1/5/2024

Heat Transfer
(ME204)
Dr. Rajesh Choudhary
Assistant Professor, DoME, SVNIT
https://sites.google.com/view/rchoudhary/home

Course Contents
• Introduction (1 Hour)
• Conduction (14 Hours)
• Convection (14 Hours)
• Radiation (7 Hours)
• Heat Exchangers (6 Hours)

Total Hours: 42 Hours

L – T – P: 3 – 1 – 2

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Books
• S. P. Sukhatme, Heat Transfer, Universities Press, 20012.
• J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill, 2017.
• Y. A. Cengel, A. J.Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw Hill, 2017.
• N. V. Suryanarayana, Engineering Heat Transfer, Penram International Publishing,
2015.
• R. C. Sachdeva, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, New Age International
Publications, 2012.

Course Outcomes
• Apply appropriate mode of heat transfer while analyzing complex engineering
problems.
• Compute steady state and transient heat conduction problems in slab, cylindrical
and spherical systems.
• Explore various Nusselt number correlations for forced and free convection systems.
• Calculate surface to surface radiative heat transfer in engineering systems.
• Investigate the performance of heat exchanger using LMTD and NTU-effectiveness
methods.

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Unit - 1
Introduction

Contents
• Modes of heat transfer, conduction, convection and radiation.
• Fourier’s law.
• Newton’s Law of Cooling
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law

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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

• Whenever a temperature gradient exists within a system, or whenever two systems at
different temperatures are brought into contact, energy is transferred.
• The process by which the energy transport takes place is known as heat transfer. The thing
in transit, called heat, cannot be observed or measured directly.
• The branch of science that deals with the relation between heat and other forms of energy,
including mechanical work in particular, is called thermodynamics.
• All heat transfer processes involve the exchange an/or conversion of energy. They must,
therefore, obey the first as well as the second law of thermodynamics.
• At first glance, one might therefore be tempted to assume that the principles of heat
transfer can be derived from the basic laws of thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

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Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication about how long
the process will take.
• Determining the rates of heat transfer to or from a system and thus the times of cooling or
heating, as well as the variation of the temperature, is the subject of heat transfer.

Heat Transfer
• From an engineering viewpoint, the key problem is the determination of the rate of heat
transfer at a specified temperature difference.
• To estimate the cost, the feasibility, and the size of equipment necessary to transfer a
specified amount of heat in a given time, a detailed heat transfer analysis must be made.
• The dimensions of boilers, heaters, refrigerators, and heat exchangers depend not only on
the amount of heat to be transmitted but also on the rate at which the heat is to be
transferred under given conditions.
• The successful operation of equipment components such as turbine blades, or the walls of
combustion chambers, depends on the possibility of cooling certain metal parts by
continuously removing heat from a surface at a rapid rate.
• A heat transfer analysis must also be made in the design of electric machines,
transformers, and bearings to avoid conditions that will cause overheating and damage the
equipment.

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Heat Transfer…Applications

Heat Transfer…Applications
• Chemical, petrochemical, and process industry: Heat exchangers, reactors, reboilers, etc.
• Power generation and distribution: Boilers, condensers, cooling towers, feed heaters, transformer
cooling, transmission cable cooling, etc.
• Aviation and space exploration: Gas turbine blade cooling, vehicle heat shields, rocket
engine/nozzle cooling, space suits, space power generation, etc.
• Electrical machines and electronic equipment: Cooling of motors, generators, computers and
microelectronic devices, etc.
• Manufacturing and material processing: Metal processing, heat treating, composite material
processing, crystal growth, micromachining, laser machining, etc.
• Transportation: Engine cooling, automobile radiators, climate control, mobile food storage, etc.
• Fire and combustion Health care and biomedical applications: Blood warmers, organ and tissue
storage, hypothermia, etc.
• Comfort heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning: Air conditioners, water heaters, furnaces,
chillers, refrigerators, etc.
• Weather and environmental changes
• Renewable Energy System: Flat plate collectors, thermal energy storage, PV module cooling, etc.

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Heat Transfer…Mechanisms
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference, and all modes
are from the high-temperature medium to a lower-temperature one.

Heat Transfer…Conduction Heat Transfer

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Heat Transfer…Conduction Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer…Conduction Heat Transfer

• Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to
the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles.
• Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules
during their random motion.
• In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.

No bulk, or macroscopic, motion

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Conduction Heat Transfer

L1 L2 = 2L1
Q1 = Q2 𝟏
A1 A2 𝑸̇ ∝
or 𝑳
Q1 > Q2 𝑸̇ ∝ 𝑨
Q1 Q2
or
𝑸̇ ∝ ∆𝑻
Q1 < Q2
T1 T2 T1 T2
L2

L1 A2 = 2A1 L1 L2

A1 A1 A2

Q1 Q2 Q1 Q2

T1 T2 T1 T2 𝑻𝟏 T2
= 2 T1
T1 T2
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference across the layer
and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.

Conduction Heat Transfer

Consider steady heat conduction through a large plane wall of thickness x = L and
area A.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 ∝
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑨 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟐
𝑸̇𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅. ∝
∆𝒙
𝐴 𝑇 −𝑇 ∆𝑇
𝑄̇ . =𝑘 = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
• In the limiting case of x → 0, the equation above reduces to the
differential form.
𝒅𝑻
𝑸̇𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝. = −𝐤𝐀
𝒅𝒙
“Fourier’s law of heat conduction”
𝒅𝑻
• is the temperature gradient, which is the slope of the temperature curve on a T-x diagram at location x.
𝒅𝒙

• Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with increasing x. The negative sign ensures that heat transfer in
the positive x direction is a positive quantity.

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Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity k is a measure of a material’s ability to
conduct heat.
• For example, at room temperature
• k = 0.608 W/m·°C for water, and
• k = 80.2 W/m·°C for iron
𝑸̇𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝. × 𝒅𝒙
𝒌=
𝑨 × 𝒅𝑻
• If dx = 1 m, A = 1 m2, and dT = 1 °C, then
𝑸̇𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅. × 𝟏
𝒌= = 𝑸̇𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅.
𝟏
“Thermal conductivity of a material can be defined as the rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area per unit
temperature difference”

Thermal Conductivity
• High value for thermal conductivity?
• Good heat conductor
• Low value for thermal conductivity?
• Poor heat conductor or insulator.

• Materials such as rubber, wood, and styro foam are poor

conductors of heat and have low conductivity values.

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Thermal Conductivity…Gases
• Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energies of the particles such as the molecules or
atoms of a substance.
• In a liquid or gas, the kinetic energy of the molecules is due to their random translational
motion as well as their vibrational and rotational motions.

• When two molecules collide, part of the kinetic energy of the more energetic (higher-
temperature) molecule is transferred to the less energetic (lower temperature) molecule.
The higher the temperature, the faster the molecules move and the higher the number of such
collisions, and the better the heat transfer.

Thermal Conductivity…Gases
𝟏
𝒌= 𝒄 𝝆𝒄𝝀𝒎𝒇𝒑
𝟑 𝒗
• The kinetic theory of gases predicts and the experiments confirm that the thermal
conductivity of gases is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature T, and
inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass M.
“The thermal conductivity of a gas increases with increasing temperature and decreasing
molar mass”
• Example:
• Thermal conductivity of helium (M = 4, k = 0.152) is much higher than those of air (M
= 29, k = 0.026) and argon (M = 40, k = 0.016 W/mK).

• What will be the effect of pressure on thermal conductivity of gas?

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Thermal Conductivity …Liquids

• Molecules are more closely spaced, and exert a stronger intermolecular force field.

• The thermal conductivities of liquids usually lie between those of solids and gases.
“Unlike gases, the thermal conductivities of most liquids decrease with increasing temperature,
with water being a notable exception”
Like gases, the conductivity of liquids decreases with increasing molar mass.

• Liquid metals such as mercury (8.3 W/m.K) and sodium (72.1 W/m.K) have high thermal
conductivities and are very suitable for use in applications where a high heat transfer rate
to a liquid is desired, as in nuclear power plants.

…Solids
• In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects:
• Lattice vibrational waves induced by the vibrational motions of the molecules positioned
at relatively fixed positions in a periodic manner called a lattice, and
• The energy transported via the free flow of electrons in the solid.
• The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by adding the lattice and electronic
components.

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…Solids
• For conducting materials and non-conducting materials, kinetic theory is given as
𝟏
𝒌 = 𝑪𝒄𝝀𝒎𝒇𝒑
𝟑
• When electrons and phonons carry thermal energy leading to conduction heat transfer in
a solid, the thermal conductivity may be expressed as
𝒌 = 𝒌𝒆 + 𝒌𝒑𝒉
• The relatively high thermal conductivities of pure metals are primarily due to the
electronic component.
• The lattice component of thermal conductivity strongly depends on the way the
molecules are arranged.
• For example, diamond, which is a highly ordered crystalline solid, has the highest
known thermal conductivity at room temperature.

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• Convection: The mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid
or gas that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
• The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.

• Convection is called forced convection if the

fluid is forced to flow over the surface by
external means such as a fan, pump, or the
wind.
• In contrast, convection is called natural (or
free) convection if the fluid motion is caused
by buoyancy forces that are induced by
density differences due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.
• In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat
transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

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Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to be
convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process.

At the surface, the fluid temperature equals the surface temperature of the solid.

• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons)
as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium.

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• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
• Thermal radiation: Form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.

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• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute
temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

Where 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10 𝑊/𝑚 𝐾 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

• The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a ,
and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called

• The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the

radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same
temperature, and is expressed as

Where 𝜀 is the emissivity of the surface.

• The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0 ≤
𝜀 ≤ 1 , is a measure of how closely a surface
approximates a blackbody for which 1.

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• Another important radiation property of a surface is

its absorptivity (𝛼), which is the fraction of the
radiation energy incident on a surface that is
absorbed by the surface.
• Like emissivity, its value is in the range 𝟎 ≤ 𝜶 ≤ 𝟏.
• A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident
on it.
• A blackbody is a perfect absorber (𝛼 = 1) as it is a
perfect emitter (𝜀 = 1).

• Both 𝜶 and 𝜺 of a surface depend on the temperature and the wavelength of the radiation.
“Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a
given temperature and wavelength are equal.”
• In many practical applications, the surface temperature and the temperature of the source
of incident radiation are of the same order of magnitude, and the average absorptivity of a
surface is taken to be equal to its average emissivity.
• The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from:

where 𝑄̇ is the rate at which radiation is incident on the surface and 𝛼 is the
absorptivity of the surface.
• For opaque (nontransparent) surfaces, the portion of incident radiation not absorbed by
the surface is reflected back.

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• The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation
absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer.

• The net rate of heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces depends on the properties
of the surfaces, their orientation relative to each other, and the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation.

• The net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two (smaller and larger) surfaces is
given by

• In this case, the emissivity and the surface area of the surrounding surface do not have any
effect on the net radiation heat transfer.

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• Radiation heat transfer to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such as air occurs
parallel to conduction (or convection, if there is bulk gas motion) between the
surface and the gas.
• A combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined includes the effects of both convection
and radiation.
• Total heat transfer rate to or from a surface by convection and radiation is expressed
as

• Combined heat transfer coefficient is essentially a convection heat transfer

coefficient modified to include the effects of radiation.

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