GENERAL EMBRYOLOGY

By Ann Mwangi
Department of Human Anatomy,
JKUAT
Outline
1. Definition of human embryology
2. Developmental periods
4. Terminologies used in embryology
5.Germitogenesis
6.Fertilization
7.Ectopic pregnancies
8.Family planning methods
9. 1st week of Intra-uterine life
10. 2nd week of IUL
11.3rd week of IUL
12. 4th week of IUL
Embryology -is a branch of science that is concerned with the
formation, growth, and development of the embryos and the fetuses

NB >Development does not stop at birth. Important changes, in addition

to growth, occur after birth (e.g., development of teeth and female
breasts….).

Why study Embryology?

• It develops knowledge concerning the beginnings of human life and the
changes occurring during prenatal development.

• It helps in understanding the causes of variations in human structure

(how normal and abnormal relations develop).
Developmental Periods
• Human development is usually divided into two broad periods:

1. Prenatal development- (before birth):

-Prenatal period is further divided into three stages;
Stage 1; Pre-embryonic period
-First 2 weeks; Fertilization to formation of the bilaminar germ disc
Stage 2:- Embryonic stage;
-From Week 3 - day 56 (8 weeks)
- Most visible advances occur during this period.
- Is the most susceptible period to teratogenic factors because of
intensive differentiation.
Stage 3:- the fetal period/stage ;
-Begins on day 57(8 weeks) and ends when the fetus is completely
outside the mother.
-The fetal period is characterized with differentiation and growth of
tissues and organs.
-The rate of body growth increases during this period
2. Postnatal development-
(after birth):
• This period is characterized by
further differentiation of organs
and specializations of body tissues

• Consists of at least three distinct

phases, infancy, childhood, and
puberty

• Is influenced predominantly by
nutrition, and largely by growth
hormones
Terminologies In Embryology
1. Oocyte ( ovum, egg):
• Are the female germ/ sex cells produced in the ovaries.

2. Sperm /spermatozoon/spermatozoa:
• Is the male germ cell produced in the testes (testicles).
• Numerous sperms (spermatozoa) are expelled from the male urethra
during ejaculation.
3. Zygote:- the cell that results from the union of an oocyte and a
sperm during fertilization and marks the beginning of a new human
being.
4. Gestational Period:- it is how long the pregnancy lasts from fertilization to
birth: it is usually divided into three trimesters (I,II,II) each with three
months
5. Conceptus:- Is the the embryo, placenta and its or associated
membranes, i.e. the amnion, chorionic.
6. Primordium-Is the beginning or first indication of an organ or structure.
7. Abortion -A premature stoppage of development and expulsion of a
conceptus from the uterus or expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it is
viable of living outside the uterus/b4 28 weeks or 20-22(WHO).
The different types of abortion includes:-
1. Threatened abortion (bleeding with the possibility of abortion):- Is a
complication in approximately 25% of clinically apparent pregnancies.
• Cervical os are closed
• Despite every effort to prevent an abortion, approximately half of
these abort.
2. Inevitable abortion: Symptoms cannot be stopped and a miscarriage will
happen
• Cervical os are closed

3. Miscarriage:- Is spontaneous (unplanned) loss of a embryo/fetus before the

20th week of pregnancy (spontaneous abortion).
• Can be due to emotional stress or physical causes.
NB/ Pregnancy losses after the 20th week are called stillbirths.

4. Habitual abortion:- is the spontaneous expulsion of a dead or nonviable

embryo or fetus in three or more consecutive pregnancies
5. Induced abortion:- is the medical way to getting rid of unwanted
pregnancy intentionally by drugs or mechanically before 20 weeks
(i.e., before the fetus is viable).

6. Incomplete abortion-only some of the products of conception leave

the body.

7. Complete abortion is one in which all the products of conception

are expelled from the uterus.

8. A missed abortion :- is the retention of an embryo or fetus in the

uterus after death

9. Infected (septic) abortion: The lining of the womb (uterus) and any
remaining products of conception become infected.
Spermatogenesis (Sperms formation)
• Is the process of development of spermatids (the haploid male gametes that
results from division of secondary spermatocytes and their differentiation into
spermatozoa.

• It takes place in the testis

• The process is usually under stimulation anterior pituitary gonadotropic

hormones
a) GnRH is made in the hypothalamus and travels to the anterior pituitary gland where it
stimulates FSH and LH secretion.

b) LH binds to Leydig cells to stimulate secretion of androgen hormones(testosterone)

and production of sperms in the testicles
c) FSH is necessary for sperm maturation.

d) Inhibin acts as negative feedback to slow the release of GnRH and

FSH

Nb/ Sertoli cells- provide structural and metabolic support to the developing
sperm cells
Steps in Spermatogenesis
1. The Primordial germ cells develop into
spermatogonia.
-This occurs after puberty, and they remain in
the wall of the seminiferous tubules.

2. Spermatogonia form primary spermatocytes.

4. Primary spermatocytes divides into two

secondary spermatocytes.

5. Each of these divides again (2nd meiotic div),

thus forming 4 Spermatids.

6. Each containing equal cytoplasm and HAPLOID

chromosomes….
Oogenesis
• Is the formation of female gametes;
differentiation of female primordial
germ cell (oogonium) into mature
ovum.

Has 3 periods
• Period of multiplication : in which
oogonia (2N) increased in the ovary
through mitotic division.

• Period of growth : oogonia(2N)

grow to primary oocytes (2N).

• Period of maturation : primary

oocytes (2N) enter meiosis Ι to
produce secondary oocytes (N) &
first polar body (N), and complete
meiosis II to form mature ova (N)
and 3 polar bodies since cytokinesis
(division of cytoplasm) is unequal
Fertilization
• Is the fusion of a sperm cell nucleus with an oocyte
cell nucleus to form a fertilized egg (zygote)

• It brings the male and female gametes together

(haploid),to produce a diploid zygote.

• It also triggers the beginning of embryonic

development

• Time: 12 - 24 hours during ovulation (ova is viable for

24hrs after ovulation).

• Site: Ampulla of uterine tube

1. Menstrual Phase
• Is the first phase of menstrual cycle.
• Occurs if the egg from the previous cycle is not fertilized, hence the levels of
oestrogen and progesterone drops and there is shedding of uterine lining.
-Takes 3-7days

2. Follicular Phase/Proliferative phase

 Begins immediately after menstrual cycle.
 Ends when there is a luteinizing hormone peak, and ovulation occurs
 FSH-a) Stimulates the development of a follicle in the ovary,
and within the follicle the egg matures and ripens.
b) Stimulates the ovaries/follicles to produce oestrogen hormone that
stimulates the lining of the uterus to build up in preparation for
pregnancy.
 3. Ovulation
• Is the shedding of a mature ovum when a follicle in the ovary bursts into the
fallopian tube.
• It typically happens about 13–15 days before the start of each period . Average
length: 28 days, but typically varies, with shorter and longer cycles (21-35 days)
• Like the period, the timing of ovulation can vary from cycle-to-cycle and may
have the odd cycle where you don't ovulate at all

LH- Stimulates the release of egg from the ovary in the middle of the menstrual
cycle

4. Luteal Phase/Secretory Phase

• Begins on Day 14 after ovulation occurs and ends on day 1 of the next period
LH- Stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone that;
a) Keep the uterus lining in place
b) Stimulates the growth of blood vessels in the lining to prepare for pregnancy
and
c) Helps to maintain pregnancy if a fertilised ovum arrives in the uterus.
Multiple pregnancy
• Multiple Pregnancy-Occurs when more then one foetus develops in
the uterus
• Simultaneous development of 2 foetuses (Twinning) are the
commonest, but development of 3 foetuses (Triplets), 4 foetuses
(Quadruplets), 5 foetuses (Quintuplets), 6(Sextuplets) foetuses etc
may also occur.
Causes of multiple pregnancy
1. Genetic history-The gene versions that increase the chance of hyper
ovulation can be passed down from parent to child

2. Advanced age - women over 35 produce more follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
than younger women, which may cause more than one egg to drop at ovulation.

3. Increased parity -exact etiological mechanism is not well understood

4.Taller mothers and mothers with a high body mass index (30>)
taller women have higher levels of insulin-like growth factor (IGF), which boosts
ovulation by upping the sensitivity of the ovaries to FSH

6. Diet-Dairy products, especially in areas where growth hormone is given to cattle,

appear to enhance the chances of multiple pregnancies due to ovarian stimulation

5. Race
Twin Pregnancy
• Varieties;
1. Di-zygotic /fraternal twins
-Are non-identical or dissimilar twins
-Are the commonest and results from two separate eggs
fertilized by two separate sperm cells.
-In most cases, a woman only releases a single egg, or ovum,
from her ovaries during an ovulation cycle, but sometimes,
for various reasons, multiple eggs are released in a cycle.
• They are developed in two different amniotic membranes and placenta.

• They may share the same genes/chromosomes, but only 50% of them.

• They are somewhat similar to other ordinary siblings, except that they are
conceived and born at the same time.

• Like any other siblings, dizygotic twins may look similar, particularly given that
they are the same age.

• However, dizygotic twins may also look very different from each other (for
example, be of opposite sexes).
2. Monozygotic
Twinning/Identical Twins
• They come from the same
zygote (egg) fertilized by a single
sperm.
• This fertilized egg then splits and
produces two embryos which
usually have identical
chromosomes.
• Two foetuses will grow from the
two embryos inside the same
placenta.
• Monozygotic twins have almost identical genes and the same
blood type but they are still unique individuals.

• They are nearly always of the same sex although male-female

monozygotic twins, an extremely rare occurrence, may result
from a mutation during the early stages of development.

• Identical twins do not have the same fingerprints.

• They may look almost the same physically and may even share
the same psychological and mental characteristics.
Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins
1. Monozygotic twins/identical twins are developed from the same egg which is
fertilized by a single sperm cell while Dizygotic twins/fraternal twins are
developed from two eggs that are fertilized by two different sperm cells.

2. Monozygotic twins are developed in one placenta whereas dizygotic twins are
developed in two separate placentas.

3. Monozygotic twins have genetic profiles that are almost identical to each other.
They have the same blood type and may even share the same personalities.
Most of the time, they are also of the same sex and share the same physical
features.

-On the other hand, dizygotic twins have completely different genetic profiles
and are just like regular siblings. They may be of the same or different gender,
and they may look alike or different.
Results of fertilization
1. Restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes (46) in a zygote.
2. Results in variation of human being due to bi-parietal inheritance
3. Determines chromosomal sex of the embryo
4. Causes metabolic activation of the zygote and initiates cleavage.
Ectopic pregnancy
• This refers to any pregnancy in which the fertilised egg/ovum
implants and develops in another site other than the normal uterine
cavity.

• The fertilised egg can't survive outside the uterus.

• If left to grow, it may damage nearby organs and cause life-

threatening loss of blood..

• It requires early and aggressive intervention

Risk Factors
• History of tubal surgery
• History of STD’s (such as chlamydia)
• History of ART (assisted reproductive technology ) e.g. In-vitro
fertilization (IVF)
• History of prior ectopic pregnancies (especially if conservatively
managed without surgery)
• Smoking-cilia
• Intrauterine device (IUD) in place at time of conception
• Age-35-45 years
Incidence and Location
• Accounts for 1 in 80
spontaneous pregnancies
• Tubal
• 80% Ampullary
• 12% Isthmic
• 6% Fimbrial
• 2% Interstitial

Other regions
• Cervical, intraperitoneal,
ovarian