BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS 21BE45

MODEL QUESTION PAPER – 2

MODULE - 1
1. a. What are Bioplastics? Compare the properties of PHA and PLA. . 10
Soln: Bioplastics are one type of plastic which can be generated from natural resources such as
starches and vegetable oils etc by microorganisms such as bacteria.
Comparison of properties of PHA and PLA.
Property PHA PLA
Synthesis 1. Synthesized by microbial 1.direct dehydration and
fermentation and polycondensation of lactic acid
2. by using from microbial under high temperature and low
plasmid. pressure and
2.by lactide ring opening
polymerization
Structure can have a variety of structures It has single structure
by changing strains or
fermentation process and starting
material.
Raw material 3-hydroxy fatty acids with a Lactides from various starches
chain length of 3 to 14 carbons. sugars
Mechanical strength Remains flexible with time PLA has good strength, but it
lacks toughness and is easy to
bend and deform
Becomes brittle and breakable
over time
Thermal stability Highly stable. It can withstand Low thermal stability
temperatures above boiling point
Biodegradability Breaks down anywhwere on the Only breaks down in compost
earth facility
Optical properties No notable optical properties Transparent and glossy

1. b. Write a short note on i lipids as detergents ii Meat analogues 10

Soln: i lipids as detergents
Lipids have several properties that make them suitable as cleaning agents, including their
ability to emulsify and dissolve grease and oils. Additionally, lipids can form micelles,
which are tiny spherical structures that can surround and trap dirt particles, making it easier
to remove them.
Examples of lipids used as detergents
• Soap: Soap is a traditional cleaning agent made from the reaction of an alkali with a fat
or oil.
• Fatty acids: Fatty acids, such as stearic acid, can be used as cleaning agents in personal
care products, such as bar soaps and shampoos.
• Glycerol: Glycerol is a byproduct of soap production and can be used as a cleaning
agent in a variety of applications, including household cleaners and industrial cleaning
solutions.
• Fatty alcohols: Fatty alcohols, such as lauryl alcohol, can be used as cleaning agents in
personal care products and industrial cleaning solutions.
Mechanism of action
The working principle of lipids as cleaning agents or detergents is based on their ability
to dissolve grease and oils. Lipids are composed of hydrophobic (water-fearing) and
hydrophilic (water-loving) regions, which allows them to surround grease and oils,
effectively breaking them down into smaller particles that can be more easily removed.
This is why lipids are commonly used in cleaning products such as soaps, shampoos,
laundry detergents, and dishwashing liquids.

ii Meat analogues
 Meat analogs/meat substitutes/meat alternatives, are plant-based foods designed to
mimic the taste, texture, and appearance of meat.
 They are made from a variety of ingredients, including soy protein, wheat protein, pea
protein, and other plant-based ingredients.
 Fortified with vitamins and minerals to provide a similar nutritional profile of meat.
 Meat analogs are a popular alternative to meat for many people, including vegetarians,
vegans, and those who are looking to reduce their meat consumption for health or
ethical reasons.
 They can be a good source of protein and can help to meet the body's protein needs.
 There are many different types of meat analogs available, including burgers, sausages,
meatballs, deli slices, and more. Some are designed to mimic specific types of meat,
such as chicken, beef, or pork, while others are marketed as a more generic "meat-like"
product.
 When choosing meat analogs, it is important to look for products that are high in
protein and low in added sugars, fats, and other ingredients that can be harmful to
health. It is also important to consider the texture and taste, as some meat analogs can
be more appealing than others.
2. a. Discuss the development of vaccine for covid 19 10
Soln:
 RNA vaccines for COVID 19 are a type of vaccine that use genetic material from the
SARS-CoV-2 virus, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an immune response against the
virus.
 The vaccine works by introducing the virus's RNA into the body, where it is taken up
by cells and used to produce viral proteins.
 These proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune
response and the production of antibodies against the virus.
 The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, was authorized
for emergency use in December 2020 and has been administered to millions of people
worldwide.
 Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was also authorized for emergency use
in December 2020.
RNA Vaccine for Covid - 19: Mechanism of action
 MODULE - 2
3. a. With a neat diagram of neuron explain the process of signal transmission 10
Soln. Signal transmission in the brain occurs through the firing of nerve cells, or neurons. A
neuron varies in shape and size depending on its function and location. All neurons have
three different parts – dendrites, cell body and axon.
A neuron sending a signal (i.e., a presynaptic neuron) releases a chemical called a
neurotransmitter, which binds to a receptor on the surface of the receiving (i.e.,
postsynaptic) neuron. Neurotransmitters are released from presynaptic terminals, which
may branch to communicate with several postsynaptic neurons.
A neuron receives inputs from other neurons at its dendrites, integrates the information,
and then generates an electrical impulse, or action potential, that travels down its axon to
the synaptic terminals. At the synaptic terminals, the neuron releases chemical
neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron, leading to the initiation of another action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. This
process of transmitting information from one neuron to another is known as synaptic
transmission and forms the basis of communication within the brain. Different types of
neurotransmitters have different effects on postsynaptic neurons, and the balance of
neurotransmitter levels can influence brain function, including mood, learning, and
memory.
3. b. Heart is an effective pump. Justify 10
Soln: The heart is an effective and complex pump system that circulates blood throughout the
body.
It consists of four chambers: the right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle, and the
left ventricle. Blood enters the right atrium from the body and is pumped into the right
ventricle, which then pumps the blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Oxygenated blood
returns to the heart and enters the left atrium, which pumps the blood into the left ventricle.
The left ventricle then pumps the oxygenated blood out to the rest of the body. Between
each chamber, there are one-way valves that ensure the blood flows in the correct direction
and prevent backflow. The heart is also surrounded by the pericardium, a sac that contains
a small amount of fluid and helps to protect and lubricate the heart as it beats.
Structure of heart and it’s functioning as effective pump
4. a. What is ECG? Describe the various parts of ECG 10
Soln: The heart's pumping action is controlled by electrical signalling, which generates the
rhythm of the heartbeat. This electrical signalling can be monitored using an
electrocardiogram (ECG), which records the electrical activity of the heart and provides
important information about the heart's function.
An ECG measures the electrical signals produced by the heart as it beats and generates a
trace or waveform that reflects the electrical activity of the heart. This trace can be used to
diagnose heart conditions and monitor the heart's function.
The Normal ECG contains the following parts:
A normal ECG contains waves, intervals, segments and one complex, as defined below.
Wave: A positive or negative deflection from baseline that indicates a specific electrical
event. The waves on an ECG include the P wave, Q wave, R wave, S wave, T wave and U
wave.
Interval: The time between two specific ECG events. The intervals commonly measured
on an ECG include the PR interval, QRS interval (also called QRS duration), QT interval
and RR interval.
Segment: The length between two specific points on an ECG that are supposed to be at the
baseline amplitude (not negative or positive). The segments on an ECG include the PR
segment, ST segment and TP segment.
Complex: The combination of multiple waves grouped together. The only main complex
on an ECG is the QRS complex.
Point: There is only one point on an ECG termed the J point, which is where the QRS
complex ends and the ST segment begins.
The main part of an ECG contains a P wave, QRS complex and T wave. Each will be
explained individually in this tutorial, as will each segment and interval.
The P wave indicates atrial depolarization. The QRS complex consists of a Q wave, R wave
and S wave and represents ventricular depolarization. The T wave comes after the QRS
complex and indicates ventricular repolarization.

4. b. What are pacemakers? Briefly explain the various kinds of pacemakers 10

Soln: A pacemaker is a small device that is surgically implanted in the chest to regulate the
heartbeat. It is used to treat heart rhythm disorders, such as bradycardia (a slow heartbeat)
or arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms), by delivering electrical impulses to the heart to
regulate its rhythm.
Pacemakers are of different kinds:
• Single-chamber pacemaker: A single-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical
impulses to either the right atrium or the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its
rhythm.
• Dual-chamber pacemaker: A dual-chamber pacemaker delivers electrical impulses
to both the right atrium and the right ventricle of the heart to regulate its rhythm.
• Biventricular pacemaker: A biventricular pacemaker delivers electrical impulses to
both ventricles of the heart to coordinate their contractions and improve heart
function in people with heart failure.
 MODULE - 3
5. a. Give an account on the structure and functioning of kidneys 10
Soln: The kidney is a complex organ that acts as a filtration system for the body. It removes waste
and excess fluid from the bloodstream and maintains a delicate balance of electrolytes,
hormones, and other substances that are critical for the body's normal functioning.
Architecture: The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They
are located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Healthy kidneys filter
about a half cup of blood every minute, removing wastes and extra water to make urine.
The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through two thin tubes of muscle called
ureters, one on each side of the bladder which stores urine. Kidneys, ureters, and bladder
are part of urinary tract. The kidney is composed of functional units called nephrons, which
are the basic structural and functional units of the kidney. Each kidney contains
approximately one million nephrons, and each nephron performs the functions of filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion.
 Functions of kidney:
▪ Kidneys remove wastes and extra fluid from the the bloodstream.
▪ Kidneys also remove acid that is produced by the cells of the body and
maintain a healthy balance of water, salts, and minerals—such as sodium,
calcium, phosphorus, and potassium—in the blood.
▪ Without this balance, nerves, muscles, and other tissues in the body may not
work normally.
▪ The kidney also plays an important role in regulating blood pressure by
secreting the hormone renin, Make red blood cells
▪ Keeps bones strong and healthy.

5. b. Write a short note on i. Heart Lung machine ii. Muscular dystrophy 10

Soln: i. Heart Lung machine:
A heart-lung machine is an apparatus that does the work both of the heart (i.e., pumps
blood) and the lungs (i.e., oxygenates the blood) during, for example, open-heart surgery
The basic function of the machine is to oxygenate the body's venous supply of blood and
then to pump it back into the arterial system. Blood returning to the heart is diverted
through the machine before returning to the arterial circulation. Some of the more
important components of these machines include pumps, oxygenators, temperature
regulators, and filters. The heart-lung machine also provides intra-cardiac suction,
filtration, and temperature control
Block diagram depicting heart-lung machine
People who have the following surgeries may need cardiopulmonary bypass using
heart-lung machine:
• Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG).
• Aneurysm surgery.
• Heart transplant.
• Heart valve surgery.
• Lung transplant.

ii. Muscular dystrophy

Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that result in progressive
weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for movement.
The disorders are caused by mutations in genes that encode proteins needed for muscle
function. The most common type of muscular dystrophy are as follows
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) usually appears early in childhood between
the ages of 2 and 3. DMD primarily affects boys but can affect girls in rare cases. The
primary symptom of DMD is muscle weakness that begins in the muscles close to the body
and later affects muscles in the outer limbs.
Becker muscular dystrophy typically becomes apparent between the ages of 5 and
15. Boys are primarily affected by Becker MD. The disease is characterized by muscle
weakness and atrophy of the muscles of the hip and shoulder areas (the limb girdles), pelvic
area and thighs.
Facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD) typically appears before the age of 20, or
later in adulthood in both males and females. FSHD affects the muscles of the face, around
the shoulder blades, and in the upper arms.
There is currently no cure for muscular dystrophy, but various treatments can help
manage symptoms and slow the progression of the disease. These may include physical
therapy, assistive devices, orthopedic surgery, and medication to manage muscle spasms
and pain. In some cases, genetic therapy and stem cell transplantation are also being
explored as potential treatment options.
Bioengineering solutions for muscular
• Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of the missing or
mutated gene to the affected muscle cells.
• Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged muscle
cells and promote repair and regeneration of the muscle tissue.
• Exoskeleton technology: This involves using wearable devices, such as robotic
exoskeletons, to support and enhance the movement of individuals with muscular
dystrophy. The devices use motors and sensors to mimic the movements of the wearer and
help improve mobility.
• Tissue engineering: This involves using a combination of materials, such as
scaffolds and growth factors, to promote the growth and repair of muscle tissue.
6. a. Give an account on the structure and function of the musculoskeletal system in humans

Soln:

The skeletal system of human beings refers to the framework of bones, joints, and
connective tissues that provide structure, support, and protection to the body.

The key components and functions of the skeletal system are:

• Bones: The human body consists of 206 bones that vary in size and shape. Bones
are composed of hard and dense connective tissue that provides strength and
support. They serve as the anchor points for muscles, protect internal organs, and
store minerals like calcium and phosphorus.
• Cartilage: Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue found in certain joints and
structures such as the ears and nose. It acts as a cushion between bones, reducing
friction and absorbing shock.
• Ligaments: Ligaments are tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect bones to other
bones in joints, providing stability and preventing excessive movement.
• Tendons: Tendons are strong fibrous tissues that connect muscles to bones, enabling
movement by transmitting the force generated by muscles.
• Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes
the skull, vertebral column, and ribcage. The skull protects the brain, and the
vertebral column (spine) supports the body's weight and houses the spinal cord. The
ribcage encloses and protects the heart, lungs, and other thoracic organs.
• Appendicular Skeleton: The appendicular skeleton comprises the bones of the limbs
and the shoulder and pelvic girdles. The upper limbs (arms) consist of the humerus
(upper arm bone), radius and ulna (forearm bones), and the hand bones. The lower
limbs (legs) include the femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (lower leg bones), and
the foot bones. The shoulder and pelvic girdles attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.
6. b. What is muscular dystrophy? Briefly discuss the various bioengineering solutions for
muscular dystrophy

Soln:

Muscular dystrophy is a group of genetic disorders that result in progressive

weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for movement.
The disorders are caused by mutations in genes that encode proteins needed for muscle
function. The most common type of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy,
which typically affects young boys and leads to severe disability by early adulthood.

Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy

Bioengineering solutions for muscular dystrophy aim to improve the lives of individuals
affected by the disease by addressing the underlying genetic mutations and muscle
weakness. Some of the approaches being explored include:

• Gene therapy: This involves delivering a functional copy of the missing or

mutated gene to the affected muscle cells. The goal is to restore the production of the
missing protein and improve muscle function.

• Stem cell therapy: This involves using stem cells to replace the damaged muscle
cells and promote repair and regeneration of the muscle tissue. Stem cells can be taken
from the patient's own body (autologous stem cells) or from a donor (allogenic stem cells).

• Exoskeleton technology: This involves using wearable devices, such as robotic

exoskeletons, to support and enhance the movement of individuals with muscular
dystrophy. The devices use motors and sensors to mimic the movements of the wearer and
help improve mobility.

• Tissue engineering: This involves using a combination of materials, such as

scaffolds and growth factors, to promote the growth and repair of muscle tissue. The goal
is to create functional muscle tissue that can replace the damaged tissue in individuals with
muscular dystrophy.

7. a. Compare the process of photosynthesis to the functioning of photovoltaic cells.

Soln:
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy from
the sun into chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This process is critical for life on Earth,
as it provides the primary source of energy for all living organisms.

• The connection between photosynthesis and photovoltaics lies in the conversion of light
energy into usable forms of energy. In photosynthesis, light energy from the sun is
converted into chemical energy stored in organic molecules, such as sugars and starches.
• In photovoltaics, light energy is converted into electrical energy. Both photosynthesis and
photovoltaics use the same basic principle of converting light energy into usable forms of
energy, but the end products are different.
• In photosynthesis, the end product is stored chemical energy, while in photovoltaics, the
end product is electrical energy. However, the similarities between photosynthesis and
photovoltaics go beyond just the conversion of light energy.
• Both processes also involve the use of specialized components and materials, such as
chlorophyll in photosynthesis and silicon in photovoltaics, to absorb and convert light
energy into usable forms of energy.
• The development of photovoltaics has been heavily influenced by the natural process of
photosynthesis, and many researchers have sought to mimic and improve upon the
efficiency and effectiveness of photosynthesis in order to develop more advanced and
efficient photovoltaic systems.
• The study of photosynthesis has thus played a significant role in the development of
sustainable energy systems and continues to be an important area of research in the field
of renewable energy.

7. b. Write short notes on: i. GPS system existing in birds. ii. Shark skin

Soln:

i. GPS system existing in birds.

Birds fly by flapping their wings and using their body weight and the movement of the air to stay
aloft. They navigate using a combination of visual cues, the Earth's magnetic field, and celestial
navigation. Aircraft, on the other hand, use engines to generate thrust and lift from the wings to
stay in the air.

They navigate using a combination of instruments and systems, including GPS (Global Positioning
System), which uses satellite signals to determine the aircraft's position and help it navigate.

The science behind the birds flies using its wings and holding their body weight in air:

• Wing Shape: Birds have specialized wings with a unique shape that generates lift. The
wings are curved on the upper surface and flatter on the bottom, creating a pressure
difference known as Bernoulli's principle. This pressure difference generates lift, allowing
birds to stay airborne.
 • Wing Muscles: Birds have strong flight muscles attached to their wings, allowing them to
flap their wings vigorously. The upstroke and downstroke motion of the wings generates
thrust, propelling the bird forward through the air.
• Hollow Bones: Birds have lightweight bones that are hollow and filled with air sacs,
reducing their overall weight. This makes it easier for them to stay aloft.
• Feathers: Feathers play a crucial role in flight. They provide both lift and control. The
primary feathers at the tips of the wings help generate lift, while the tail feathers assist in
maneuvering and stabilizing during flight.
• Respiratory System: Birds have a unique respiratory system that allows for efficient
oxygen exchange. Air flows unidirectionally through their lungs, as well as through a
system of air sacs located throughout their body. This constant supply of oxygen fuels their
high metabolic demands during flight.
• Efficient Circulatory System: Birds have a highly efficient circulatory system that delivers
oxygen-rich blood to their muscles and organs. Their heart rate increases during flight,
ensuring a steady supply of oxygen to meet the demands of their active muscles.
• Flight Control: Birds have remarkable coordination and control over their flight. They can
adjust the angle and shape of their wings, control their speed and direction, and perform
intricate aerial maneuvers using their tail, wings, and body movements.

ii. Shark skin.

Denticles on shark skin are like tiny bumps or ridges. They disrupt the flow of water around the
shark's body, making it smoother and reducing turbulence. This disruption reduces the resistance
the shark experiences as it swim, allowing it to move faster and with less effort.

• Turbulence in Water: Turbulence is when a fluid, like water or air, becomes chaotic and
unpredictable. Instead of flowing smoothly, it swirls and forms irregular patterns. This
turbulence creates resistance or drag, which makes it harder for things to move through the
fluid. In swimming, reducing turbulence is important because it helps to minimize
resistance, allowing swimmers to move more easily and efficiently through the water.
• Reducing Drag When a shark swims through the water, the water normally flows smoothly
over its body. However, the denticles on the shark's skin disrupt this smooth flow. They
create small disturbances in the water, which helps to break up turbulent currents that can
slow the shark down.
• Frictionless Swim Suits Shark skin has inspired the development of friction-reducing swim
suits, which are designed to improve the performance of swimmers by reducing drag in the
water. Friction-reducing swim suits use a similar structure to that of shark skin to reduce
drag and improve swimmer performance.

8. a. Inspiration derived from the mechanism of birds flight led to the discovery of
aircraft. Justify 10
Soln: Aircraft technology has advanced significantly since the first powered flight by the
Wright brothers in 1903. Inspiration derived from the mechanism of birds flight led to the
discovery of aircraft.

Bio Mimicking Birds Fly for Aircraft Technology:

Biomimicry, or the practice of using designs and processes found in nature to solve human
problems, has led to the development of various technologies inspired by birds' flight.
Some examples include:

• Wing design: The shape of bird wings has inspired the design of aircraft wings, which
have evolved to be more aerodynamic and fuel-efficient as a result. The study of bird
flight has also led to the development of winglets, small structures at the tip of wings
that reduce drag and increase lift.

• Flapping-wing drones: Researchers have developed drones that use flapping wings to
fly, mimicking the way birds and insects fly. These drones can be used for various
applications, such as monitoring crops and wildlife, inspecting buildings and
infrastructure, and search and rescue operations.
• Soaring algorithms: Soaring refers to the flight technique used by birds and certain
aircraft to stay aloft and travel long distances with minimal energy expenditure. It
involves utilizing rising air currents, such as thermals, ridge lift, wind shear, or
atmospheric waves, to gain altitude and maintain flight. Birds use thermals, or columns
of rising warm air, to gain altitude and soar. Researchers have developed algorithms
inspired by bird flight to help gliders and other aircraft use thermals more efficiently,
leading to longer and more sustainable flights.
• Landing gear: The legs and feet of birds have inspired the design of landing gear for
aircraft, with shock-absorbing and retractable structures that help absorb impact upon
landing.
b. Give an account on the various blood substitutes 10

Human blood substitutes are synthetic products that are designed to act as a replacement
for blood in the human body.

Characteristics of substance that can act as Human Blood Substitutes:

• Effective Oxygen Transport: Human blood substitutes must be capable of

efficiently carrying and delivering oxygen to the body's tissues.
• Safety and Compatibility: Blood substitutes should be safe for use in the human
body and well-tolerated by the recipient.
• Storage and Transport: Human blood substitutes should be stable and capable of
being stored and transported easily.
• Cost-Effectiveness and Scalability: Blood substitutes should be cost-effective and
scalable for widespread use in medical settings.
Types of HBS
There are two types of human blood substitutes
• Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs): HBOCs are based on the
hemoglobin molecule, which is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen to
the body's tissues. Hemoglobin is extracted from human or animal blood and then
modified to create a stable, synthetic version. When introduced into the body,
HBOCs can help to increase the amount of oxygen available to the tissues, which
can be important in situations where the body is unable to produce or transport
enough red blood cells.
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs): PFCs are synthetic molecules that are similar in
structure to the hemoglobin molecule. However, unlike HBOCs, they do not require
modification from natural sources. PFCs are able to dissolve oxygen and transport
it throughout the body, similar to the way that red blood cells work.
 MODULE – 5
9. a. What is Bioimaging? Discuss the process and applications of bioimaging. 10

Soln:

Bio-imaging is the use of imaging technologies to visualize biological processes and

structures in living organisms. It plays a crucial role in disease diagnosis by providing
detailed images of the body's internal structures and functions, and can help healthcare
professionals to identify and diagnose a wide range of diseases and conditions.

Process of bioimaging.
 Applications of bioimaging
• In cell biology, bioimaging can be used to follow cellular processes,
• Quantify ion or metabolite levels
• Measure interactions of molecules in real-time
• Imaging of prokaryotic and eukaryotic live cells.
• Live imaging of small animals.
• Some examples of bioimaging techniques used for disease diagnosis include X-
rays, CT scans, MRI, PET scans, ultrasound, and optical imaging. These
technologies can be used to visualize a wide range of structures and functions,
including bones, tissues, organs, blood vessels, and more.

b. Discuss the applications of Artificial intelligence in the diagnosis of disease 10

Soln:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to revolutionize the field of disease diagnosis
by providing healthcare professionals with more accurate and efficient tools for
identifying and treating various conditions.
Advantages Some of the key ways in which AI is being used in disease diagnosis include:
• Image analysis: AI algorithms can analyze medical images, such as X-rays, CT scans,
and MRIs, to detect signs of diseases. For example, AI algorithms can identify patterns in
medical images that may indicate the presence of a particular condition, such as a tumor
or an injury. This type of image analysis is known as computer-aided diagnosis (CAD).
• Data analysis: AI algorithms can analyze large amounts of patient data, such as
electronic health records, to identify patterns and trends that may indicate a disease. This
type of data analysis is known as predictive analytics.
• Diagnosis: AI algorithms can be used to diagnose diseases by evaluating symptoms,
test results, and other patient information. AI algorithms can help healthcare
professionals make faster and more accurate diagnoses, reducing the risk of misdiagnosis.
• Personalized medicine: AI algorithms can be used to create personalized treatment
plans for patients based on their specific medical histories, lifestyles, and other factors.
For example, AI algorithms can analyze a patient's medical history, lifestyle habits, and
genetic information to recommend the best course of treatment for their condition.
• Clinical decision support: AI algorithms can be integrated into electronic health records
to provide healthcare professionals with real-time decision-making support. For example,
AI algorithms can provide physicians with information about the best diagnostic tests to
order, the most effective treatments to consider, and the best ways to manage patient care.
10. a. What is Biomining? Explain the various processes involved in biomining. 10
Soln: Biomining, refers to the use of microorganisms to extract valuable minerals from
ore deposits. This process involves the use of microorganisms to dissolve minerals from
ore, creating a solution that can be separated and purified to obtain the valuable minerals.
Biomining is often used in the extraction of metals such as copper, gold, and nickel, and
has several advantages over traditional mining methods, including lower energy costs,
reduced waste, and increased metal recovery.
The process of removing polluting heavy metals using biomining via microbial surface
adsorption
Identification of heavy metal-contaminated site:
Identify the site or area contaminated with heavy metals, such as soil, water, or
industrial waste sites.
↓
Isolation and characterization of metal-resistant microbial strains:
Select and isolate microbial strains that have demonstrated resistance to heavy
metals. These can include bacteria, fungi, or archaea.
↓
Culturing and enrichment of microbial strains:
Culture and propagate the selected microbial strains in a suitable growth
medium under laboratory conditions. This step aims to obtain a sufficient quantity of
active microbial biomass for subsequent applications.
↓
Preparation of microbial suspension:
Harvest the microbial biomass and prepare a suspension by suspending the
biomass in a carrier solution, such as water or a nutrient broth. This suspension will
serve as the delivery system for the microbes during application.
↓
Application of microbial suspension to the contaminated site:
Apply the microbial suspension to the heavy metal-contaminated area. This can
be done through spraying, injection, or soil/water mixing, depending on the specific site
conditions.
↓
Microbial adsorption and sequestration of metal:
 The applied microbial strains adsorb to the surfaces of metal particles or form
biofilms. Through their metabolic activity, the microbes produce extracellular
compounds such as organic acids or biofilm matrix components that have an affinity for
binding metal ions.
↓
Separation or removal of metals from the contaminated site can be achieved
through different methods

10. b. Write short notes on: i. Electronic nose ii. Self-healing Bio Concrete. 10
Soln: i. Electronic nose
The electrical nose, also known as an electronic nose, is a technology used in food science
for the analysis and characterization of food and beverage aromas and flavours. The
electrical nose typically consists of a sensor array that is capable of detecting and
quantifying volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in food and beverage samples.
Components and working of electronic nose:
• The sensors in the electrical nose work by measuring the changes in electrical resistance or
capacitance that occur when the sensors are exposed to volatile organic compounds. Each
sensor in the array is designed to respond to a specific range of volatile organic compounds,
and the combination of signals from all of the sensors allows for the analysis of the overall
aroma and flavour profile of a sample.
• Sensor Array in Electronic Nose In electronic nose applications, a sensory array refers to a
collection of multiple sensors that are designed to detect and analyze odour molecules. The
sensors in the array are often selective to different chemical properties or patterns, allowing
for the identification and differentiation of various odors.
• Here are some examples of sensor types commonly used in sensory arrays for electronic
noses: Metal Oxide Sensors (MOS): Metal oxide sensors, such as tin oxide (SnO2) or zinc
oxide (ZnO) sensors, are widely used in electronic noses. They detect changes in electrical
resistance when exposed to different odour molecules. MOS sensors offer broad sensitivity
to a wide range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• Conducting Polymer Sensors: Conducting polymer sensors are made of organic polymers
that undergo changes in electrical conductivity when exposed to specific odor molecules.
These sensors can be tailored to be selective to different types of odors based on the
polymer composition.
• Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) Sensors: QCM sensors measure changes in the
resonance frequency of a quartz crystal due to the adsorption of odour molecules. These
sensors are highly sensitive and can provide information about the mass and viscoelastic
properties of the detected odorants.
• Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) Sensors: SAW sensors utilize acoustic waves that
propagate across the surface of a piezoelectric substrate. When odour molecules interact
with the sensor surface, they cause changes in the wave propagation, resulting in
measurable frequency shifts. SAW sensors offer high sensitivity and fast response times.
• Optical Sensors: Optical sensors employ various principles such as absorbance,
luminescence, or refractive index changes to detect and analyze odour molecules. These
sensors can utilize techniques like colorimetry, fluorescence, or surface plasmon resonance
(SPR) to provide information about the chemical properties of the detected odours.
• Gas Chromatography (GC) Sensors: GC-based electronic noses combine gas
chromatography with sensor arrays to separate and detect different odour compounds. The
separation is performed using a column, and the eluted compounds are detected by sensor
elements, enabling the identification of specific odour components.

ii. Self-healing Bio Concrete.

Self-healing bio-concrete is a type of concrete that incorporates microorganisms,
such as Bacillus fragments, into the mixture, along with calcium lactate as a nutrient source.
The microorganisms are activated when the concrete cracks, and they produce calcium
carbonate, which fills in the cracks and repairs the concrete. The bacteria then produce
calcium carbonate, which is a type of mineral that is commonly found in natural stone. The
calcium carbonate acts as a binder and fills in the cracks, repairing the concrete and
restoring its structural integrity. This process is known as biomineralization.

Process involved in the self-healing bio concrete.

Process Flow Chart

Mix Bacillus bacteria and calcium lactate with concrete

↓
Bacteria remain dormant within the concrete
↓
Concrete cracks
↓
Water and oxygen enter the crack
↓
Bacteria become activated
↓
Activated bacteria produce calcium carbonate
↓
Calcium carbonate fills in the cracks
↓
Concrete is repaired and structural integrity is restored

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