with -AL and - \AGRICULTURE -
ABLE in which the STRESS doesn’t stay AGRI\CULTUAL
on the SAME SYLLABLE as in the ROOT. - AD\MIRE - \ADMIRABLE
→ PRE\FER - \PREFERABLE

But in some other cases, SUFFIXES

change the STRESSED SYLLABLES:
—-----------------------------------------------------
● -IOUS The MAIN STRESS comes in the - \INDUSTRY - IN\DUSTRIOUS
● -ULOUS SYLLABLE before the SUFFIX. → \MYSTERY - MY\STERIOUS
● -EOUS - \MIRACLE - MI\RACULOUS
- ADVANTAGE -
ADVAN\TAGEOUS
\OUTRAGE - OUT\RAGEOUS
---------------------------- —----------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
● -EE Some SUFFIXES THEMSELVES have - ABSEN\TEE
● -EER the MAIN STRESS. → REFU\GEE
● -ESE - ENGI\NEER
● -ETTE MOUNTAI\NEEER
- JAPAN\ESE
NEPAL\ESE
- CIGAR\ETTE
DI\SKETTE

There are some exceptions with -EE and - - EM\PLOYEE

ETTE. → - \OMELETTE
\ETIQUETTE
 ● -IAL The MAIN STRESS is on the SYLLABLE - \EDITOR - EDI\TORIAL
● -ION immediately before the SUFFIX. → - AC\CELERATE -
● -IVE ACCELE\RATION
● -ITY
- \INSTINCT - IN\STINCTIVE
● -IC
- \GENEROUS - GENE\ROSITY
- \ATMOSPHERE -
ATMOS\PHERIC
---------------------------- —----------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
● -IBLE There are cases in which -IC and -IBLE - \NEGLIGIBLE
● -IC reject the ACCENT before the SUFFIX. → - \ARABIC
\CATHOLIC

● -ATIVE The MAIN STRESS is usually on the - IN\VESTIGATE -

SAME SYLLABLE as in the ROOT IN\VESTIVATIVE
WORD. → - \SPECULATE - \SPECULATIVE

● -ANT The STRESS placement in NOUNS and

● -ENT ADJECTIVES ending with -ANT, -ENT, -
● -ANCE ANCE and -ENCE depends on the
● -ENCE
SPELLING of the SYLLABLE before the
SUFFIX (which is also called PRE-
SUFFIX).
—-----------------------------------------------------
If the PRE-SUFFIX SYLLABLE ends with - \IGNORANT
a SINGLE VOWEL LETTER or A SINGLE
VOWEL LETTER + A SINGLE
CONSONANT LETTER, STRESS usually
goes on the SYLLABLE before the PRE-
SUFFIX SYLLABLE. →
—----------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
If the PRE-SUFFIX SYLLABLE has ANY - AP\PEARANCE
OTHER SPELLING, then the STRESS is
usually on the PRE-SUFFIX SYLLABLE
itself. →
-------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
If the PRE-SUFFIX SYLLABLE ends with - COM\PLY - COM\PLIANCE
the letter “I” and the ROOT WORDS ends
with the letter “Y” in A STRESSED
SYLLABLE, the STRESS is usually on the
PRE-SUFFIX SYLLABLE. →
-------------------------------------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------
IMPORTANT:
SOME WORDS ending in THESE
SUFFIXES have a DIFFERENT STRESS
PLACEMENT from the ROOT while
OTHERS have the SAME ONE.
● -MENT The SUFFIX -MENT doesn’t change the - A\GREE - A\GREEMENT
STRESS PATTERN in the ROOT. \GOVERN - \GOVERNMENT
→
- \ADVERTISE -
There is an exception with -MENT. → AD\VERTISEMENT

● -UTE The SUFFIX -UTE rejects the ACCENT to

the ANTEPENULTIMATE SYLLABLE.

There are some exceptions with -UTE. →

- AT\TRIBUTE
- CON\TRIBUTE
- DIS\TRIBUTE
SUFFIXES: PRONUNCIATION
- PRONUNCIATION may vary when a WORD ends with ONE of the
consonants “T” or “S” and the SUFFIX -ION
● -TION
→ /tʃən/ SUGGESTION (after letter S)
→ /ʃən/ EDUCATION (after other letters: A)
● -SION
→ /ʃən/ EXTENSION (after a consonant: N)
→ /ʒən/ DECISION (after a vowel: I)
● -SSION
→ /ʃən/ ADMISSION
 PREFIXES: ACCENTUATION
- They may also change the ACCENTUATION in A WORD.

● DE- In some words, the ROOT - DE\GRADE

● DIS- can be used as an - DIS\INTEGRATE
● IL- INDEPENDENT WORD → - IL\LEGAL
● RE- - RE\FRESH
● UN- - UN\PACK
(grade, integrate, legal, fresh, pack →
roots: independent words)
—--------------------------------------------
- RE\NOUNCE
BUT there are cases in “nounce” is not an independent word (= it doesn’t
which this is not possible → exist without a prefix)
—--------------------------------------------
Usually, these PREFIXES - + Do you enjoy driving?
are UNSTRESSED and they - - No, I really DISLIKE it.
can be PROMINENT for - + I thought you LIKED
PARTICULAR CONTRAST driving.
→ - - No, I really DISLIKE it.

● SUB- In some words, the PREFIX - \SUBTEXT

● SUPER- ITSELF is STRESSED. → - \SUPER MODEL
● CO- - \CO-STAR
● COUNTER- - \COUNTERPARK
● HYPER- - \HYPERTEXT
● INTER- - \INTERFACE
● UNDER- - \UNDERGROWTH
—----------------------------------- —--------------------------------------------
In some words, these - SUB\CONSCIOUS
prefixes have MAIN - SUPER\NATURAL
STRESS on a SYLLABLE - CO-EDU\CATION
after the PREFIX (most of - COUNTERPRO\DUCTIVE
them are ADJECTIVES) → - HYPER\ACTIVE
- INTER\CHANGEABLE
- UNDER\COVER

● A- In some words, (can be - A\RISE

● BE- ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, - BE\HOLD
● FOR- VERBS and NOUNS) with - FOR\GIVE
● WITH- these prefixes are ALWAYS - WITH\HOLD
UNSTRESSED →

● AFTER- When these prefixes are in - \AFTERTHOUGHT

● BY- NOUNS, the STRESS is on - \BYLAW
● DOWN- the PREFIX ITSELF. → - \DOWNFALL
● FORE- - \OVERCOAT
● IN- - \UNDERBRUSH
● OFF- —----------------------------------- —--------------------------------------------
● ON- When these prefixes are in - FORE\CLOSE
● OUT- VERBS, the STRESS is on - OFF\LOAD
● OVER- the BASE. → - OVER\COME
● UNDER- - UNDER\GO
● UP- - UP\HOLD
● MIS- It can be STRESSED OR - \MISPRINT
NOT in NOUNS. - MIS\FORTUNE
—--------------------------------------------
If it appears on VERBS, it is - MIS\PRINT
left UNSTRESSED. - MIS\JUDGE
- MIS\PRONOUNCE
6. ACCENTUATION OF COMPOUND WORDS (SINGLE-ACCENTED
COMPOUNDS)

COMPOUNDS:
Words made up of two and (less frequently) three roots.

SINGLE-ACCENTED COMPOUNDS:
- They take the accent on the first element.
1. COMBINATION OF TWO NOUNS:
a) EXAMPLE:
\baby-sitter - \car-dealer - \pain-killer - \bartender
b) EXAMPLE:
\breathtaking || \painstaking
\housekeeping || \book-keeping
\window-dressing || \window-shopping
\time-consuming || \timesaving
c) EXAMPLE:
\current account || \private account
\post card || \credit card
\school-time || \schoolboy
\clothes-line || \clothes-basket
2. COMBINATION OF ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS:
a) EXAMPLE:
\blackboard || \blackmail
\grandchild || \grandpa
\highway || \high-school
\mental home - \dark room - \secondary school - \sweet
potato
b) EXAMPLE:
\driving licence || \driving test
\shopping bag || \shopping list
\writing-desk || \writing-paper
\cooking lessons || \singing lessons
\waiting list - \swimming pool - \boarding school
3. COMBINATION OF VERBS AND NOUNS:
EXAMPLE:
\heartbreak - \cook book - \pushchair - \playboy

4. Many TWO-WORD VERBS give origin to NOUNS:

EXAMPLE:
\hold-up - \let-down - \take-off - \walk-over
7. DOUBLE ACCENTED COMPOUNDS AND THREE-ROOT COMPOUNDS

DOUBLE-ACCENTED COMPOUNDS:
1. COMPOUNDS made up of NOUNS are DOUBLE-ACCENTED in
the following cases:
a) When the FIRST NOUN indicates the POSITION of the
SECOND ONE:
EXAMPLE:
‘country-\side || ‘kitchen \garden || ‘shop \window
b) When the SECOND NOUN is “MADE OF” the FIRST ONE:
EXAMPLE:
‘mushroom \sauce || ‘olive \oil || ‘spinach \salad
EXCEPTIONS:
- \corn flakes
- \fruit cake
- all compounds with JUICE, e.g: \pear juice
c) COMMON NOUN + NOUN COMPOUNDS:
EXAMPLE:
‘mass \media || ‘woman \driver || ‘national \park
2. SOME COMMON DOUBLE-ACCENTED COMPOUNDS made up of
NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES are:
a) ADJECTIVE + NOUN
EXAMPLE:
‘best \man - ‘best-\seller
‘civil \war
‘falling \star
‘prime \minister
‘high-\grade
‘last \call
b) NOUN + ADJECTIVE
EXAMPLE:‘world-\wide - ‘world-\famous
‘stone-\blind
‘brand-\new
‘snow-\white
‘tax-\free
‘family-\friendly
3. PARTICIPLES make up SOME COMMON DOUBLE-ACCENTED
COMPOUNDS, e.g:
EXAMPLE:
‘easy-\going
‘hard-\working
‘good-\looking
‘old-\fashioned
‘broad-\minded
‘fast-\paced
‘mind-\blowing
‘home-\made
THREE-ROOT COMPOUNDS:
- Compounds made up of three parts may have TWO OR THREE
WORDS. Sometimes, the FIRST AND SECOND WORDS are
HYPHENATED.
● THREE-ROOT COMPOUNDS ARE ARRANGED
ACCORDING TO THEIR ACCENTUAL PATTERN
a) ACCENTED IN THE SECOND WORD
EXAMPLE:
‘bed-\sitting-room
‘hot \water bottle
‘great-\grandfather
b) ACCENTED IN THE LAST WORD
EXAMPLE:
‘take-home \pay
‘back seat \driver
‘audio-visual \aids
● SINGLE–ACCENTED THREE-ROOT COMPOUNDS
EXAMPLE:
\merry-go-round
\fire-insurance policy
\crossword puzzle
\test-tube baby
 8. RHYTHMICAL MODIFICATIONS
- There are 4 rhythmical modifications:
★ FIRST MODIFICATION
★ SECOND MODIFICATION (TWO PARTS)
★ THIRD MODIFICATION (THREE PARTS)
★ FOURTH MODIFICATION

● FIRST MODIFICATION
When there are SEQUENCES OF THREE CONTENT WORDS, the SECOND ONE
tends to LOSE ITS ACCENT if it has no more than TWO SYLLABLES.
EXAMPLE:
- a ‘nice cosy \chair → COSY: second content word with no more than two
syllables
- a ‘nice ‘comfortable \chair → COMFORTABLE: second content with more
than two syllables
EXAMPLE:
- I ‘can speak Chi\nese → SPEAK: no more than 2 syllables
- I ‘can trans’late Chi\nese → TRANSLATE: more than 2 syllables
EXAMPLE:
- a ‘little cute \bear → CUTE: no more than 2 syllables
- a ‘little ‘horrible \bear → HORRIBLE: more than 2 syllables

● SECOND MODIFICATION (TWO PARTS)

❖ FIRST PART
PHRASAL VERBS that can take A DIRECT OBJECT adopt different
accentual patterns, DEPENDING on the POSITION and the NATURE of the
OBJECT.
EXAMPLE:
‘put on your \shoes
‘put your \shoes on
‘put them \on
EXAMPLE:
‘turn off the \light
‘turn the \light off
‘turn it \off
EXAMPLE:
‘pick up the \pencil
‘pick the \pencil up
‘pick it \up
❖ SECOND PART
PHRASAL VERBS that cannot take A DIRECT OBJECT are accented on
both: VERB and PARTICLE, unless they are immediately PRECEDED and/or
FOLLOWED by another accented word.
EXAMPLE:
‘come \in
you ‘can't come \in
you can ‘come in \now
 EXAMPLE:
he ‘woke \up
he ‘soon woke \up
he ‘woke up \early
EXAMPLE:
‘sit \down
you ‘can sit \down
you can’t ‘sit down \there

● THIRD MODIFICATION (THREE PARTS)

❖ FIRST PART
Many DOUBLE-ACCENTED COMPOUNDS and some SIMPLE WORDS may
lose the accent which is closest to another accent in the utterance.
EXAMPLE:
‘during the week\end - a ‘weekend \party
EXAMPLE:
‘that’s my grand\mother - my ‘grandmother’s \pasta
EXAMPLE:
‘tell the head\master - the ‘headmaster’s \office
EXAMPLE:
‘call the house\keeper - the ‘housekeeper’s \car
❖ SECOND PART
➔ When ADJECTIVES are used ATTRIBUTELY (next to a noun) they
drop their first accent.
EXAMPLE:
a ‘good-looking \boy - my ‘sweet-tempered \wife
➔ When ADJECTIVES are used PREDICATIVELY (part of the
predicate) they lose their second accent.
EXAMPLE:
I ‘find him goo-d\looking - she’s ‘very sweet-\tempered
❖ THIRD PART
ENGLISH PLACE NAMES.
EXAMPLE:
in ‘Hyde Park \Corner - ‘opposite Hyde \Park
EXAMPLE:
on ‘Piccadilly \Circus - she ‘lives near Picca\dilly
EXAMPLE:
from ‘Waterloo \station - an ‘office in Water\loo
EXAMPLE:
at ‘Heathrow \Airport - a ‘taxi to Heath\row

● FOURTH MODIFICATION
Less frequently SINGLE-ACCENTED WORDS may suffer this rhythmical
modification.
EXAMPLE:
he ‘eats in ex\cess - ‘did you pay ‘excess /luggage
EXAMPLE:
he ‘said hel\lo - \/hello, Stephen
9. ENGLISH ACCENTUATION AND USAGE

ENGLISH ACCENTUATION AND USAGE

- ANNOUNCEMENTS
The ACCENT tends to fall on the NOUN about which SOMETHING IS
SAID, rather than on the FOLLOWING CONTENT WORD.
EXAMPLE:
I ‘saw \Nora yesterday.
There are ‘no \buses today.
There is a mis\take in this letter.
The \baby’s crying.

- SET PHRASES → (an unvarying phrase having a specific meaning, such as ‘raining cats
and dogs’, or being the only context in which a word appears, for example ‘amends’ in ‘make
amends’.)
They take their own particular accentual pattern.
EXAMPLE:
- The ‘new ‘play brought the \house down.
- They ‘get on like a \house on fire.
- I’ve just seen \what’s-his-name.
- He ‘has a \screw loose.
- I’m ‘leaving a \day or two.
- We’ll ‘get there in \no time.

- COLLOCATIONS
● WITH “STREET”
The word “STREET” is UNACCENTED when it forms PART OF A
PLACE NAME.
EXAMPLE:
- \Oxford Street | ‘Oxford \Circus
- \Regent Street | ‘Regent’s \Park
- Vic\toria Street | Victoria’s \Station
● NOUNS USED IN A WIDE, UNSPECIFIC SENSE
This type of nouns are normally UNACCENTED.
EXAMPLE:
- I’m a’fraid you’re \seeing things.
- ‘Do you en’joy /meeting people?
- We’ve ‘lived in \several places.

EMPHATIC & CONTRASTIVE PATTERNS

- SPECIAL MEANINGS, such as EMPHASIS, can be conveyed by
varying the rule of accentuation of CONTENT and STRUCTURAL
WORDS =
STRUCTURAL WORDS may be ACCENTED for purposes of
EMPHASIS.
STRUCTURAL WORDS: articles, auxiliaries, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns.
CONTENT WORDS: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
 EXAMPLE:
Structural words:
- You \were driving fast.
- You \have made a mess of it.
Content words:
- This is the \book to read.
- You must \go now.

- When an EXPLICIT CONTRAST is expressed, the elements which

are in opposition ATTRACT THE ACCENT, leaving the repeated
elements UNACCENTED.
EXAMPLE:
- I didn’t say Oxford \/Street, I said Oxford \Road.
- He plays ‘both ‘popular music and \classical music.
- Did ‘he divorce /her, or did ‘she divorce \him?
- I must see ‘John before his ‘parents see \me
- ‘Are you working /indoors or \outdoors?
In general, REPETITIONS and SYNONYMS are left UNACCENTED.
EXAMPLE:
- + ‘What’s your \name?
- \Mills. \Gordon Mills.
- + You ‘havent made that \phone call.
- I \know I haven’t.
- I ‘hate the /institute, and the people con\nected with the
institute.
EXCEPTIONS:
EXAMPLE:
- + ‘Buy me ‘sixs \pairs.
- ‘Buy you ‘sixs /pairs?
- ‘First /come, ‘first \served.
- ‘Out of /sight, ‘out of \mind.
TEACHING PROBLEMS
- English vs. Spanish
BOTH:
- Have free accent.
- Accent in words of 2, 3 and 4 syllables.
ENGLISH:
- More variable.
- Accents on the first syllable.
SPANISH:
- Less variable.
- Accents on the penultimate syllable.

- Difficult points to the Spanish learner

1. Spanish speakers are not used to accentuate THREE OR
FOUR SYLLABLE WORDS on their first syllable.
2. ENGLISH DERIVATIVES ( → a word formed from an earlier word or root.
Eg; the word "childhood" is a derivative of "child.”) don’t always follow the
ACCENTUAL and/or PHONEMIC PATTERNS of their ROOTS.
EXAMPLE:
- \person > per’sonifi\cation
- com\pare > \comparable
3. The LACK OF AWARENESS about the PRESENCE and
PLACING of SECONDARY ACCENTS in English (S.A. bring
about perceptible vowel quality modifications).
4. COGNATE WORDS ( → words in two languages that share a similar
meaning, spelling, and pronunciation) don’t have the same
accentuation.
EXAMPLE:
- \supermarket > supermer\cado
- \atmoshpere > at\mosfera
- \comfortable > confor\table
5. Spanish learners tend to triphthongize A VOWEL SEQUENCE
instead of breaking it SEPARATE SYLLABLES.
EXAMPLE:
- ‘gradu\ation
- ‘vari\ation
6. Spanish learners have difficulty in recognizing SYLLABLES
made PROMINENT by DIPHTHONGS when they contain
PURE VOWELS, especially after they have mastered English
vowel weakening.
PURE VOWELS:
EXAMPLE:
- \congress /ˈkɒŋɡres/
- \programme /ˈprəʊɡræm/
- sar\castic /sɑːˈkæstɪk/
- \apricot /ˈeɪprəkɒt/
 3) RHYTHM
WRITING VS SPEAKING
- When we read aloud, the writer’s PUNCTUATION tells us where to PAUSE.
For example, we pause at a:
● comma → ,
● period → .
● semicolon → ;
● colon → :
● parentheses → ( )

PUNCTUATION - GRAMMAR (GUIDES TO FORM THOUGHT GROUPS)

Not only PUNCTUATION forms THOUGHT GROUPS, but we also should take into
account GRAMMAR → grammatical units.
[THOUGHT GROUPS: tool to help you communicate your meaning clearly]

TYPES OF GRAMMATICAL UNITS

➔ NOUN PHRASES
EXAMPLE: || A beautiful woman || [article + adjective + noun]
➔ SUBJECTS
EXAMPLE:
|| A beautiful woman | entered the room ||
|| A beautiful woman | and her little dog | entered the room ||
➔ VERB PHRASES
EXAMPLE:
|| Ran blissfully || [verb + adverb]
|| Climbed tall trees || [verb + object]
|| Had been dancing || [auxiliary verbs + main verb]
➔ PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
EXAMPLE:
|| with my friends ||
➔ CLAUSES
EXAMPLE:
|| When I was a boy, | I leaped over fences. || [adverb clause of time]
|| The boy, | who was no older than six or seven, | leaped over a fence || [adj. clau.]
PAUSES
➔ PREDICTABLE PAUSES
- They fit in naturally with the rhythmic groups, they are required for the
speaker to take a breath OR for the separation of grammatical units, and
will coincide with rhythmic group boundaries.
➔ UNPREDICTABLE PAUSES
- They are characteristic of spontaneous speech and break rhythmic groups
up in unpredictable places. They are produced by hesitations, false starts
and may occur at any place in the utterance.
[EITHER TYPE OF PAUSES MAY BE FILLED WITH SOME KIND OF SOUND,
NORMALLY OF A CENTRAL QUALITY OR THE LENGTHENING OF A SOUND, OR MAY
CONSIST OF SILENCE]
RHYTHM
- It’s a FEATURE OF and PRODUCT OF the phonological structure of English.
- English is a very RHYTHMICAL LANGUAGE. Learner maintains the rhythm
of the language to sound natural and fluent.
- SENTENCE STRESS and the VARIOUS FEATURES OF CONNECTED
SPEECH have an influence on rhythm.

SENTENCE STRESS
- In any sentence, some words carry a STRESS. These are the ‘STRONG’ or
‘LEXICAL’ words.
- The remaining words are ‘GRAMMATICAL’ words and are UNSTRESSED or
‘WEAK’.
- The rhythm is produced by the combination of STRESSED and
UNSTRESSED syllables.

STRESS-TIMED LANGUAGES AND SYLLABLE-TIMED LANGUAGES

When Spanish speakers transfer the intonation patterns of their mother tongue into
English, the result may sometimes be barely comprehensible to native English
speakers.
↳ Because the meaning conveyed in English by the combination of stress, pitch and
rhythm in a sentence is flattened or evened out by the Spanish learner.
STRESS-TIMED LANGUAGES SYLLABLE-TIMED LANGUAGES

Stressed syllables occur at Syllables follow regular intervals, with an

approximately regular intervals. equal amount of time being allocated for
each one.

Unstressed syllables are shortened.

There is an equal amount of time Syllables are produced at a steady rate

between each stress in a sentence. which is unaffected by stress
differences.

Examples of STRESS-TIMED Examples of SYLLABLE-TIMED

LANGUAGES: LANGUAGES:
- English. - Spanish.
- Swedish. - French.
- Russian. - Italian.
- Arabic. - Japanese.
- European Portuguese. - Brazilian Portuguese.
- German. - Finnish.

“I speak English really well” “Yo hablo español muy bien”

Stressed syllables are longer than It tends to have equal duration for each
unstressed ones: syllable:
I speak EEENG-lish really WEEELLL Yo – ha–blo – es–pa–ñol – muy – bien

aMONG the TRAgic CHAracters that en-tre – los - per-so-na-jes - trá-gi-cos -

TAKE part in HIStory and FICtion, que - pue-blan – la – his-to-ria – y – la –
maybe suiCIdals are the ONES that fic-ción – tal – vez – los – sui-ci-das –
MOVES us the MOST. se-an – los – que - más – nos – con-
mue-ven.
ENGLISH RHYTHM IS STRESSED-TIMED
The rhythm of English is STRESSED-TIMED because the accented syllables tend
to occur at fairly regular intervals. When two accented syllables are separated by
unaccented ones, these tend to be compressed and quickened, so that the time
between each beat will be approximately the same as the time taken by two
consecutive accented syllables.
EXAMPLE:
“Mary enjoys watching television.”
“Bob posted the letter at once.”
EXAMPLE:
“I’m afraid it’s an accident.” (2 accented syllables)
“I’m afraid there was an accident.” (2 accented syllables)
“I’m afraid there may be an accident.” (2 accented syllables)
“I’m afraid there must have been an accident.” (2 accented syllables)
ACCENTED SYLLABLES: a’fraid - ‘accident
“There's a good programme on television.” (10 syllables, 3 accents)
SYLLABLES: There’s – a – good – pro-gramme – on – te-le-vi-sion
ACCENTS: ‘good - ‘programme - tele’vision
“There’s a good programme on television on channel 2.” (14 syllabes, 5 accents)
SYLLABLES: There’s – a – good – pro-gramme – on – te-le-vi-sion – on –
cha-nnel – two
ACCENTS: ‘good - ‘programme - tele’vision - ‘channel - ‘two
There’s a good programme on television on channel 2 tomorrow.” (17 syllables, 6
accents)
SYLLABLES: There’s – a – good – pro-gramme – on – te-le-vi-sion – on –
cha-nnel – two – to-mo-rrow
ACCENTS: ‘good - ‘programme - tele’vision - ‘channel - ‘two - to’morrow

SPANISH RHYTHM IS SYLLABLE-TIMED

The syllables, either accented or unaccented, tend to occur at more or less
regular intervals. The time taken to produce a Spanish utterance is proportionate to
the number of syllables it contains.
EXAMPLE:
“Todos estaban cantando.” (8 syllables, 3 accents)
SYLLABLES: To-dos – es-ta-ban – can-tan-do
ACCENTS: ‘Todos es’taban can’tando
“Todos estaban cantando en el jardín.” (12 syllables, 4 accents)
SYLLABLES: To-dos – es-ta-ban – can-tan-do – en – el – jar-dín
ACCENTS: ‘Todos es’taban can’tando en el jar’dín
“Todos estaban cantando alegremente en el jardín.” (17 syllables, 5 accents)
SYLLABLES: To-dos – es-ta-ban – can-tan-do – a-le-gre-men-te en – el –
jar-dín
ACCENTS: ‘Todos es’taban can’tando a’legremente en el jar’dín
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STRESSED-TIME AND
SYLLABLE-TIMED LANGUAGES
SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

The same type of words (content) are
accented.
Spanish vowel weakening in terms of
quality and quantity is very slight. =
Spanish vowels tend not to reduce their
length and strength as much as English
vowels.

The number of accented syllables can
be reduced as tempo is quickened.
The pronunciation of the main vowel in
the unstressed syllable changes and
becomes a schwa.
For example:
S1: “Where are you from?”
S2: “I’m from Sydney.”

For example: Spanish polysyllabic words ( = words

- “Los comerciantes más
experimentados…”
- She asked for a continental
breakfast.
that have more than one syllable) may
take extra stresses apart from those that
would normally occur in the citation
form, thus producing an affected or
emphatic rhythm.
For instance:
- “Fue el acontecimiento más
importante…”

CONNECTED SPEECH
- Speed is also a factor in fluency. When we speak quickly, we speak in group
of words which are continuous and may not have pauses between them. This
causes changes to the ‘shape’ of words.
- Features of linking words together in CONNECTED SPEECH:
➔ GRADATION → use of strong and weak forms
➔ LINKING FEATURES → linking “R”
➔ ASSIMILATION → the process by which sounds are influenced by
neighbouring sounds and come to share some or all of their phonetic
characteristics
➔ ELISION → omission of sounds, omitting a vowel (nation[a]l:
/ˈnæʃən(ə)l/) or a consonant (bom[b]: /bɒm/ - impo[r]tant: /ɪmˈpɔːtənt/)
 4) TONE
TONE
- It’s the level and movement of pitch within an intonation unit. (Tench, 2011)

PRIMARY TONES
- Strong.
- PT are the system of contrastive movements of pitch within the tonic segment
(núcleo).
- PT are the basic choice between FALL, RISE and FALL-RISE.
- Two main functions:
● Informational function (facts).
● Communicative function (suggesting sth to sb, complaining, refusing
an invitation, giving advice, etc).
[TONES SERVE BOTH FUNCTIONS AT THE SAME TIME]

MAJOR INFORMATION \

MINOR INFORMATION / (FINAL)

INCOMPLETE INFORMATION / (NON-FINAL)

IMPLIED INFORMATION V (FINAL)

HIGHLIGHTED THEME V (NON-FINAL)

STATEMENTS: DECLARATIVE CLAUSE \

QUESTIONS:
- POLAR INTERROGATIVE /
CLAUSES (‘YES/NO’)
- NON-POLAR INTERROGATIVE \
CLAUSES (‘WH’)

COMMANDS: IMPERATIVE CLAUSES (= \

órdenes: be quiet - open your books)

EXCLAMATIONS: MINOR CLAUSES \

SECONDARY TONES
- Weak.
- ST are variations to the basic primary system.
- ST are levels and movements in the pretonic segment.

FALL
● “They are coming on Monday.”
1) NORMAL FALL: plain statement / normal
2) HIGH FALL: statement / more strongly
3) LOW FALL: more mildly
[THE DIFFERENCE OF TONE MEANING BETWEEN HIGH FALL AND LOW FALL IS THE
DEGREE OF EMOTIONAL INVOLVEMENT]
- HIGH FALL (STRENGTH OF FEELING)
 ● It implies greater interest, greater excitement, greater passion, more
involvement. (Wells, 2006)

- LOW FALL (MILDNESS OF FEELING)

● It implies relative lack of interest, less excitement, a dispassionate
attitude, less involvement. (Wells, 2006; p. 218)
RISE
● “They are coming on Monday.”
1) NORMAL RISE: plain / incomplete information
2) HIGH RISE: challenge, seeking information
3) LOW RISE: non-committal, grudging, negative ring
● “Are they coming on Monday?”
1) NORMAL RISE: yes/no question
2) HIGH RISE: strong feeling, surprise
3) LOW RISE: negative ring

DEGREES OF FALL-RISE
- It has a low variety.
- It implies information with strong emotion.
- Like the LOW RISE-FALL, it is often accompanied by breathy voice.

MID LEVEL TONES (-)

- The voice maintains a level pitch between HIGH and LOW and neither RISES
nor FALLS. (Wells, 2006; p. 222)
- It’s usually non-final.
- Meaning of mid level tones:
● Marking non-finality without conveying any expression of expectancy.
● Routine.
● Bored.
● Pre-coded.
● Oblique.
- It occurs in inventories and routine announcements.
- When preceded by a low head / pretonic, the mid level tone gives the
impression of a kind of routine listing.