TUGAS KELOMPOK

MATA KULIAH FISIKA MATERIAL

Dosen Pengampu :
Munawar Agus Riyadi, S.T., M.T, Ph.D.

Kelompok C
Anggota Kelompok :

1. Dimas Tindra Prayoga Utomo (21060121120008)

2. Abdulloh Ahmad Hanifan (21060121130073)
3. M. Naufal Khoirul Zaki (21060121130067)
4. Ahmad Fauzan (21060121140107)
5. Irfan Fanani Haryanto (21060121140205)

FAKULTAS TEKNIK DEPARTEMEN TEKNIK ELEKTRO

UNIVERSITAS DIPONEGORO
2023
Problem Safa O. Kasap.
1. Kasap problem 5.14
2. Kasap problem 5.36
3. Kasap problem 5.41
4. Kasap problem 6.24
5. Kasap problem 6.32
6. Kasap problem 7.7
7. Kasap problem 7.16
8. Kasap problem 7.29
9. Kasap problem 9.12
10.Kasap problem 9.15
5.14 Compensation doping in n-type Si An n-type Si sample has been doped with 1
× 1017 phosphorus (P) atoms cm−3. The drift mobilities of holes and electrons in Si
at 300 K depend on the total concentration of dopants Ndopant (cm−3)
approximately as follows:

1252
𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 ≈ 88 + −18
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝑉𝑉 −1 𝑠𝑠 −1
1 + 6.984 × 10 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

And

407
𝜇𝜇ℎ ≈ 54.3 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝑉𝑉 −1 𝑠𝑠 −1
1 + 3.745 × 10 − 18 𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

a. Calculate the room temperature conductivity of the sample.

b. Calculate the necessary acceptor doping (i.e., Na) that is required to make
this sample p-type with approximately the same conductivity.
Note that the above empirical drift mobility expressions in which Nd in the
denominator is linear (not raised to any power) enables the calculation of the
dopant concentration needed for a given conductivity analytically straightforward.

Solution.
a.
𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 = 1017 | 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3
1252 825.16 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 = 88 + =
1 + (6.984 × 10−18 )(1017 ) 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
No of foce electrons (n) ≈ 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 (in N-type semicondutors)

Conductivity (𝜎𝜎) ≈ 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 ≈ 𝑁𝑁𝐷𝐷 𝑞𝑞𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒

𝜎𝜎 = (1017 )(1.6 × 10−19 )(825.16)
𝝈𝝈 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐(𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)−𝟏𝟏

407 350.41 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2

b. 𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 = 54.3 + 1+(8.745× 10−18 )(1017 )
= 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

Conductivity (𝜎𝜎) ≈ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝜇𝜇𝑛𝑛 ≈ 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 𝑞𝑞𝜇𝜇𝑛𝑛

13.20 = 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 (1.6 × 10−19 )(350.41)
𝑵𝑵𝑨𝑨 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 /𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟑𝟑
5.36 Schottky and ohmic contacts Consider an n-type Si sample doped with 1016 donors
cm−3. The length L is 100 μm; the cross-sectional area A is 10 μm × 10 μm. The two
ends of the sample are labeled as B and C. The electron affinity ( χ) of Si is 4.01 eV
and the work functions Φ of four potential metals for contacts at B and C are listed in
Table 5.6.

a. Ideally, which metals will result in a Schottky contact?

b. Ideally, which metals will result in an ohmic contact?
c. Sketch the 𝐼𝐼– 𝑉𝑉 characteristics when both B and C are ohmic contacts. What is the
relationship between I and V?
d. Sketch the 𝐼𝐼– 𝑉𝑉 characteristics when B is ohmic and C is a Schottky junction. What is
the relationship between I and V?
e. Sketch the 𝐼𝐼– 𝑉𝑉 characteristics when both B and C are Schottky contacts. What is the
relationship between I and V?

Solution.

We are given the concentration of donors, 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 1022 𝑚𝑚3 . From Table 5.1 (in the
textbook), the electron affinity of Si is 4.01 eV and the effective density of states at the
conduction edges is 2.8 × 102 𝑚𝑚3 . Assuming temperature 𝑇𝑇 = 300 𝐾𝐾,

∆𝐸𝐸
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
∆𝐸𝐸 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 � �
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

−23
1022 𝑚𝑚−3 1
∆𝐸𝐸 = −(1.381 × 10 𝐽𝐽/𝐾𝐾)(300 𝐾𝐾) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 � � � �
2.8 × 1025 𝑚𝑚−3 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽𝐽/𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

∆𝑬𝑬 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆

The energy required to move an electron from the Si semiconductor is then:

Φ𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = ∆𝐸𝐸 + 𝑋𝑋 = 0.2053 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 4.01 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 4.215 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

a For a Schottky contact you need Φ𝑚𝑚 > ΦnSi so Au will result in a Schottky junction.
Notehowever that for Al, Φm - ΦnSi is 0.04 eV, of the order of the thermal energy so
Al / Si "should not" be Schottky junction. This is not, however, necessarily the case
as the junction depends very much on the surface conditions (surface states) as well
as the crystal plane on to which the contact is made (Φ depends on the crystal
surface).
b For an Ohmic contact you need Φ𝑚𝑚 < ΦnSi so Cs and Li will result in Ohmic
contacts.
c This is a straight line with slope equal to the conductance, or the inverse of the
∆𝐼𝐼 1
resistance (∆𝐸𝐸 = 𝑅𝑅). The resistance can be found using the drift mobility of the

electrons µ𝑒𝑒 = 1350 × 10−4 𝑚𝑚2 𝑉𝑉 −1 𝑠𝑠 (from Table 5.1 in the textbook) and the
equation for conductivity, 𝜎𝜎 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∶

𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 100 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 = = =
𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑑𝑑 𝜇𝜇𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴 (1.602 × 1019 𝐶𝐶)(1022 𝑚𝑚−3 )(0.135 𝑚𝑚2 𝑉𝑉 −1 𝑠𝑠 −1 )(10−5 𝑚𝑚)2

𝑹𝑹 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑄𝑄

5.41 Seebeck coefficient of n-Si Thermoelectric power (Seebeck) measurements on an n-type Si

crystal doped with donors generate the results shown in Table 5.9. What can you do with this data and
how would you interpret the experiment? Consider also whether Equation 5.79 can be used for
degenerately doped semiconductors.

Solution.
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸−𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
Persamaan 5.79 dapat disederhanakan, dimana 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = , sehingga persamaan menjadi :
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘 5
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = − �𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 + + 𝑟𝑟�
𝑒𝑒 2
Dimana :
𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 (1,38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐽/𝐾𝐾)
𝑒𝑒 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (1,6 × 10−19 𝐶𝐶)
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Berdasarkan pada Tabel 5.9 di atas, dapat kita amati nilai Nd (donor concentration) dari kiri
ke kanan semakin besar, berkebalikan dengan Nd, nilai |Sn| (seebeck) dari kiri ke kanan
semakin kecil. Sehingga dapat diketahui semakin besar nilai Nd (donor concentration) akan
menyebabkan nilai |Sn| (seebeck) semakin kecil.
Pembuktian dengan data 1
1,38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐽/𝐾𝐾 −14 −3
5
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = − �2,75 × 10 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + + 𝑟𝑟�
1,6 × 10−19 𝐶𝐶 2
5
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = −8,625 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐾𝐾 −1 + + 𝑟𝑟
2
Pembuktian dengan data 2
1,38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐽/𝐾𝐾 5
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = − −19
�3,7 × 10−14 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−3 + + 𝑟𝑟�
1,6 × 10 𝐶𝐶 2
5
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 = −10,15625 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐾𝐾 −1 + + 𝑟𝑟
2

Dapat diamati bahwa dengan semakin besar nilai Nd yang dimasukkan, menyebabkan hasil
5
negatif yang semakin besar pula, sehingga ketika dijumlahkan dengan 2
+ 𝑟𝑟 nilai |Sn|

(seebeck) semakin kecil. Hal ini disebabkan karena |Sn| berbanding terbalik proporsional
terhadap Nd (donor concentration)nya.

6.24 LED luminous flux

a. A particular deep blue LED manufactured emits an optical power of 453 mW at 455
nm when the current is 350 mA and the forward voltage is 3.2 V. What are the power
conversion efficiency, external quantum efficiency, and the luminous efficacy?
b. A particular green LED based on InGaN MQW active region emits at a wavelength of
528 nm. At an LED current of 350 mA, the forward voltage is 3.2 V. The emitted
luminous flux is 93 lm. What are the power conversion efficiency, external quantum
efficiency, luminous efficacy, and the emitted optical power (radiant flux)?
 c. A particular red LED emits 320 mW of optical power at 657 nm when the current is
400 mA and the forward voltage is 2.15 V. What are the power conversion efficiency,
external quantum efficiency, and the luminous efficacy?

Solution.
a. The luminous flux is,
Φ = 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 (683 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑊𝑊)𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆)
Here, 𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆) is the relative luminous efficiency.
Given 𝜆𝜆 = 455 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
For 𝜆𝜆 = 455 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, the relative luminous efficiency of eye is, 𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆) = 0.05

The optical power is,

Φ = 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 (683 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑊𝑊)𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆)
Φ = (710 × 10−3 )(683 lm/W)(0.05)
𝚽𝚽 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟑𝟑 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍
The power conversion efficiency is,
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂
𝜂𝜂𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
710 × 10−3
𝜂𝜂𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
(350 × 10−3 )(3.2)
𝜼𝜼𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 (𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟒𝟒%
The external quantum effienciency is,
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂
� �
𝜂𝜂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑣𝑣
𝐼𝐼
�𝑒𝑒�

710 × 10−3 𝑊𝑊
� �
2.725 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝜂𝜂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 =
350 × 10−3 𝐴𝐴/𝑒𝑒
𝜼𝜼𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 (𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟒%
The luminous efficiency is,
Φ
𝜂𝜂𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
24.2
𝜂𝜂𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
(350 × 10−3 )(3.2)
𝜼𝜼𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟔 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍/𝑾𝑾
b. The luminous flux is,
Φ = 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 (683 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑊𝑊)𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆)
Here, 𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆) is the relative luminous efficiency.
Given 𝜆𝜆 = 528 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
For 𝜆𝜆 = 528 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, the relative luminous efficiency of eye is, 𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆) = 0.09

The optical power is,

Φ = 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 (683 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑊𝑊)𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆)
Φ
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 =
(683 lm/W)𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆)
92
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 =
(683)(0.9)
𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
The power conversion efficiency is,
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂
𝜂𝜂𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
150 × 10−3
𝜂𝜂𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
(350 × 10−3 )(3.4)
𝜼𝜼𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 (𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟔%
The external quantum effienciency is,
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂
� �
𝜂𝜂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑣𝑣
𝐼𝐼
�𝑒𝑒�

150 × 10−3 𝑊𝑊
� �
2.348 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝜂𝜂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 =
350 × 10−3 𝐴𝐴/𝑒𝑒
𝜼𝜼𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 (𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐%
The luminous efficiency is,
Φ
𝜂𝜂𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
92
𝜂𝜂𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
(350 × 10−3 )(3.4)
𝜼𝜼𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍/𝑾𝑾
c. The luminous flux is,
Φ = 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 (683 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑊𝑊)𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆)
Here, 𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆) is the relative luminous efficiency.
 Given 𝜆𝜆 = 656 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
For 𝜆𝜆 = 656 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛, the relative luminous efficiency of eye is, 𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆) = 0.1

The optical power is,

Φ = 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 (683 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑊𝑊)𝑉𝑉(𝜆𝜆)
Φ = (350 × 10−3 )(683 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙/𝑊𝑊)(0.1)
𝚽𝚽 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
The power conversion efficiency is,
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂
𝜂𝜂𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
320 × 10−3
𝜂𝜂𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
(400 × 10−3 )(2.15)
𝜼𝜼𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 (𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟐%
The external quantum effienciency is,
𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂
� �
𝜂𝜂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = ℎ𝑣𝑣
𝐼𝐼
�𝑒𝑒�

320 × 10−3 𝑊𝑊
� �
1.894 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝜂𝜂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 =
400 × 10−3 𝐴𝐴/𝑒𝑒
𝜼𝜼𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 (𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒. 𝟐𝟐%
The luminous efficiency is,
Φ
𝜂𝜂𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
21.856
𝜂𝜂𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
(400 × 10−3 )(2.15)
𝜼𝜼𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟒 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍/𝑾𝑾

6.32 A solar cell used in Eskimo Point The intensity of light arriving at a point on Earth,
where the solar latitude is α can be approximated by the Meinel and Meinel
equation:
0.678
𝐼𝐼 = 1.353(0.7)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝛼𝛼) 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑚𝑚−2
where 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝛼𝛼 = 1 ∕ (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛼𝛼). The solar latitude α is the angle between the sun’s
rays and the horizon. Around September 23 and March 22, the sun’s rays arrive
parallel to the plane of the equator. What is the maximum power available for a
photovoltaic device panel of area 1 m2 if its efficiency of conversion is 10 percent?
A manufacturer’s characterization tests on a particular Si pn junction solar cell at
27°C specifies an open circuit output voltage of 0.45 V and a short circuit current of
400 mA when illuminated directly with a light of intensity 1 kW m−2. The fill factor
for the solar cell is 0.73. This solar cell is to be used in a portable equipment
application near Eskimo Point (Canada) at a geographical latitude (𝜙𝜙) of 63°.
Calculate the open circuit output voltage and the maximum available power when
the solar cell is used at noon on September 23 when the temperature is around −10
°C. What is the maximum current this solar cell can supply to an electronic
equipment? What is your conclusion?
(Note: 𝛼𝛼 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜋𝜋 ∕ 2, and assume 𝜂𝜂 = 1 and that 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∝ 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 )

Solution.
Definisi dari dapat ∝ dilihat pada gambar a dan b. Intensitas cahaya versus seperti
yang ditunjukkan pada gambar c yang menunjukkan maksimum adalah pada∝=90°.
perhatikan betapa luasnya kurva, menyiratkan bahwa ini masih subtantif ketika ∝
bersudut rendah.
Intensitas cahaya maksimum ketika∝=90°., dengan demikian
𝐼𝐼 = 1,353(0,7)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) = 0,95 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2
*Daya maksimum per satuan luas = (efisiensi x intensitas maksimum)
Oleh karena itu, maka daya maksimum persatuan luas yaitu
𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 /𝑚𝑚2 = (0,01)(0,95 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2 ) = 0,095 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2 = 95𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚−2
Didapatkan lokasi terbaik di bumi terbaik yaitu pada 95𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚−2.
Dalam kondisi pengujian, besar 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 0,45 𝑉𝑉, 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 (𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ) =
400 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 pada 1𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚−3, 27°C, dengan 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 = 0,0259 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
𝐼𝐼0
100 × 10−3
0,45 = 1(0,0259)𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 1 × 10−8
Pada titik Eskimo, ∝=90°- 63° = 27° (pada figur c), memberikan intensitas cahaya
sebesar
𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 1,353(0,7)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 1,353(0,7)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐27)
𝐼𝐼𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 0,736 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2
yang berarti bahwa photocurrent titik eskimo (𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ ) ditentukan oleh
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸) 0,736 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2
=
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇) 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸) 0,736 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2
=
400 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚−2
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ = 294 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Di atas merupakan arus maksimum yang dapat disuplai dimana tidak tergantung
pada suhu karena dihasilkan oleh photogeneration dalam sel surya.
Diketahui bahwa dark current tergantung dengan suhu, dimana pada suhu -10° C,
𝐾𝐾𝐵𝐵 𝑇𝑇
= 0,0227 𝑉𝑉
𝑒𝑒
Perubahan dalam black current 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 dapat ditemukan sebagai berikut, 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 =
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
tegangan celah pita = = 1.1𝑉𝑉 untuk Si kemudian dengan 𝜂𝜂 = 1 sehingga
𝑒𝑒
𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 ∝ 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖2 ∝ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇

Sehingga,
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸) 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔
= 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− + �
𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇) 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 (𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃) 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇)
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸) 1.1 1.1
== 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− + �
1.1 × 10−8 𝑉𝑉 0.0227 0,0259
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 2,77 × 10−11 𝐴𝐴
 Oleh karena itu, tegangan rangkaian terbuka (𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ) titik eskimo yaitu:

𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝜂𝜂𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜
294 × 10−3
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 1(0,0227)𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � �
2,77 × 10−3
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 0,523 𝑉𝑉
Daya maksimalnya yaitu:
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 × 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ × 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = (0,73)(244𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)(0,523𝑉𝑉)
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 93 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Arus maksimalnya yaitu:
𝑰𝑰𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

7.7 Relative permittivity, bond strength, bandgap, and refractive index Diamond,
silicon, and germanium are covalent solids with the same crystal structure. Their
relative permittivities are shown in Table 7.11.
a. Explain why εr increases from diamond to germanium.
b. Calculate the polarizability per atom in each crystal and then plot polarizability
against the elastic modulus Y (Young’s modulus). Should there be a
correlation?

c. Plot the polarizability from part (b) against the bandgap energy Eg. Is there a
relationship?
d. Show that the refractive index n is √𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 . When does this relationship hold and
when does it fail?
e. Would your conclusions apply to ionic crystals such as NaCl?
Solution.

a. In diamond, silicon, and germanium, the polarization mechanism is electronic

bonding. There are two factors that enhance polarization. First is the number of
electrons available for displacement and the ease of the field to move the
electrons. The number of electrons in the core shell increases from diamond
towards germanium. Second is that the bond strength per atom decreases from
diamond to germanium, making it easier for the valence electrons in the bond to
be displaced.
b. Berlian
Konsentrasi atom N adalah,
𝐷𝐷𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁 =
𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(3,52 × 103 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 )(6,022 × 1023 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑁𝑁 =
(12 × 10−3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑁𝑁 = 1,766 × 1029 /𝑚𝑚3

Maka polarisabilitas nya adalah,

𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 − 1 𝑁𝑁
= 𝛼𝛼
𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 + 2 3𝜀𝜀0 𝑒𝑒
3𝜀𝜀0 (𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 − 1) 3(8,854 × 10−12 𝐹𝐹/𝑚𝑚)(5,7 − 1)
𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒 = =
𝑁𝑁(𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 + 2) (1,766 × 1029 /𝑚𝑚3 )(5,7 + 2)
𝜶𝜶𝒆𝒆 = 𝟗𝟗, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑭𝑭𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐
Silikon
Konsentrasi atom N adalah,
𝐷𝐷𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁 =
𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(2,33 × 103 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 )(6,022 × 1023 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑁𝑁 =
(28,09 × 10−3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑁𝑁 = 4,9951 × 1028 /𝑚𝑚3

Maka polarisabilitas nya adalah,

𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 − 1 𝑁𝑁
= 𝛼𝛼
𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 + 2 3𝜀𝜀0 𝑒𝑒
 3𝜀𝜀0 (𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 − 1) 3(8,854 × 10−12 𝐹𝐹/𝑚𝑚)(11,9 − 1)
𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒 = =
𝑁𝑁(𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 + 2) (4,9951 × 1028 /𝑚𝑚3 )(11,9 + 2)
𝜶𝜶𝒆𝒆 = 𝟒𝟒, 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑭𝑭𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐

Germanium
Konsentrasi atom N adalah,
𝐷𝐷𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴
𝑁𝑁 =
𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(5,32 × 103 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3 )(6,022 × 1023 /𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑁𝑁 =
(72,61 × 10−3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝑁𝑁 = 4,4122 × 1028 /𝑚𝑚3

Maka polarisabilitas nya adalah,

𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 − 1 𝑁𝑁
= 𝛼𝛼
𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 + 2 3𝜀𝜀0 𝑒𝑒
3𝜀𝜀0 (𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 − 1) 3(8,854 × 10−12 𝐹𝐹/𝑚𝑚)(16 − 1)
𝛼𝛼𝑒𝑒 = =
𝑁𝑁(𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 + 2) (4,4122 × 1028 /𝑚𝑚3 )(16 + 2)
𝜶𝜶𝒆𝒆 = 𝟓𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝑭𝑭𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐

Karena mekanisme polarisasi dalam kristal ini disebabkan oleh polarisasi

ikatan elektronik, maka perpindahan elektron dalam ikatan kovalen tergantung
 pada fleksibilitas atau elastisitas ikatan ini dan hal itu juga tergantung pada
modulus elastisitas.
c. Plot the polarizability from part (b) against the bandgap energy Eg. Is there a
relationship?

Ya, ada hubungan linier antara polarisasi dan bandgap energy.

d. Show that the refractive index n is √εr. When does this relationship hold and
when does it fail?
Buat plot grafik indeks bias, n, dengan permitivitas relatif εr
 Hubungan antara n dan εr tidak akan berlaku jika nilai εr pada frekuensi
rendah (<< ƒoptik) di mana yang lain yang memiliki kontribusi polarisasi yang
lambat (seperti polarisasi ionik, polarisasi dipolar, polarisasi antar muka) juga
berkontribusi terhadap εr
e. 𝑛𝑛 = √𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟 will hold for ionic crystals if εr is set at the appropriate optical
frequency and not at a frequency below foptical. Tabulated data for ionic
crystals usually quote εr values that include ionic polarization and hence
these data do not correspond to 𝑛𝑛 = √𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟

7.16 Student microwaves mashed potatoes A microwave oven uses electromagnetic

waves at 2.45 GHz to heat food by dielectric loss, that is, making use of 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟″ of the
food material, which normally has substantial water content. A student microwaves
60 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚3 of mashed potatoes for 40 seconds, then takes them out and measures their
temperature to be about 71°C. The room temperature is 23°C. The specific heat
capacity (cs) and density of mashed potatoes are approximately 3.8 𝐽𝐽 𝑔𝑔−1 𝐾𝐾 −1 and
1.0 𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−3 . At 2.45 GHz, mashed potatoes have 𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟″ ≈ 15. Assume that heat
generated in mashed potatoes by the absorption of microwaves increases the
temperature, and ignore any heat conducted away. Calculate the rms electric field
Erms generated by the microwaves in the mash potatoes. (Note: You can use 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
instead of E in Equation 7.32.)

Solution.

Diketahui,
F = 2,45 Ghz = 2,45 x 109 Hz
V = 60 cm3
T = 40 s
ΔT = 71 °C – 23 °C = 48 °C
Cs = 3,8 J g−1 K−1
ρ = 1,0 g cm−3
ε″r ≈ 15
ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m

μ0 = 4π x 10-7 T m/A
 Ditanya Erms ?

Dalam menghitung medan listrik rms (Erms) yang dihasilkan microwave

dalam kentang tumbuk, dapat digunakan rumus sebagai berikut:

𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = √2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋0𝜀𝜀0𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟"𝑃𝑃

Mencari nilai daya (P) yang diserap oleh kentang tumbuk dengan
menggunakan rumus berikut:
𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 × 𝑚𝑚 × ∆𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 × (ρ × V) × ∆𝑇𝑇
𝑃𝑃 = =
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

𝑃𝑃 =

𝑃𝑃 = = 273,6 𝐽𝐽

Lalu, hitung medan listrik rms (Erms) yang dihasilkan microwave:

𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = √2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋0𝜀𝜀0𝜀𝜀𝑟𝑟"𝑃𝑃

𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = √(2𝜋𝜋(2,45 × 109) × (4𝜋𝜋 × 10−7) × (8,854 × 10−12) × 15 × 273,6)

𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑬𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑽/𝒎𝒎

Jadi nilai medan listrik rms (Erms) yang dihasilkan microwave dalam
kentang tumbuk yaitu sebesar 0,026512 V/m

7.29 Piezoelectricity The wavelength λ of mechanical oscillations in a piezoelectric slab

satisfies

1
𝑛𝑛 𝜆𝜆 = 𝐿𝐿
2
 where n is an integer, L is the length of the slab along which mechanical oscillations
are set up, and the wavelength λ is determined by the frequency f and velocity v of
the waves. The ultrasonic wave velocity v depends on Young’s modulus Y as

𝑌𝑌 1/2
𝑣𝑣 = � �
𝑃𝑃

where ρ is the density. For quartz, 𝑌𝑌 = 80 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 and 𝜌𝜌 = 2.65 𝑔𝑔 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−3 .

Considering the fundamental mode (𝑛𝑛 = 1), what are practical dimensions for
crystal oscillators operating at 1 kHz and 1 MHz?

Solution.

Given,
𝑌𝑌 = 80 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝜌𝜌 = 2650 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3

Maka, nilai V nya adalah,

𝑌𝑌
𝑣𝑣 = �
𝜌𝜌

80 × 109 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑣𝑣 = � = 5954 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
2650 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3

Pada 𝒇𝒇 = 𝟏𝟏 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
𝑣𝑣 5494 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣 = = = 5,494 𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓 1 × 103 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

Panjang L pada kristal kuarsa pada 1 KHz pada fundamental mode (n=1) adalah,
1
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑛𝑛 � 𝜆𝜆�
2
1
𝐿𝐿 = (1) � × 5,494 𝑚𝑚�
2
𝐿𝐿 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝒎

Pada 𝒇𝒇 = 𝟏𝟏 𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴
 𝑣𝑣 5494 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑣𝑣 = = = 0,005494 𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓 1 × 106 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

Panjang L pada kristal kuarsa pada 1 KHz pada fundamental mode (n=1) adalah,
1
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑛𝑛 � 𝜆𝜆�
2
1
𝐿𝐿 = (1) � × 0,005494 𝑚𝑚�
2
𝐿𝐿 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

9.12 Electric and magnetic fields in light The intensity (irradiance) of the red laser beam
from a He–Ne laser in air has been measured to be about 1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−2 . What are the
magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields? What are the magnitudes if this
1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚−2 beam were in a glass medium with a refractive index 𝑛𝑛 = 1.45 and still
had the same intensity?

Solution.
The average irradiance (intensity) is given by
1
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑐𝑐𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜2
2
For vacuum or air 𝑛𝑛 = 1 and we can calculate the magnitude of the electric field from
the above relation as,

2𝐼𝐼 2(10𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚−2 )
𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜 = � =� = 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎−𝟏𝟏
𝐶𝐶𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛 (3 × 108 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )(8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚−1 )

The corresponding magnetic field is

𝑛𝑛𝐸𝐸𝑂𝑂 (1)(86.772 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚−1 )
𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 = = (3×108 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )
= 2.892 10-7T = 0.2892 T
𝐶𝐶

If this beam was traveling in glass medium of 𝑛𝑛 = 1.45 and still had the same
intensity (1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚−2 ), then

2𝐼𝐼 2(10𝑊𝑊𝑚𝑚−2 )
𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜 = � =� = 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎−𝟏𝟏
𝐶𝐶𝜀𝜀𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛 (3 × 108 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )(8.85 × 10−12 𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚−1 )(1.45)

And
𝑛𝑛𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜 (1.45)(86.772 𝑉𝑉 𝑚𝑚−1 )
𝐵𝐵𝑜𝑜 = = = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟕𝟕 𝑻𝑻 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝑻𝑻
𝑐𝑐 (3 × 108 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1 )
9.15 Antireflection coating

a. Consider three dielectric media with flat and parallel boundaries with refractive
indices n1, n2, and n3. Show that for normal incidence the reflection coefficient
between layers 1 and 2 is the same as that between layers 2 and 3 if n2 = √n1n3.

What is the significance of this?

b. Consider a Si photodiode that is designed for operation at 900 nm. Given a choice of
two possible antireflection coatings, SiO2 with a refractive index of 1.5 and TiO2
with a refractive index of 2.3, which would you use and what would be the thickness
of the antireflection coating you chose? The refractive index of Si is 3.5.

Solution.
a. For light traveling in medium 1 when incident on the 1-2 interface at normal
incidence the reflection coefficient is,
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛1 − �𝑛𝑛3
𝑛𝑛1 − 𝑛𝑛2 𝑛𝑛1 − �𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛3 1
𝑟𝑟12 = = =
𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 𝑛𝑛1 + �𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛3 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛1 + �𝑛𝑛3
1

For light traveling in medium 2 when incident on the 2-3 interface at normal
incidence the reflection coefficient is,
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
�𝑛𝑛1 − 1
1 − �𝑛𝑛3
𝑛𝑛2 − 𝑛𝑛3 �𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛3 −𝑛𝑛1 3 1
𝑟𝑟23 = = = =
𝑛𝑛2 + 𝑛𝑛3 �𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛3 + 𝑛𝑛3 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
�𝑛𝑛1 + 1 1 + �𝑛𝑛3
3 1

𝑟𝑟23 = 𝑟𝑟12
Significance: for an efficient antireflection effect, the waves A and B (see Figure
A) should interface destructively and to obtain a good degree of destructive
interference between waves A and B, the two amplitudes must be comparable.
This can be achieved by r12 = 𝑟𝑟23.
 Figure A: illustration of how an antireflection coating reduces the reflected light
intensity.

b. The best antireflection coating should have a refractive index 𝑛𝑛2 such that 𝑛𝑛2 =
(𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛3 )1/2 = [(1)(3.5)]1/2 = 1.87. Given a choice of two possible antireflection
coatings, 𝑆𝑆1 02 with a refractive index of 1.5 and 𝑇𝑇1 𝑂𝑂2 with a refractive index of
2.3, 𝑆𝑆1 02 would be a good choice as it is closer to 1.87.
To find the thickness of the coating with a 900 nm wavelength.
𝜆𝜆
𝑑𝑑 = 𝑚𝑚 � �
4𝑛𝑛2
Where 𝑚𝑚 = 1,3,5, … is an odd integer.
900 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
For 𝑆𝑆1 02 : 𝑑𝑑 = � 4(1.5) � = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏

or odd multiples of 𝑑𝑑
900 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
For 𝑇𝑇1 02 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜): 𝑑𝑑 = � 4(2.3) � = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟖 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏

or odd multiples of 𝑑𝑑.