Section 11 | Quantum Theory of Radiation

SECTION 11
Quantum Theory of Radiation
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
Identify photoelectric effect.
Identify Black body radiation.
Identify Quantum theory of radiation.
Identify meaning of waves and particles.
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INTRODUCTION
Duality means the object has two different and opposite behaviors simultaneously. For
example, light is an electromagnetic wave and massless but, it can interact with matter
(photoelectric effect) which means this light must be consists of particles “this light must be
consists of mass”. Electrons, protons and heavy atoms move as same as a wave where, they
have all properties of waves like diffraction and interference. We’ll discuss duality of light
and elementary particles, for example free electron.

Photoelectric effect.
It is a process where electrons are ejected from a surface by the action of light. Albert
Einstein explained this phenomenon based on quantum concept of Max Planck.
The observations of this experiments were: -
a) No electrons are ejected else the frequency of light reach to certain value or more.
b) Kinetic energy of electrons  frequency of light (υ).
c) Number of electrons  number of photons (intensity).

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Main concepts of this experiment

Photons without mass interact with mass
Electrons are bounded to the surface, need certain energy to separate ➔ no free electrons
All electrons reach to the top of surface with the same kinetic energy
All these observations lead to one fact ( free electrons inside metal are bounded with the
material with potential energy [φ] - is called work function-, so if photon energy [hυ] > [φ]
➔ kinetic energy of electrons will be
K.E max = hυ – φ

If electron arrived to surface without going away

K.E max = 0
⸫hυ = φ threshold energy
φ = hυ , but υ = c / λ
⸫φ =hc/λ ➔ λ =hc/φ
By substitution
h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s , c = 3 x 108 m/s
λ = 6.626 x 10-34 x 3 x 108
19.845 × 10−26
∴λ=
ϕ
this value is so very small, so scientists used other units
speed of light in nm/s
c = 2.995 x 108 x 109 nm/s ➔ c = 2.995 x 1017 nm/s
electron volt instead of joule ➔ h = (6.626 x 10-34 ) / ( 1.6 x 10-19)
h = 4.14 x 10-15 eV.s
hc = 4.14 x 10-15 x 2.995 x 1017 ➔ hc = 1240 eV.nm
1240
λ= nm
ϕ (e. V)

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Solved Examples
1) If work function of metal = 2.5 eV. Calculate it in (J) unit
Answer
Φ = 2.5 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 4 × 10−19 J
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2) Calculate frequency of electromagnetic wave of 500 nm.
Answer
c 3 × 108 3 × 1015
υ= = −9
= = 0.6 × 1015 Hz
λ 500 × 10 5
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3) Calculate wavelength of photon is needed to eject electrons, if work function of
metal = 6.8 x 10-19 J. in photoelectric effect experiment
Answer
work function unit must be in eV unit
6.8 × 10−19
𝜙= = 4.25𝑒𝑉
1.6 × 10−19
1240
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
𝜙
1240
𝜆= = 291.7𝑛𝑚
4.25
----------------------------------------------------------------------
4) Calculate work function if threshold frequency 6 x 108 MHz. in photoelectric
effect experiment
Answer
c 3 × 108 3 × 10−6
λ= = = = 0.5 × 10−6 m
υ (6 × 108 ) × 106 6
10−6
λ = (0.5 × 1000) = 500 × 10−9 m
1000

λ = 500 nm

1240 1240
ϕ = = = 2.48 eV
λ 500
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5) A photon of energy 39 x 10-20 J incidint on a material of work function Φ=3.1 eV.

Calculate kinetic energy of ejected electrons
Answer
39 × 10−20
E= = 2.4 eV
1.6 × 10−19
Energy of incident photons less than work function, so, no electrons will be ejected
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6) A photon of momentum 1.5 x 10-27 kg m/s incidint on a material of work function
Φ=2 eV. Calculate kinetic energy of ejected electrons
Answer
h
P=
λ
6.626 × 10−34
λ= = 4.42 x 10−7 m
1.5 × 10−27
c
υ=
λ
3 × 108
υ= = 0.679 x 1015 Hz
4.42 x 10−7
E=hυ
E = (6.626 × 10−34 ) × ( 0.679 x 1015 ) = 4.5 x 10−19 J
Convert into eV unit
4.5 x 10−19
E= = 2.8 𝑒𝑉
1.6 x 10−19

Electron energy = 2.8 – 2 = 0.8 eV

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7) A photon of momentum 1.5 x 10-27 kg m/s incidint on a material of work function
Φ=3 eV. Calculate kinetic energy of ejected electrons
Answer
6.626×10−34 3 × 108
λ= = 4.42 x 10−7 m , υ = 4.42 x 10−7 = 0.679 x 1015 Hz
1.5×10−27

E=hυ
E = (6.626 × 10−34 ) × ( 0.679 x 1015 ) = 4.5 x 10−19 J
4.5 x 10−19
E= = 2.8 𝑒𝑉
1.6 x 10−19
Incident energy is not sufficient to eject any electrons 2.8 < 3 eV

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Section 11 | Quantum Theory of Radiation

Black Body Radiation

All objects in all temperature emit (and absorb) thermal radiation spontaneously. This
radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. The energy of the electromagnetic waves
emitted by a surface depends on the nature of the surface and on its temperature. The thermal
radiation emitted by many ordinary objects can be approximated as blackbody radiation. A
perfectly insulated cavity that is in thermal equilibrium internally contains blackbody
radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its wall, provided the hole is small enough
to have negligible effect upon the equilibrium. The (absolute) blackbody absorbs all energy,
and reflects nothing, which is of course an idealization. A black-body at room temperature
appears black, as most of the energy it radiates is infra-red and cannot be perceived by the
human eye. Black-body radiation has a characteristic, continuous frequency spectrum that
depends only on the body's temperature. The spectrum is peaked at a characteristic frequency
that shifts to higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) with increasing temperature, and at
room temperature most of the emission is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

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Power of radiation Stefan's law

P = σ A e T4
P is the radiation power
σ is constant is called Stefan constant
A is the surface area
e is emissivity, it depends on the color ( for black body e = 1)
T is absolute temperature
Second analysis is the maximum peak where
2.989x10−3
λ=
Tmax
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Solved Examples
8) Two objects have the same surface area, color and have been made from the same
material. Temperature of the first=1500 0C and Temp. of the second object=50
0C. Calculate the peak wavelength emitted from each object.
Answer
2.989x10−3
λ=
Tmax
2.989x10−3
λ1 = = 1.7 × 10−6 m
(1500 + 273)
2.989x10−3
λ2 = = 9.3 × 10−6 m
(50 + 273)
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9) Two objects have the same surface area, color and have been made from the same
material. Temperature of the first=1500 0C and Temp. of the second object=50
0C. Calculate the ratio of radiated power (P1 / P2).
Answer
Where they have the same color ➔ e1 = e2 and the same surface area ➔ A1 = A2
𝑃1 𝑇14
=
𝑃2 𝑇24
𝑃1 (1500 + 273)4
=
𝑃2 (50 + 273)4
𝑃1
= 907.87
𝑃2

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Diffraction Grating
Two silts lead to increasing the intensity of bright fringes. So that more slits leads to more
intensity, three slits leads to increasing intensity of primary fringes 9 times more than
secondary fringes intensity. Diffraction grating contains about (100 or slits /cm) up to (6000
slits / cm), the fringes obtained so very sharp, clear and so extreme thin width. This
instrument separates one wavelength – that we see in young's experiment - into many
wavelengths. This instrument is used to analyzing spectrum of every single element, which
led to “atomic physics” or “spectroscopy” as an individual branch of physics.

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Nitrogen

Carbon

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Planck’s Constant
The Planck constant, or Planck's constant, is a fundamental physical constant denoted and is
of fundamental importance in quantum mechanics. A photon's energy is equal to its
frequency multiplied by the Planck constant. Due to mass–energy equivalence, the Planck
constant also relates mass to frequency. In metrology it is used, together with other constants,
to define the kilogram, an SI unit. The SI units are defined in such a way that, when the
Planck constant is expressed in SI units, it has the exact value h = 6.626×10−34 J⋅Hz−1 (J.s)
At the end of the 19th century, accurate measurements of the spectrum of black
body radiation existed, but predictions of the frequency distribution of the radiation by then-
existing theories diverged significantly at higher frequencies. In 1900, Max
Planck empirically derived a formula for the observed spectrum. He assumed a hypothetical
electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black-body radiation could only
change its energy in a minimal increment, that was proportional to the frequency of its
associated electromagnetic wave. He was able to calculate the proportionality constant from
the experimental measurements, and that constant is named in his honor. In 1905, Albert
Einstein determined a "quantum" or minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic
wave itself. The light quantum behaved in some respects as an electrically neutral particle,
and was eventually called a photon. Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize in
Physics "in recognition of the services he rendered to the advancement of Physics by his
discovery of energy quanta". Confusion can arise when dealing with frequency or the Planck
constant because the units of angular measure (cycle or radian) are omitted in SI In the
language of quantity calculus, the expression for the value of the Planck constant, or a
frequency, is the product of a numerical value and a unit of measurement. The
symbol f (or ν), when used for the value of a frequency, implies cycles per second or hertz as
the unit. When the symbol ω is used for the frequency's value it implies radians per
second as the unit. The numerical values of these two ways of expressing the frequency have
a ratio of 2π. Omitting the units of angular measure "cycle" and "radian" can lead to an error
of 2π. A similar state of affairs occurs for the Planck constant. The symbol h is used to
express the value of the Planck constant in J⋅s/cycle, and the symbol ħ ("h-bar") is used to
express its value in J⋅s/rad. Both represent the value of the Planck constant, but, as discussed
above, their numerical values have a ratio of 2π. In this article the word "value" as used in
the tables means "numerical value", and the equations involving the Planck constant and/or
frequency actually involve their numerical values using the appropriate implied units.
Stephen have expressed this phenomenon in mathematical equation as the following

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Bohr Theory of Hydrogen atom

In atomic physics, the Bohr model or Rutherford–Bohr model, presented by Niels
Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913, is a system consisting of a small, dense nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons—similar to the structure of the Solar System, but with
attraction provided by electrostatic forces in place of gravity. After the cubical model (1902),
the plum pudding model (1904), the Saturnian model (1904), and the Rutherford
model (1911) came the Rutherford–Bohr model or just Bohr model for short (1913). The
improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the new quantum
physical interpretation.

Niels Bohr in 1913, postulates that sum up most of the model:

1. The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without
radiating any energy. These stable orbits are called stationary orbits. The electron
cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.
2. Angular momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of the reduced Planck's
constant:
2π m v r = n h
where n = 1, 2, 3, ... is called the principal quantum number,
(h) is Planck constant , (m) is mass of electron , and v is the velocity of electron
3. if the electron transferred between any orbits, it will emit or absorb particular
energy = the difference between these two energy levels
ΔE = E2 – E1

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These postulations leads to

Energy levels of electrons ( K, L, M, N, O, …..)
• The atomic model as we know it up till know
• Explanation of hydrogen radiation
Finally and the so important The equation of Quantization of Energy
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1
.𝐸 = .
8ℎ2 𝜀02 𝑛2
where, (E) is the energy of electron
(Z) is atomic number,
(h) is Planck constant (6.626 x 10-34 J.s)
(m) is reduced mass of the atom at all (9.11 x 10-31 Kg)
(e) is the electron charge (1.6 x 10-19 C)
(ε0) is the permittivity of space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)
at last (n = 1, 2, 3 …. Integer number only) is the principal quantum number

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Solves Examples:
10) Calculate the energy levels of hydrogen atom as the following:-
a) Ground state
b) Energy of level (M)
c) Energy of level (O)
Answer
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1
𝐸= .
8ℎ2 𝜀02 𝑛2
where, (E) is the energy of electron
(Z) is atomic number,
(h) is Planck constant (6.626 x 10-34 J.s)
(m) is reduced mass of the atom at all (9.11 x 10-31 Kg)
(e) is the electron charge (1.6 x 10-19 C)
(ε0) is the permittivity of space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)

𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1
𝐸=[ ]×[ ]
8ℎ2 𝜀02 𝑛2

Ground state energy level

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(9.11 × 10−31 ) × (12 ) × (1.6 × 10−19 )4 1

𝐸=[ −34 2 −12 2
] × [ 2]
8 × (6.626 × 10 ) × (8.85 × 10 ) 1
1
𝐸 = [2.17 × 10−18 ] × [ ]
12
changing to electron volt unit
2.17 × 10−18
𝐸=[ ]
1.6 × 10−19
E = 13.56
 E = 13.56 eV

(M) state energy level

𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1
𝐸=[ ] × [ 2]
8ℎ2 𝜀02 𝑛3
1
𝐸 = 13.56 × [ ]
32
 E = 1.5 eV
Energy of level (O)
1
𝐸 = 13.56 × [ ]
52

 E = 0.542 eV

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Section 11 | Quantum Theory of Radiation

Difference between a Particle and a Wave

A particle occupies a well-defined position in space. It is localized. It is something that is
localized in space and time. And exactingly speaking, this means its position can be
narrowed down to greater and greater precision, but a table only exists on a length scale of
a meter or so. Therefore a table isn’t exactingly a particle.
A wave is spread out in space. Two particles cannot be in a similar place at a similar time.
A wave is just a function of position, which obeys a definite equation. What the function
really represents could be whatever you’re trying to model: for example, temperature,
electric field, height against the horizontal position of a string, a real wave on the sea.
The concept of a particle and a wave can be understood by the different points of destination
between them.

PARTICLE
1. A particle occupies a well-defined position in space i.g. a particle is localized in space
e.g. a grain of sand, a cricket ball, etc.
2. When a particular space is occupied by one particle, the same space cannot be occupied
simultaneously by any other particle. In other words, particles do not interfere.
3. When a number of particles are present in a given region of space, their total value is
equal to their sum i.e it is neither less nor more.
4. The energy of a particle depends on its rest mass, potential energy, and kinetic energy.
A particle is something that exists at only one point in space.
5. A particle is a small localized object to which can be ascribed several physical or
chemical properties such as volume, density or mass.

WAVE
1. A wave is spread out in space e.g. on throwing a stone in a pond of water, the waves
start moving out in the form of concentric circles. Similarly, the sound of the speaker
reaches everybody in the audience. Thus, a wave is delocalized in space.
2. Two or more waves can coexist in the same region of space and fence interfere.
3. When a number of waves are present in a given region of space, due to interference,
the resultant wave can be larger or smaller than the individual waves i.e. interference
may be constructive or destructive.

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4. The energy of a wave depends on its frequency and amplitude. A wave has varying
levels of intensity at different points in space and time.
5. A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space, with little or no
associated mass transport.
A fundamental difference between wave and particle nature of light as a particle it can
explain the photoelectric effect and as a wave, it can explain the reflection, diffraction,
etc. Wave is the disturbance of some quantity in space or intermediate while a particle
has a definite mass concentrated on a small area. Wave does not have a dimension of
size, only its wavelength and velocity can be calculated.

Properties of particles:
▪ A particle is a localized point in the space.
▪ More than one particle cannot be present at a given position in space.
▪ Particles do not show the phenomenon of interference.

Properties of waves:
▪ A wave is delocalized in space.
▪ Two or more than two waves can simultaneously exist at a given region of space.
▪ Waves show the phenomenon of interference.

Superpositions of matter waves

A distinctive characteristic of waves is that we can take two waves and add them up to form
a new wave. That adding of waves is the essence of the phenomenon of the interference of
waves. The theory of matter waves tells us that particles like electrons are also waves. So we
should be able to add several of them together, just as we could add several light waves
together.
When we do this, we form the "superposition" of the individual matter waves. These
superpositions turn out to have a central role in the theory of matter waves and in quantum

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theory as a whole. So let us look at a simple example of superposition. Here are four matter
waves with wavelengths 1, 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4. We will "add them up," that is, form their
superposition, in the same way that we add light waves.

Notice what happened when we formed the superposition. Each of the four component
waves is uniformly spread out in space and has a definite wavelength. That situation starts
to reverse in the superposition. The resulting wave is no longer uniformly spread out. It tends
to be more concentrated in one place. It also no longer has a single wavelength. The distances
between adjacent peaks and troughs differ in different parts of the wave. This example of
superposition will help us analyze that, if particles are really waves, how can localized
particles enter into the theory at all?

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Broglie's relation
It tells us that a matter wave with a definite wavelength has a definite momentum. Here is a
wave with a definite wavelength:
Momentum = h / wavelength
Where is the particle? The answer can be read from the figure. It is spread throughout space.
It has no one position in space; it has all positions.

The wave pictured above is spread uniformly through space. The picture does not really
show that well. It looks like there are regularly spaced inhomogeneities. In some places there
is a peak; in others a trough; and in others still intermediate points of no wave amplitude at
all. These last points are marked in shadow ball below.

These inhomogeneities are really just an artefact of an incomplete picture. It shows the
amplitude as just having one dimension, up and down. The wave amplitude is actually a
complex number, so that the amplitude rotates in complex number space in such a way that
none of these inhomogeneities are physically significant. What I just wrote does not really
explain well how this can be. You can take my word for it, or read more here: A Complex
Wave.
What wave represents a particle that is spatially localized? Take the extreme case of a
particle localized at just one point in space.

Its matter wave is just a pulse at that point in space. So now we come to the puzzle: what is
the momentum of this spatially localized particle? The superposition given earlier answers
the puzzle. We found that when we took the matter waves of particles with different
momenta and added them, we produced a matter wave that was spatially localized. If we had

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been careful in choosing exactly which matter waves to add, we could find a set that would
sum to form a perfectly localized pulse. That set turns out to contain all possible values of
momenta. So the answer to our puzzle is that the pulse is associated with all possible
momenta.
These two cases are the extremes. We have a matter wave with a definite momentum but all
possible positions; and we have a matter wave with a definite position but all possible
momenta. Free, propagating particles in quantum theory are represented by an intermediate
case, a wave packet:

We arrive at a wave packet by adding matter waves with a small range of momenta. The
resulting packet occupies a range of positions in space and is associated with a range of
momenta.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Indeterminacy in position x indeterminacy in momentum >= h/2π
This principle tells us that the indeterminacy in position and momentum when multiplied
together can never get smaller than h/2π. To see what that amounts to, imagine that we have
a wave packet that has the least indeterminacy allowed, so that the quantities multiplied equal
h/2π. If we then somehow further reduce the indeterminacy of the momentum of this wave
packet, it follows from the principle that we must increase the indeterminacy of the wave
packet's position. For the two quantities multiplied together can never get smaller than h/2π.
Conversely, if we reduce the indeterminacy of the wave packet's position, then we must
increase the indeterminacy of its momentum. Just this was the process we saw when we
started to form a wave packet by superposing waves of different momentum. As we add
more waves of different momentum, we can narrow the spatial spread of the wave packet,
but only at the cost of increasing the spread in momentum.

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Training
1) If work function of metal = 1.8 eV. Calculate it in (J) unit
----------------------------------------------------------------------
2) Calculate energy of electromagnetic wave of 600 nm.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
3) Calculate wavelength of photon is needed to eject electrons, if work function of metal
= 8 x 10-19 J. in photoelectric effect experiment
----------------------------------------------------------------------
4) Calculate work function if threshold frequency 5 x 108 MHz. in photoelectric effect
experiment
----------------------------------------------------------------------
5) Calculate kinetic energy of ejected electron in photoelectric effect experiment,
where threshold frequency 6 x 108 MHz, incident photon frequency 8 x 108 MHz.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
6) What is the main difference between young’s double slits and diffraction grating?
----------------------------------------------------------------------
7) A photon of momentum 3 x 10-27 kg m/s calculate its energy.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
8) A photon of energy 40 x 10-20 J incidint on a material of work function Φ=3.1 eV.
Calculate kinetic energy of ejected electrons
----------------------------------------------------------------------
9) A photon of momentum 3 x 10-27 kg m/s incidint on a two materials (A) and (B) of
work functions ΦA=2.5 eV, ΦB=5 eV Calculate kinetic energy of ejected electrons
from each material
----------------------------------------------------------------------
10) An observed beam of charged particles are moving in the space (temperature about
3 K and pressure = 0 atm), accedentally their velocity has been changed. Explain
what can be done.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
11) A particle of mass 10-28 kg is moving in liquid medium with velocity 106 m/s, collided
with an massless object “m = 0 kg” and velocity 8 x 106 m/s collided with it. Discribe
what can be done.
----------------------------------------------------------------------

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12) Calculate frequency is needed to electron transfer from (K) energy level into (M)
energy level in Hydrogen atom.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
13) A photon of momentm 10-30 kg m/s incident on electron of work funcion kinetic
energy of ejected electron if threshold frequency 6 x 108 MHz, incident photon
frequency 8 x 108 MHz. in photoelectric effect experiment
----------------------------------------------------------------------
14) Which of these discribe Wave(s) or Particle(s).
a) A ……………… is localized in space
b) The same space cannot be occupied simultaneously by two or many …………..
c) The energy of a …………….. depends on its rest mass
d) A …………….. is spread out in space.
e) A ………………. start moving out in the form of concentric circles.
f) The energy of a …………… depends on its frequency and amplitude.
g) A ………….. has varying levels of intensity at different points in space and time.
h) More than one ……………… cannot be present at a given position in space.
i) The ……….. do not show the phenomenon of interference.
j) A ………… is delocalized in space.
k) Two or more than two ……….. can simultaneously exist at a given region of space.
l) The ……………. show the phenomenon of interference.
----------------------------------------------------------------------

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