05 Jan 2024, Fri

CL 242 Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer

Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer Analysis
Recap
➢ Heat Transfer vs Thermodynamics: how long the
process
➢ Heat Transfer Applications: Engineering, Daily life Conduction
Convection
➢ Study Heat Transfer Analytically (by analysis or
calculations)
➢ Modelling in Engineering: Physical problem → Radiation

Mathematical Equation → Solution

➢ Modes of Heat Transfer: conduction, convection,
and radiation
➢ Each mode has its specific equations that account
Heat Transfer
for the mechanisms through which heat is
transferred.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 2

Conduction Heat Transfer
Conduction Heat Transfer
➢ In a general sense, conduction heat transfer is the transfer of
thermal energy between two objects by direct contact.
▪ You touch a glass of hot water
▪ A cold canned drink in a warm room, eventually warms
up to the room temperature as a result of heat transfer
from the room to the drink through the aluminum can by
conduction.
➢ Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between
the particles.
▪ Conduction in solid, liquid and gases

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 4

Mechanism of Conduction
High temperature Low temperature

System A System B

➢ Consider a gas in which a temperature gradient exists

(T1 > T2), and assume that there is NO bulk, or
macroscopic, motion.
➢ Higher temperatures are
associated with higher molecular ➢ When neighboring molecules collide, as they are
energies. constantly doing, a transfer of energy from the more
▪ energy – random energetic to the less energetic molecules must occur.
translational motion, internal ➢ Molecules from above are associated with a higher
rotational and vibrational temperature – there must be a net transfer of energy
motions, of the molecules. in the positive x-direction – diffusion of energy
P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 5
Diffusion of Heat and Mass
➢ Diffusion is spreading by random motion Tracer

➢ Each particle is exploring the space around by Microscopic

random motion in all directions
Macroscopic
➢ Appears as a directed motion macroscopically
➢ Diffusion of species = Diffusion
➢ Diffusion of Heat = Conduction!
➢ Because of this similarity, a lot of results we derive
for heat transfer (conduction and convection) also
applies to mass transfer.

Wikimedia; Taylor Science Geeks

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 6

Mechanism of Conduction – Solid, Liquid & Gas
➢ Conduction in a gas (low density fluid)
▪ Random translation of molecules carries heat
▪ Less heat transfer by collisions
➢ Conduction in a liquid (high density fluid)
▪ Molecules are more closely spaced and molecular
interactions are stronger and more frequent.
▪ Heat transfer by collisions
▪ Heat transferred, molecules localised
➢ Conduction in a solid
▪ Highly localized molecules
▪ Lattice vibrations (or waves)
▪ Translation of free electrons (metals)

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 7

Heat Transfer Rate Notations
▪ Heat transfer Rate (W)

▪ Heat transfer rate per length (W/m)

▪ Heat transfer rate per area (W/m2), heat flux

▪ Heat transfer rate per volume (W/m3)

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 8

Heat Transfer Rate due to Conduction
➢ Consider steady heat conduction through a large plane wall of
thickness Δx = L and area A. The temperature difference across the
wall is ΔT = T 2 − T 1 .
➢ What are the parameters that affects the rate of heat conduction through
a plane layer?
▪ the temperature difference across the layer
▪ the heat transfer area
▪ the thickness of the layer
➢ Experiments have shown that

Area ∗ (Temperature difference)

Rate of heat conduction ∝
Thickness

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 9

Heat Transfer Rate due to Conduction
T1 − T2 ΔT
Rate of heat conduction, q = k ∗ A ∗ = −k ∗ A
L L
where the constant of proportionality k is the thermal conductivity of the
material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat

➢ In the limiting case of Δx →0, the differential form

➢ Fourier’s law of heat conduction

➢ Heat Flux (q/A) through a material; A is always normal to the direction of heat transfer.
➢ dT/dx is the temperature gradient
➢ The negative sign ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction is a positive quantity.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 10

Thermal Conductivity
➢ Touch different materials
➢ Which one do you feel colder?
➢ Can you comment on the temperature
of the object by touching it?

➢ Thermal conductivity k is a measure of a material’s ability to

conduct heat.
➢ When you touch something you don’t actually feel temperature.
➢ You feel the rate at which heat is conducted, either towards or
away from you.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 11

Conduction in Solids, Liquids and Gases
➢ A high value for thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a good heat conductor,
and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or insulator.
➢ In general, ksolids > kliquids > kgases
➢ Conduction in Solids: Two mechanisms
▪ Lattice vibrations
• Phonon: wave packets like “particles”
random motion
• All solids; crystal > amorphous
▪ Electron transport
• Metallic (with high electrical conductivity)

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 12

Thermal Conductivity and Temperature
➢ Solids
▪ Variation of k over certain temperature ranges is
negligible for some materials but significant for others
▪ k of certain solids exhibit dramatic increases at
temperatures near absolute zero: superconductors.
• kcopper = 20,000 W/m⋅K at 20 K
➢ Non-metallic Liquids
▪ Decrease with temperature
▪ Imp. exceptions: Water, Glycerine, Eng. oil
➢ Gases
▪ More disorderly motion, lower conduction
▪ Kinetic theory for ideal gases
• Increases as sqrt of T

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 13

Thermal Conductivity – Assumptions
➢ The temperature dependence of thermal conductivity causes
considerable complexity in conduction analysis.
▪ Therefore, it is common practice to evaluate the thermal
conductivity k at the average temperature and treat it as a constant in
calculations.
➢ In heat transfer analysis, a material is normally assumed to be
isotropic; that is, to have uniform properties in all directions.
▪ This assumption is realistic for most materials, except those that
exhibit different structural characteristics in different directions,
such as laminated composite materials and wood.
▪ kx = ky = kz ≡ k

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 14

Relevant Properties in Heat Transfer Analysis
➢ Transport properties:
▪ k, the thermal conductivity and ν, the kinematic viscosity
➢ Thermodynamic properties:
▪ Density (ρ) and specific heat (cp).
➢ The product ρcp (J/m3⋅K), commonly termed the volumetric heat capacity, measures the
ability of a material to store thermal energy.
➢ Thermal Diffusivity:
thermal conductivity k
α= = (m2/s)
heat capacity ρcp
▪ Significance: A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material
and a small amount of heat is conducted further. Materials of large α will respond quickly to changes
in their thermal environment.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 15

Convection Heat Transfer
Convective Heat Transfer
➢ Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a
solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
▪ energy transfer – random molecular motion (diffusion),
and by the bulk (macroscopic) motion of the fluid.
Wikimedia (Metalomer); Flow3D DEM

➢ In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.
➢ Consider cooling of a hot block by cool air over its top surface
▪ Heat is first transferred to adjacent air layer by conduction.
▪ This heat is then carried away from the surface by convection:
• conduction within the air – due to random motion of air molecules
• the bulk or macroscopic motion of the air that removes the heated
air near the surface and replaces it with the cooler air.
P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 17
Convective Heat Transfer

➢ Forced convection
Fluid driven externally

➢ Natural convection
Buoyancy driven

➢ Boiling
(phase change to vapour)

➢ Condensation
(phase change to liquid)
Key feature: Fluid-Solid Interface

Bergman et al 2011 Fundamentals of H&MT (Incropera)

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 18

Mechanism of Convective Heat Transfer
➢ A consequence of the fluid–surface interaction is the development of a region in the fluid
through which the velocity varies from zero at the surface to a finite value u0 associated
with the flow: velocity boundary layer
➢ Flow of fluid past a surface
▪ No slip (zero relative velocity) on solid
▪ Far away unaffected u0
➢ Boundary Layer
▪ Region where velocity changes from 0 to u0
Flow past flat surface Flow past cylinder
➢ Boundary layer phenomenon
▪ Laminar
▪ Turbulent

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 19

Mechanism of Convective Heat Transfer
➢ If the surface and flow temperatures differ, there will be a region of the fluid through which
the temperature varies from Ts at y = 0 to T0 in the outer flow.
▪ This region, called the thermal boundary layer, may be smaller, larger, or the same
size as that through which the velocity varies.
➢ Flow of fluid past Heated surface
▪ Solid to 1st fluid layer by conduction T0

▪ On surface: Fluid temp T = Solid temp Ts

▪ Far away ambient temp T0
➢ Thermal Boundary layer
▪ Region where temp changes from Ts to T0

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 20

Heat Transfer Rate due to Convection
➢ Rate of convective heat transfer is given by:

➢ Newton’s law of cooling

➢ The parameter h (W/m2 ⋅ K) is termed the convection
heat transfer coefficient.
▪ h is not a property of the fluid.
▪ experimentally determined parameter whose value
depends on all the variables influencing convection
such as the surface geometry, the nature of fluid
motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid
velocity.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 21

Example of a System where Convection is present but
Conduction is absent?
➢ There is NONE!
➢ All materials at finite temperature have random motion
Conduction may
➢ If a temperature difference induces convective motion, then
there has to be conduction be smaller than
convection, but
➢ No temperature difference: No conduction. But no convection
either! is ubiquitous!

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 22

Radiation Heat Transfer
Radiation Heat Transfer
➢ Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a nonzero temperature.
➢ Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require the
presence of an intervening medium.
➢ Thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their
temperature.
▪ It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, gamma rays,
microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are not related to temperature.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 24

Mechanism of Radiation Heat Transfer
➢ Why do all bodies at finite temperature emit radiation?
▪ Electronic transitions emit radiation
▪ Random thermal motion of molecules can take energies
from 0 to infinitely large (low probability)
▪ Electron transitions to higher energy state upon
collisions
▪ Emit when returning to ground state

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 25

Radiative Emission
➢ The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a thermodynamic
temperature Ts (in K) is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law:
Ts is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface and σ is the
Eb = σTs4
Stefan–Boltzmann constant (σ = 5.67 x 10−8 W/m2⋅K4 ).

➢ The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody
➢ The radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation.
➢ The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the radiation emitted by a blackbody
at the same temperature and is
ε is a radiative property of the surface termed the emissivity.
Eb = εσTs4 With values in the range 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1, this property provides a
measure of how efficiently a surface emits energy relative to a
blackbody.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 26

Radiative Absorption
➢ Radiation may also be incident on a surface from its
surroundings: Irradiation, G
➢ The radiation may originate from a special source, such as
the sun, or from other surfaces to which the surface of
interest is exposed.
➢ Absorptivity α, which is the fraction of the radiation energy
incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface.
Gabs = α G

➢ Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0 ≤ α ≤ 1.

➢ A blackbody absorbs all radiation incident on it. That is, a blackbody is a perfect
absorber (α = 1) as well as a perfect emitter.

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 27

Net Rate of Radiation Exchange
➢ The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation
absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer, E - Gabs.
➢ Engineering Approximations
▪ Only surface radiates/absorbs (ignore bulk volume)
▪ Gases ~ Transparent
▪ Liquids & Solids ~ Opaque
➢ For a small surface (Ts) enclosed in a large surrounding (Tsurr) separated by a gas (such as
air) that does not intervene with radiation
▪ If Gray Surface (α = ε)
▪ Net Rate of Radiation Exchange:

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 28

Analysis of Heat Transfer
General Analysis of Problems: Polya’s Principles
➢ Understand the problem
Polya’s Principles
▪ Restate in your own words
▪ Draw schematic
▪ Knowns (given and hidden)
▪ What’s to be found?
➢ Device a plan
▪ Connection between known & unknowns Conditions Processes Unknowns

▪ Conservation Equations, Formulae

▪ Solve simpler problems (simplify
conditions, geometry, knowns) class Solver:
def __init__(self):

➢ Carry out
▪ Analytical, numerical solving
➢ Look back
▪ Validate
▪ What didn’t work?
P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 30
A Plan for Heat Transfer
➢ Identify a control volume and draw the control surface
➢ Define time basis
▪ Interval of time (𝜟t): Change in quantities
▪ Time instance: Rate of change in quantities
➢ Identify energy transfer modes
▪ Flux on surface
▪ Source/sink in volume
➢ Relate using equations and formulae (Generic eq.)
▪ Entire CV integral: Algebraic
▪ Shell balance
▪ Temp. profiles: differential
➢ State simplifying assumptions; List properties needed
➢ Solve symbolically
➢ Substitute numerical values
P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 31
Analysis of HT Modes from Materials
➢ Picturize the system and
molecular interactions
➢ Solid block
▪ Conduction
▪ Radiation
➢ Surrounding air
▪ Conduction
▪ Convection
➢ Walls
▪ Conduction
▪ Radiation

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 32

Analysis of HT Modes from Forcing
➢ Solid block
▪ Conduction
▪ Radiation
• attenuated in bulk; only surface
➢ Surrounding air
▪ Convection
• fan (forced)
• buoyancy (free/natural)
▪ Radiation
➢ Walls g
▪ Radiation
▪ Conduction
Which modes are relevant?

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 33

Heat Transfer Rates: Back of the envelope estimates
➢ Heat flux: Rate of energy lost (or gained) per unit area of surface:

Back of the envelope estimates

k: Thermal conductivity [W/m-K]
Gases 0.1

Liquids 1

Non-metals 10

Metals 100

h: Convection HT coefficient [W/m2-K]

Free Forced
Gases 10 100
Liquids 300 3000

εσ: 0.2 (polished) to 5 (matte) x 10-8 W/m2-K4

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 34

Analysis of HT: Relative Order of Magnitudes
➢ Heat flux: Rate of energy lost (or gained) per unit area of surface:

➢ Rod temperature: Ts = 400 K

Wall temperature: Tw = 300 K
Distance between Rod and Wall L = 1 m

➢ Conduction in air [W/m2] L

T Ts
➢ Convection in air [W/m2] (free to forced) w
g

➢ Radiation to wall and back [W/m2]

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 35

Summary
➢ Modes of Heat Transfer

➢ Conduction

➢ Convection

➢ Radiation

P. Sunthar & Ojus Mohan, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Bombay 36