Gamete formation

- Formation of haploid cells

- 46 chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes); From maternal chromosomes and paternal chromosomes
(homologous pairs or homologous chromosomes)
- Diploid chromosomal number or 2N; 46
- Gamete cell has only 23 or half of the number of chromosomes; Haploid chromosome number or N, this
is because only one pair of homologous are going to find in the gamete cells. The formation of haploid
cells requires a process which called the meiosis.
Mitosis
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
- Product of mitosis
(the 46 chromosomes will line up in the midline during metaphase, and at the end of mitosis it will eventually
end up with two daughter cells that are considered diploid and genetically identical to the mother cell.

Meiosis
- There is two cell division (1st division; separate the homologous pair from each other. 2nd division;
separate the sister chromatids and in the end of meiosis will have four daughter cells that each contain
one of those chromosomes in the homologous pair.

Oogenesis
- Production of female gametes
- Begins in the fetal period.
Oogonia (before birth – meiotic events)
- Diploid ovarian stem cells
- Multiply by mitosis
- Store nutrients
Primary oocytes (infant and childhood – meiotic events)
- From oogonia to primary oocytes
- Develop in primordial follicles the become surrounded by follicle cells.

(during fetal development the primary oocytes will begin meiosis but stall in prophase 1. It is presumed that at
birth female contains most of the primary oocytes that they will have in their lifetime.)

(when puberty begins, each month a few primary oocytes are going to become activated, one from this group is
“selected each month to become the dominant follicle that resumes meiosis 1, which stalled in the prophase 1
since fetal development)

(after puberty, the division of meiosis 1 is going to be completed which results two haploid cells of different
sizes; 1st is larger secondary oocyte which contains almost all of the mother cell cytoplasm and organelles. The
2nd is the smaller polar body or the first polar body, it is a very small cell that is devoid of any cytoplasm, will
later degenerate or divide and then degenerate after it divides)

Secondary oocytes
- Arrest in the metaphase II and becomes the ovulated ovum.
- If not penetrated by sperm, it deteriorates.
 - If penetrated by sperm, the secondary oocytes complete meiosis II yielding a functional gametes or an
ovum and as well a second polar body. (polar body will disintegrate)

Compare oogenesis which occurs in the female to spermatogenesis which occurs in the male – we find that the
functional gametes that are produces in each differ. In oogenesis we only produced one viable ovum and three
polar bodies, this is due to unequal divisions, which ensure the oocyte is going to have ample nutrients for six to
seven-day journey that it must take from the ovary to the uterus.

Follicular phase
- Stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles.
- several vesicular follicles are stimulated to grow which triggered by rising level of the anterior pituitary
hormones, so called the follicle-stimulating hormone.
- And when the follicle-stimulating hormone level drop around the middle of the follicular phase which
cause the antral follicles or dominant follicle to continue.
- The one that completes meiosis 1 is the primary oocyte from the dominant follicle, which forms the
secondary oocyte and polar body.
Granulosa cells
- Send signals to the oocyte causing it to stop metaphase 2.

*AFTER FOLLICULAR PHASE, THE NEXT WILL OCCUR IS OVULATION.

Ovulation
- Rising levels of the anterior pituitary hormone, luteinizing hormone causes the ovary wall to rupture
which leads to expelling the secondary oocyte with its corona radiata to the peritoneal cavity.
Mittelschmerz
- Pelvic pain, it is associated with ovulation.

• 1-2% of ovulations release more than one secondary oocyte, which if fertilized it results fraternal twins.
• On the other side, identical twins is result from the fertilization of one oocyte and followed by the
separation of daughter cells.

Secondary phase; the luteal phase

- Happens when the ruptured follicle collapses and the antrum begin to fill with clotted blood and because
of this it is now referred to corpus hemorrhaguim and eventually be absorbed.
- The remaining granulosa cells and internal thecal cells will enlarge to form a structure known as the
corpus luteum.
- If no pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum will degenerate which is known as the corpus albicans which
translates to scar. (10 days)
Corpus Luteum
- Secrete progesterone and some estrogen.

Pregnancy does not occur;

• Luteolytic or ischemic phase – endometrium begins to erode.
Pregnancy occurs;
• The corpus luteum produces hormones that sustain pregnancy until the placenta takes over, at about 3
months. (instead of 10 days)

Prior puberty;
- The ovaries are going to secrete a small amount of estrogen that inhibits hypothalamic release of the
 gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
Beginning of puberty;
- The leptin levels, hormone that produced by our adipose or fat cells will start to became adequate, the
hypothalamus becomes less estrogen sensitive which makes the gonadotropin-releasing hormone to
release which leads to stimulate the release of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone by
the anterior pituitary – these two hormone will act on ovaries, these events will continue until adult
cyclic pattern is achieved and then menarche or so called the first menstruation occurs.
• The gonadotropin-releasing hormone is going to stimulate follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone secretion – these two hormone will then stimulate the follicle to grow, mature, and secret the
sec hormones, the estrogen and progesterone.
• Follicle-stimulating hormones specifically stimulates the granulosa cells to release estrogen while
luteinizing hormone prods the thecal cells to produce androgens, which the granulosa to convert to
estrogen.
• Leads to negative feedback loop where the gonadotropin-releasing is going to be inhibited by increasing
plasma levels of estrogen which exerts negative feedback on the release of follicle-stimulating hormone
and luteinizing hormone and as well the granulose cells begin to secrete inhibin, which further inhibits
the follicle stimulating hormone.
• Only the dominant follicle can withstand this dip and follicle-stimulating hormone, and the other
developing follicles are going to deteriorate.
• Also in the ovarian cycle there is some positive feedback as well – positive feedback that stimulates the
gonadotropin-release includes the estrogen which continue to rise as a result of the continued release by
the dominant follicle, when the level reach critically high level there is a brief positive feedback that
occurs on the brain and pituitary; these positive feedback leads to luteinizing hormone surge.
• The luteinizing hormone surge will trigger ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum (so high
estrogen levels trigger the release of the stored luteinizing hormone and some follicle-stimulating
hormone by anterior pituitary at mid-cycle.
• The luteinizing surge is then trigger the primary oocyte to complete meiosis 1 to become te secondary
oocyte – the secondary oocytes enters meiosis II that continues on and stop at metaphase II.

Luteinizing Hormone also stimulates other events that lead to ovulation;

1. Increase in local vascular permeability which,
2. Triggers an inflammatory response that promotes release of metalloproteinase enzymes that weaken the
ovarian wall.
3. LH also stops the blood flow to follicle wall causing the wall to thin, bulge and rupture.
4. The oocyte with the corona radiata exits, accomplishing ovulation.

• Shortly after ovulation, the estrogen level is going to decline.

• Also the LH is going to be transferred form the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum.
• The LH stimulates this corpus luteum to secret the hormone progesterone and some estrogen.

Progesterone
- Helps to maintain the stratum functionalis of the endometrium of the uterus, maintains a pregnancy if it
is to occur.

• When no pregnancy does not occur; the corpus luteum is going to degenerate when the LH start to fall
which causes the sharp decrease in estrogen and progesterone which in turns ends the blockage of FSH
and LH secretion which starts the process all over again.
• The oocyte is activated about 12 months prior to when ovulation occurs, but it only takes 14 days for it
to mature before ovulation.
Ovarian cycle
- Monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an egg.
- Associated in the maturation of the egg or ovum.
2 phases occur on the ovarian cycle (ovulation the midpoint between these two phases)
1. Follicular phase
– the period of vesicular follicle growth that occurs between 1 through 14 of a 28-day cycle.
- Can vary in women.
2. Luteal phase – where the corpus luteum is active. Occurs in days 14 through 28 of a 28-day cycle.
Always 14 days from ovulation to end of the cycle.

*Only 10-15 % of women have a 28-day cycle.

UTERINE CYCLE;

The uterine cycle also sometimes referred to as the menstrual cycle is a cyclic series of changes in the
endometrium of the uterus that occur in response to the fluctuating ovarian hormone levels.

Three phases;
1st – the menstrual phase which usually about five days.
• ovarian hormones are at their lowest level and the gonadotropin levels are beginning to rise.
• The stratum functionalis which is the most superficial layer of the endometrium close to the inside of the
uterus is going to detach from the uterine wall and is shed.
• This is referred to as menstrual flow as the flow of blood and t issue last about three to five days.

2nd – followed by the proliferative or preovulatory phase which is days 6 through 14.
• Around day 5 a new growing or variant follicle starts producing more estrogen.
• This brings us into the next phase or the proliferative phase.
• And the proliferated phase, the rising estrogen levels are going to prompt generation of a new stratum
functionalis layer.
• As the layer thickens, glands in that area enlarge and also the spiral arteries are going to increase in
number.
• Estrogen also increases the synthesis of progesterone receptors in the endometrium.
• Another event that happens in this phase is that the cervical mucus begins to thin out from its normal
thick and sticky consistency, in order to facilitate the passage of sperm.
• Ovulation will occur at the end of the proliferative phase on day 14 of a 28-day cycle.

3rd – secretory phase or the post ovulatory phase which last exactly 14 days.
• This phase is the most consistent in duration and last 14 days during this phase, the endometrium is
going to be preparing for the embryo to implant.
• Rising progesterone levels from the corpus luteum are going to prompt the functional layer to become a
secretory mucosa.
• Endometrial glands are going to enlarge and secrete nutrients into the uterine cavity and preparation for
an embryo.
• Also, the cervical mucus plug is going to thicken in order to block entry of more sperm as well as
pathogens or debris.

¬ If, however, fertilization does not occur during the secretory phase the corpus luteum eventually is going
 to degenerate toward the end and this is going to cause the progesterone levels to fall.
¬ Also those spiral arteries are going to kink and spasm.
¬ This leads to the death of the endometrial cells and the regression of those endometrial gland
¬ The spiral arteries continue to constrict and then relax and then they open wide causing a rush of blood
into it already weakened capillary bed.
¬ The blood vessels then fragment and the functional layer or the stratum functionalis begins to sloughs
off.
¬ Now, we are starting over at the beginning of the uterine cycle as we are at now the first day of
menstruation.

Summary, sort of;

¬ The follicle stimulating hormones stimulate the follicular phase and the luteinizing hormones stimulate
ovulation.
¬ And the formation of the corpus luteum the ovarian follicle releases estrogen and inhibin and later the
corpus luteum is going to release progesterone.
¬ The release of estrogen by the ovarian follicle stimulates the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle.
¬ The release of progesterone by the corpus luteum stimulates the secretory phase of the uterine cycle if
pregnancy does not occur and the corpus luteum degenerates the menstrual phase begins as progesterone
levels decline.

EFFECTS OF THE ESTROGEN AND PROGESTERONE:

Estrogen:
- to promote oogenesis and follicle growth in the ovaries.
- It also exerts anabolic effects on the female reproductive tract.
- It supports rapid short-lived growth spurts at puberty and also induces secondary sex characteristic such
as growth of breast, increase deposits of subcutaneous fats in the hips and breasts area, and also the
widening and lightening of the pelvis.
- exhibit some metabolic effects such as maintaining low total blood cholesterol and high HDL cholesterol
levels.
- It also facilitates calcium intake.

Progesterone:
- going to work with estrogen to establish and regulate the uterine cycle.
- It promotes changes in cervical mucus and affects the placental progesterone during pregnancy.
- It inhibits uterine motility and helps to prepare the breasts for lactation as well.

DESIRE, AROUSAL AND ORGASM:

Desire
- Desire is actually driven by several factors good health, a good partner, erotic stimuli, the use of drugs
actually inhibits desire and testosterone which happens during the LH surge and the menstrual cycle also
drives desire.

Sexual Dysfunction
- Can impair the desire.
- A new partner, perhaps you and your partner are not compatible, antidepressants and other unnecessary
drugs if you stop them desire may return.
- Medical diseases and testosterone has been known to restore desire.
 - You also have as we age adrenal atrophy, this decreases your androgens and therefore your desire may
wane.
- Medical or surgical events such as removing the ovaries can also take away the source of androgens. -
This is the case with bilateral oophorectomy, premature ovarian failure or insufficiency has also been
associated with female sexual dysfunction.
- Can affect the self-image, mood, relationships with partner,.

LH SURGE AND TESTOSTERON:

• normal menstrual cycle and at the mid cycle, there is a peak in LH, no longer happens in menopausal
women, although they may be making some LH, they don't have the peak mid cycle.
• The mid cycle testosterone is what is responsible for inspiring sexuality.
• During this time, scent communication, speech and voice and even dress can change in response to the
LH surge.
• When women undergo a bilateral oophorectomy, their testosterone decreases dramatically.

FEMEALE SEXUAL RESPONSE:

- It involves emotional intimacy, sexual stimuli, sexual arousal, arousal and sexual desire, emotional and
physical satisfaction. A woman can enter their cycle at any point. She can also have spontaneous sexual
drive.
- There are several factors in the biopsychosocial model of female sexuality. They include biology which
can be an indication of her physical health, psychology which can be an indication of her emotional
well-being, sociocultural which can actually refer to her upbringing and cultural expectations and
interpersonal relationship that is the relationship she has with her partner and her family.

Types of sexual dysfunction:

1. HSDD (Hypoactive sexual desire disorder)
- This is a deficiency or absence of sexual fantasies and a desire to be sexually active.

2. Sexual Aversion Disorder

- This means that the patient actually wants to avoid sex or any contact at all with a partner.

3. Sexual Arousal Disorder

- patient cannot become aroused by normal stimuli, or you can have anorgasmia.
- This occurs in about 20% of the female population and this means a persistent or recurrent delay or
absence of orgasm.

4. Dyspareunia
- general pain associated with sexual intercourse.
- This can be caused by vaginal dryness such as in women who are postmenopausal.

5. Vaginismus
- recurrent or persistent involuntary contractions that cause sex to be painful.