Cleanliness, Hygiene and Sanitation
For students :
z Wash your hands with soap and water before touching any food
item. Also instruct and encourage the other members of your family
to do the same.
z Maintain proper cleanliness in and around your house / school
premises. Observe the cleanliness in your neighbourhood as well.
z Wash and clean the dishes before serving any food on them to kill
germs.
z See that the vegetables, green leaves, etc. are washed properly
before cooking.
z Wash the fruits, vegetables, etc. properly before consuming.
z Cut and trim your nails, hair, etc. on a regular basis.
z Keep the surrounding and drains of your house clean so that
mosquitoes and other germ carrying insects don’t breed on them.
z Never keep food and drinking water uncovered.
z Always drink filtered and purified water.
z A proper drainage system in your residence as well as school
premises should be built and maintained properly.
z Water should not be allowed to gather and log in and around your
house and school premises. Logged water serves as breeding
place for mosquitoes, flies etc.
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
How to Access e-resources using DIKSHA ?
• Type diksha.gov.in/app in your mobile browser and tap on install
button
OR
• Search for DIKSHA in Google Play Store and tap on install button
to download the app.
HOW TO ACCESS E-RESOURCES USING QR CODE ON MOBILE?
1. Select preferred language
2. Choose your role: Teacher, Student or Other
3. Tap to scan the QR code
4. Grant access and allow app permissions
5. Focus camera on the QR code in textbook
6. Click to Play QR code specific e-resource(s)
HOW TO ACCESS E-RESOURCES USING QR CODE ON DESKTOP?
1. Under the QR code you will find a alphanumeric code
2. Type https://diksha.gov.in/as/get
3. Type the alphanumeric code in the search bar
4. View list of e-resources available and click on any e-resource of your
choice
Cleanliness, Hygiene and Sanitation
For students :
z Wastes such as animal and human excreta, solid wastes,
domestic wastewater etc. may cause health problems if pit
latrines, dry toilets, urine-diverting dry toilets, septic tanks are
not built and maintained properly. For sewage treatment and
excreta management septic tanks are necessary at home and in
school compound.
z There should not be any garbage or waste material gathering
dump near our residences.
z Lack of sanitation usually results in open defecation and open
urination which leads to serious public health issues. Even if
toilets are available, people still need to be convinced to refrain
from open defecation and to use toilets. Therefore, the need for
behavioural change is critical in addition to the provision of toilets.
The microorganisms contained in human faeces may enter the
body through contaminated food, water, eating and cooking
utensils and by contact with contaminated objects. Some fly
species are attracted to or breed in faeces. Infectious diseases
are transmitted through contact with soil contaminated with faeces
and may spread rapidly where open defecation occurs. These
infections will contribute to several disease and malnutrition, and
therefore also render people more susceptible to other diseases.
z Recycle bins must be placed at various places in schools to
promote recycling of waste among students, teachers and other
employees. Develop the habit of disposing of waste properly in
appropriate bins only.
z Use disinfectant and pest control measures on a regular basis.
But pesticides should be kept separately with care.
z Cleanliness, Personal hygiene, Good sanitation provide a clean
school environment that nurtures good health.
Social Science Part-II

GEOGRAPHY
Textbook for Class X

Authors & translators

Dr. Bimal Kumar Kar (Chapter 1, 3)
Dr. Abani Kumar Bhagabati (Chapter 2)
Dr. Ashok Kumar Bora (Chapter 4)

Reviewer
Dr. Manmohan Das

Co-ordinators
Golok Chandra Bora
Dr. Rulima Bharali

Prepared by : Board of Secondary Education, Assam

Published by : The Assam State Textbook Production and
Publication Corporation Limited, Guwahati
GEOGRAPHY : A Textbook on Geography as Social Science Part-II for class X in English,
prepared and approved by the Board of Secondary Education, Assam and published by the
Assam State Textbook Production and Publication Corporation Limited, Guwahati on behalf of
Govt. of Assam. FREE TEXTBOOK

© The Assam State Textbook Production and

Publication Corporation Limited, Guwahati
First Edition : 2015, 2015 (revised)
Second Edition : 2016 (revised)
Third Edition : 2017 (revised)
All right reserved
No reproduction in any form of
this book, in whole or in part
(except for brief quotation in
critical articles or reviews), may
be made without written
authorization from the publisher.

Printed on : 70 GSM Paper

Publisher : The Assam State Textbook Production and Publication Corporation

Limited, on behalf of Govt. of Assam for free distribution.

DTP : Nilabh Printers

Printers : Abhiyatri Mudran Pvtl. Ltd.

K.K.B. Road, Chenikuthi, Guwahati-781003

Resource persons involved in the preparation of the textbook

Dr. Manmohan Das, Retd. Professor, Dept. of Geography, Gauhati University
Dr. Abani Kumar Bhagabati, Professor, Dept. of Geography, Gauhati University
Dr. Bimal Kumar Kar, Professor, Dept. of Geography, Gauhati University
Dr. Ashok Kumar Bora, Professor, Dept. of Geography, Gauhati University
Golok Chandra Bora, Academic Officer, Board of Secondary Education, Assam
Dr. Rulima Bharali, Academic Officer, Board of Secondary Education, Assam
(Third Edition : 2017)
 C ONTENTS
Chapter Subject Page

Chapter-1 Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 1

1.1 Definition and Subject Matter of Economic Geography 1
1.2 Scope of Economic Geography and its Branches 2
1.3 Meaning and Importance of Resource 5
1.4 Classification and Use of Resources 7
1.5 Conservation of resources 10
Chapter-2 Environment and Environmental Problems 16
2.0 Introduction 16
2.01 The Meaning of Environment 16
2.02 Environmental Problem 19
2.03 Major Environmental Problems 20
Chapter-3 Geography of World 30
3.1 Brief Introduction of the Earth 30
3.2 Distribution of Continents and Oceans 31
3.3 Distribution and Characteristics of the Oceans 33
3.4 Location and Geographical Characteristics of the Continents 37
3.5 Countries of the World 50
Chapter-4 Geography of Assam 61
4.1 Population and Settlement 61
4.2 Transport System 78
4.3 Resources of Assam 86
4.4 Economy of Assam 92
 CHAPTER-1

ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY : SUBJECT MATTER

AND RESOURCE

KEY POINTS
● Definition of Economic Geography and its Subject matter, Scope and
Branches
● Meaning, Importance and Classification of Resource
● Uses of Resources
● Resource Conservation: Meaning, Need, Methods and Role of National
and International Organizations

1.1 Definition and Subject Matter of Economic

Geography:
The subject Geography is broadly divided into two divisions –
Physical Geography and Human Geography. Economic Geography is one of
the important branches of Human Geography. The branch of Geography in
which the study of human activities associated with production, distribution,
consumption and exchange of resources is done in spatial and temporal
contexts is known as Economic Geography. In fact, the way the natural
environment of different places on the earth is not the same, the same way
its man-made environment is also different.
The natural environment of the earth’s surface is characteristically
different due to differences in its geological and physiographic structure
including climate and soil. For instance, when some part of the earth’s surface

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 1

1
 is mountainous highland, its other parts may be characterized by fertile plain,
oceanic coastal plains, and some places may again be climatically very cold
or very hot. Besides, some areas are covered with forest, or some other
areas are confronted with natural hazards like floods and river bank erosion.
In addition, like differences in the availability of vegetation, water, mineral
resources, etc there also exists marked variation in availability of natural
resources and their distribution and characteristic quality on the earth’s
surface. Due to the prevalence of such differences in natural environment
the relationship between man and environment is not found to be similar
in every place, and its resultant human environment also becomes different
in different parts of the earth’s surface. Hence, the areas with fertile soil
are having developed agriculture, coastal areas for fishing and transport-
trade, and the areas rich in mineral resources are industrially advanced. On
the other hand, the areas with luxuriant grasslands have livestock rearing.
Actually, due to the prevalence of variation in the elements of the
natural and man-made environments, human’s way of life and its economic
activities also do not remain the same everywhere. In view of such
differences, if one place is agriculturally developed, another place may be
developed in trade and commerce, or even rich in industrial or fish production
activities. That is why all the places on the earth having dependent on one
another continue to maintain a kind of interrelationship. In fact, resources
and all the phenomena relating to various activities of man are discussed
in economic geography.
1.2 Scope of Economic Geography and its
Branches:
The distribution of economic activities of man and the factors
and processes associated with it are mainly studied in Economic Geography.
The scope of its study is mainly based on the under mentioned basic
questions:
(1) Where is the economic activity located?
(2) What are the characteristics of the economic activity?
(3) To what other phenomena is the economic activity related?
(4) Why is the economic activity located where it is?
(5) Would it not be better if located elsewhere?
Among the above mentioned five questions, the traditional economic
geography is associated with the first three. But the latter two questions
have laid the foundation of modern economic geography. According to
George Chisholm, who is considered as the father of modern economic

2
2 Geography
geography, the main objective of economic geography is determination of
the economic development trend and direction of a place. On the other
hand, according to two other economic geographers C.F. Jones and G.G.
Darkenwald, economic geography is associated with productive occupations
or activities and attempts to explore the answers to why certain regions
are outstanding in the production and export of various articles and why
some others are advanced in import and trade and commerce. It means
economic geography basically studies the relationship between man’s
productive activities and environmental conditions. There are four types of
economic activities or occupations of man:
(1) Primary Occupation: The human activity through which man collects
resources from the nature is called primary occupation. For example,
agricultural activity, fishing activity, forest resource collection, mineral
resource collection, etc.
(2) Secondary Occupation: The human activity through which man
transforms the commodities collected from the nature into a usable
form by using various technologies is called secondary occupation.
For example, manufacturing process, various types of construction and
repairing works, etc.
(3) Tertiary Occupation: The human activity through which the com-
modities produced by means of primary and secondary activities reach
the consumers is called tertiary occupation. For example, transport,
communication, marketing, wholesale or retail selling, tourism activity,
etc.
(4) Quaternary Occupation: The human activity through which the
secondary and tertiary activities can be made more easy and
productive is called quaternary occupation. For example, bank or other
financial institutions, publicity media, administration, education and
research, etc.
As a vast discipline economic geography is studied by using a number
of approaches. Among them Regional Approach, Topical or Commodity
Approach, Behavioural Approach, Principles Approach, System Analysis
Approach and Institutional Approach are worth mentioning. In the contem-
porary period quantitative techniques along with Geographical Information
System (GIS) and Theory-Model are used in applied economic geography.
Hence, in many cases problem solving approach is used in applied economic
geography.
The way human activities are diverse, the same way many specialized
branches of economic geography have emerged. Among these, Agricultural

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 3

3
 Geography, Industrial Geography, Geography of Resources, Transport
Geography, Marketing Geography, Geography of Planning and Development,
Geography of Tourism, etc are worth mentioning (Table 1.1). Such
specialized branches of economic geography explain in detail various
phenomena associated with a variety of economic activities of man. As every
economic activity or development process is very closely related to
environment, more emphasis is now given on sustainable development. It
may be mentioned that the study of economic geography and its different
branches is very closely related to geography of resources. It is because
the economic development of any country is greatly dependent on its quality
and availability of resources.

Table 1.1: Major Branches of Economic Geography and their Subject Matter

Branches of Economic Subject Matter

Geography
1. Agricultural Geography
2. Industrial Geographical
3. Geography of Resources
4. Transport Geography
5. Geography of Marketing
6. Geography of Planning
and Development
7. Geography of Tourism
An important branch of Economic Geography. Here, factors associated
with agricultural activity, types of agriculture, distribution and methods of
agricultural activity, crop production and its associated theory , marketing
and export-import of agricultural produces, etc are studied.
Here, economic and other factors associated with establishment of indus-
try, types of industry and geographical distribution, production of industrial
goods, theories associated with location of industry, marketing and export-
import of industrial produces, etc are studied.
Here, types of resource, regional distribution of resources, the factors
associated with exploration and production of resources, relationship
between resource and development, conservation and management of
resources, etc are studied.
Here, types of transport system and factors associated with it, role of
transport on resource distribution, role of transport in movement and
economic activities of man, role of transport system towards economic
development, viz. industrial development, agricultural development,
etc are studied.
Here, the need of establishing markets and the associated factors, types
and distribution of markets and associated theories, etc are studied.
Here, factors associated with economic development,
planning strategies, sustainable development, regional and resource-
based development process, etc are studied.
Here, tourism and factors associated with its growth, types of tourism,
development and planning process of tourism system, etc are studied.

4
4 Geography
1.3 Meaning and Importance of Resource:
All the materials essential for human
living are known as Resources. The air, water,
sunrays, soil, plants, fruits, minerals, etc found
on the earth are all essential to man. Hence,
these are all resources. These resources are
collected by man mainly from the nature
through various means (Fig. 1.1). The re-
sources so obtained from the nature are used
by man employing its own energy, knowledge
and intelligence and skill. It is due to the Fig. 1.1 : Natural resource
availability of these resources, apart from
fulfilling the man’s primary needs – food, shelter and clothing and many
other requirements, the improvement in the living conditions of man has been
possible. But, it needs to be mentioned that every material found on the
earth is not resource. According to a famous economist Zimmermann, any
material to become a resource should have two properties, viz. functionality
and utility. It is because of these two properties resource utilization has been
able to bring about human welfare and socio-economic development. That
is why resource and its use are closely associated with progress of human
society. It may be mentioned that the resources are formed as a result of
the interactions among the nature, man and culture including science and
technology. Man is associated with resource in two different ways – as
producer of resource and as consumer of resource. Although many of the
resources useful to man are made available from the nature, most of them
are transformed as per requirement into more consumable form by man.
Moreover, the attributes of functionality
and utility of the materials found in nature
can be explored only through human
knowledge. With the expansion of the
horizon of human knowledge many new
resources are also created and used. It
means, apart from the resources derived
from nature, many of the resources, for
example, technology, house, roads, indus-
tries, schools, offices, agro-farm equip-
ments, vehicles, etc are produced by men
themselves. That is why these are called
Fig. 1.2 : Manmade resource

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 5

5
 man-made resources (Fig. 1.2). Moreover, as a producer or a creator of
resource man is also a kind of resource. It is known as Human Resource.
It is notable that the variation in the use of natural and man-made resources
is dependent on the change in human demand and development of new
technology. Hence, the meaning of the same resource may be different with
respect to change in time and place.
Resource is dynamic. Even though a commodity is not used by man
today or it is harmful to man today, the same may be used for human
welfare in future. In fact, of these materials found on the earth, which
are in no way useful or harmful to man are known as Neutral Stuff. For
instance, until man did not learn about the use of coal or mineral oil in
generation of power, they were
simply Neutral Stuffs. On the
other hand, the materials or phe-
nomena harmful to man are
called Resistance. For example,
infertile soil, severely flood-af-
fected region (Fig. 1.3), etc are
resistances. It may be mentioned
here that until construction of
dam on the river Damodar for
generation of hydropower and
creation of irrigation facility, the
Fig. 1.3 : Flood problem in Assam– A resistance Damodar river that used to cre-
ate flood havoc in West Bengal
was considered as a resistance. Thus, with the expansion of human
knowledge and development of science and technology many such neutral
stuffs and resistances found on the earth are getting transformed into
resource through human efforts. It is due to such a dynamic attribute of
resource, a material or phenomenon which is found to be useful today
may get transformed in the course of time into a resistance or neutral
stuff. It means with change in society simultaneous change occurs in the
concept of resource, and consequent change in resource collection and
use.
It may be mentioned in many respect both resource and wealth
are considered same. But, according to the principle of Economics, the
materials which have value in exchange are called wealth. Notably,
besides usefulness, the supply of wealth is relatively limited and it can
be transferred from one individual to another through money or value.

6
6 Geography
For example, land, house, machineries, company share, etc are wealth. All
these have market price. But, the sunshine, air, water, soil, rivers, lakes,
education, social institutions, good government, public health, etc are not
included in the category of wealth. Because some of these are found in
abundance and some others cannot be exchanged and do not have market
value. Thus, all wealth is resources, but all resources may not be wealth.
Moreover, resource use brings about human welfare. But wealth may have
both utility and harmful effects. For instance, the substances with market
value like poison, chemical insecticides and pesticides, etc are wealth. But,
the use of such substances is harmful or dangerous to man. Hence, such
materials are not resources.
1.4 Classification and Use of Resources:
Many types of resources are found on the earth. The way there
are different types of innumerable resources on the earth, the same way
their classification may also be done in different ways. On the basis of
origin the resources can be broadly divided into natural resource, man-
made resource and human resource. Besides, the resources may also be
divided into biotic and abiotic; renewable and non-renewable; and
individual, national and international resources (Chart 1.1).
Although the resources are classified in a number of ways into
different groups, many of them are found to overlap with one another
in the chart. As for example, plant is a natural resource and at the
same time it is a biotic resource and renewable resource. Again, plant
is also an individual or national resource. Similarly, gold is a natural
resource, and at the same time it is also an abiotic resource, non-
renewable resource and individual or national resource.

Table 1.2 : Classification of Resources

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 7

7
 1.4.1 Natural, Man-made and Human Resource:
The resources, for example, sunshine, air, water, soil, plants,
animals, minerals, rivers, etc. which after natural formation remain
distributed on the earth, are known as Natural Resources. The natural
resources are found in solid, liquid or gaseous states, and in metallic
or non-metallic form. Many of such natural resources are used as raw
materials in different industries. Besides, coal, mineral oil, natural gas,
etc are also natural resources (Fig. 1.1) which are used by us as sources
of energy. We know that many materials having collected from the nature
are converted into more usable forms as per requirement by applying
different technologies. Mention may be made in this respect, for example,
paper from bamboo; cloth from cotton; different types of dyes, paints,
naptha, synthetic cloth, chemical fertilizer, insecticides, soap, plastic,
synthetic rubber, wax, etc; different types of food items, medicine, wood,
house construction materials, etc. are derived from plants. Such materials
as produced through human efforts are known as man-made resources
(Fig. 1.2). It is necessary to have adequate skill, education, technology
and desire among men so as to make the natural resources useful to
man. It is because of these attributes, population is known as human
resource. Actually man is the creator of resources. It is due to human
resource development despite scarcity of many natural resources and raw
materials for industries, the countries like Japan, Switzerland, Taiwan,
Singapore, South Korea, etc have been able to occupy a high position
in respect of development in the world.
1.4.2 Biotic and Abiotic Resource:
According to physical structure or composition
the resources which have life are called Biotic
Resources and those without having life are called
Abiotic Resources. The plants, animals, fishes, crops,
etc are biotic resources. On the other hand, soil,
rock, water, air, minerals, coal, etc are abiotic
resources. But it is necessary to know that coal,
mineral oil, natural gas, etc are of biotic or organic
origin in respect of mode of formation. However, in
Fig. 1.4 : Renewable resource– Solar energy
view of non-living character in present context these
are included under the category of abiotic resource.
1.4.3 Renewable and Non-Renewable Resource:
Among the available natural resources on the earth, some do not
get exhausted after use and some others get gradually exhausted. The
8
8 Geography
resources which can be kept unexhausted after use
through the process of regeneration are called Re-
newable or Inexhaustible Resources (Fig. 1.4). It
means sunshine, air, water, plants, animals, human-
beings, crops, etc are renewable resources. These
resources originate very easily on the earth. Of
course, some plant and animal species have been
extinct for ever or may get extinct soon due to
excessive use or a variety of physical or human
factors. On the other hand, the resources which
cannot be regenerated after use and get completely
exhausted are called Non-Renewable or Exhaustible Fig. 1.5 : Non-renewable resource
Resources. For example, coal, mineral oil, minerals (e.g. Copper, Gold,
Limestone, Iron, Silver, etc), natural gas, etc are non-renewable re-
sources (Fig. 1.5). Once used, such resources get exhausted forever.
Hence, adequate emphasis should be given for planned extraction and
utilization of these resources so that such types of mineral resources are
not easily exhausted.
1.4.4 Individual, National and International Resource:
On the basis of ownership all the resources found on the earth
can be grouped into individual, national and international resources. The
things in possession of individual man – such as land, household
properties and good self attributes, e.g. good character, education,
working skill, etc are known as Individual or Personal Resources. All
the resources under the responsibility or possession of a country, such
as transport networks, land, rivers, bridges, wildlife sanctuaries, plants
and animals present in forests, educa-
tional institutions, administrative sys-
tems, government, etc are called
National Resources. For instance,
Kaziranga National Park is a national
resource (Fig. 1.6). On the other
hand, national resources belonging to
all the countries and the resources
under the possession of the whole
world, such as oceans and seas and
their mineral and biotic resources,
atmosphere, forests, etc are together
known as International Resources. It Fig. 1.6 : Kaziranga National Park– a national resource

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 9

9
 is because all these resources are used for the welfare of mankind. The
international organization UNO is responsible for the management of
exploitation and utilization of the international resources following already
set regulations.
It may be mentioned that the distribution of all the resources, more
particularly natural resources, is not same. Because some of the natural
resources like sunshine, air, water, etc are found everywhere or available
in all places on the earth. Such natural resources are called Ubiquitous
Resource. On the other hand, the natural resources which are found only
in some selected places on the earth are called Localized Resource. For
example, coal, petroleum, iron ore, uranium, etc mineral resources, veg-
etation, crops, etc are some of the localized resources.
1.5 Conservation of Resources – Meaning, Needs
and Methods:
The resources, more particularly the natural resources, are not
found uniformly on the earth. Many of these natural resources are again
non-renewable or exhaustible, that is limited. But, the use of such natural
resources has increased tremendously due to rapid growth of population
and continued advancement of human civilization. Although the countries like
USA, Canada, Japan, Germany, England, etc are not so populous like that
of China and India, the use of natural resources is very high in these countries.
It is worth mentioning that the main reason behind successfully reaching a
very high position in economic development by these countries is the large
scale utilization of many natural resources including mineral resources. It is
notable that large scale utilization of natural resources in the developed
countries and increased use of natural resources due to population explosion
in the developing countries have given an indication of gradual exhaustion
of many natural resources, more particularly non-renewable ones, throughout
the world. In order to overcome or address such a serious situation a
comprehensive plan for conservation of resources is taken up worldwide.
As exploitation and use of natural resources have considerable impact on
the natural environment, more emphasis is now given on conservation of
nature.
Use of resources and its conservation are very closely associated.
Generally, the concept or act of possible complete utilization of any
resource without any destruction and misuse is known as Conservation
of Resources. It means the main objective of resource conservation
is that we have to collect and use the necessary resources from the
nature in such a way so that we all continue to get benefit from these

10
10 Geography
for long time. By the term ‘Conservation of Resources’ simply does not
mean preservation of resources without any use. For example, by
conservation of mineral oil means the act of exploitation of mineral oil
from the nature without any wastage and its proper use for long time
towards human welfare.
Although resource conservation is more associated with non-
renewable resources, actually the concepts of conservation are appli-
cable to all the resources. It may be mentioned that destruction of
forests (renewable resource) results in decline of animal habitat
including its bio-diversity and disturbance in the environmental balance
in such areas. In view of such a situation many plans and projects
for conservation of some rare and important biotic resources, such as
tiger, elephant, rhino, dolphin, etc have been taken up throughout the
world. Besides, many of the valuable plant-species of Assam, such as
Sarpagandha, Chalmugra, Kalmegh, Arjun, Agaru, Chirata, Jaifal,
Satmul, Suklati, etc are getting extinct. Among the animals getting
extinct, Golden Langur, Hoolock Gibbon, wild Buffalo, Pigmy Hog,
River’s Dolphin, White Wood Duck, Hornbill, Greater Adjutant Stork,
etc are worth mentioning. Moreover, the rapid increase in the use of
mineral oil, coal, etc as the sources of energy and chemical fertilizer,
chemical insecticides and pesticides, etc in agriculture has caused
serious environmental problems due to pollution of air, water and soil.
Thus, we have to take up necessary steps for resource conservation
including economical use of resources so that our development process
lasts long. For instance, in respect of soil conservation, we have to
make use of a plot of land for agriculture in such a way so that we
continue to get good harvest of crops without depletion of soil fertility.
Even though fish is a kind of renewable natural resource, its rapid
increase of production has given rise to shortage of fish including its
variety in many fishing grounds in the world. Besides, due to rapid
increase of motor vehicles and industries and expansion of man’s
luxurious modern life style the non-renewable energy resources like
coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc are getting gradually vanished. In view
of such a situation, conservation and rational use of resources have
become very important globally. Otherwise, it would become difficult
for sustenance of human and its civilization on this earth.
In view of rapid increase of world population and growing
environmental problems including depletion of many natural resources
efforts are being made worldwide at various levels for environmental
protection and conservation of natural resources. For this purpose a

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 11

11
 large number of governmental and non-governmental agencies and
organizations have been formed at international, national, regional and
local levels. In this respect an international environment conservation
organization under United Nations Organization named International
Union for Conservation of Nature – IUCN is worth mentioning. In
fact, IUCN was formed in the year 1948 with the initiative of British
Biologist Julian Huxley, the founder Director General of UNESCO. The
main objective of this organization is to carry out study and research
on conservation of global natural environment and natural resources
including biodiversity, and to take appropriate measures. It is with the
initiative of the IUCN two more international organizations like WWF
for Nature (Worldwide Fund for Nature) and World Conservation
Monitoring Centre have been established. In this way a large number
of associations and organizations have been working at international
and national levels for conservation of some specific animal and plant
species including overall natural environment. For such purpose a
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change has been formed
at government level in India. Such government organizations are also
responsible for formulation of laws related to environment protection
and conservation of natural resources. Under this Ministry an autono-
mous institute named Indian Council of Forestry Research and Edu-
cation was formed in 1986. Besides, a number of non-governmental
organizations like Centre for Science and Environment (CSE),
Greenpeace India, Wildlife Trust of India, etc are working for protection
of the environment. In Assam also a number of non-governmental
organizations like Assam Science Society, Aaranyak, etc are working
for environment protection, biodiversity conservation, etc. As per
decision and appeal of the United Nations Organization 5 th June of
every year is celebrated worldwide as the World Environment Day so
as to increase awareness among the gen-
eral people about the protection of the
environment.
It may be mentioned here that the
process of resource conservation cannot
remain active of its own. Its proper ex-
ecution requires well-considered and well
planned programme. Thus, it is highly
necessary to incorporate the following
methods for successful implementation of
Fig. 1.7 : Alternative (renewable) resource– Hydroelectricity resource conservation programme:

12
12 Geography
 (a) Search for Alternative Resource: It is necessary to carry
out required research and survey for exploring possible source of
alternative resource even when the production of any highly used resource
goes on. Synthetic fibre in place of cotton fibre, synthetic rubber in place
of natural rubber, etc are a few examples of alternative resources.
Besides, in order to reduce the use of non-renewable energy resources
like coal, mineral oil, etc, use of renewable resources like solar energy,
hydro electricity (Fig. 1.7), wind energy, organic energy, etc needs to
be increased.
(b) Recycling: In order to reduce the use of raw materials with
limited reserve usable disposed garbages can be reused through the
process of recycling. For instance, by the method of recycling of the
old polythene bag, plastic bottle, paper, iron scrapes, etc the use of
raw materials for such products can be reduced to some extent. Thus,
the recycling of some usable waste materials helps conservation of
resources.
(c) Innovation: Necessary study and research are to be
undertaken to develop innovation in converting the resources collected
from the nature into usable forms. This also helps check misuse of raw
materials and increase resource production. Emphasis needs to be given
on the use of organic fertilizer so as to check the negative impact of
the use of chemical fertilizer.
(d) Waste Control: Considerable amount of resources can be
conserved if adequate measures are taken to check production of waste
materials through their recycling and reuse while converting raw materials
to useful resources. For example, while constructing wooden materials
after cutting trees, if arrangement is simultaneously made by utilizing waste
wood through establishment of some small industries, misuse of natural
resources can be checked. If the waste materials of wood and bamboo
generated in a paper mill are converted into organic or chemical
substances, the pressure on natural resources will automatically fall.
(e) Expansion of Knowledge and Education: For proper
management of production and use of resources, expansion of knowledge
and education is highly essential. Awareness among the people needs
to be increased to check unnecessary wastage of resources.
(f) Execution of Conservation Related Acts: For proper
execution of resource conservation programmes the provision of con-
servation acts needs to be strict and transparent and it should be
effectively implemented.
(g) Proper Assessment of Resource Reserve: For future planning

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 13

13
 of resource use a correct assessment of available reserve of any resource
is necessary. This in turn helps in curtailing unnecessary use of certain
resource and emphasizing to explore alternative resource.
(h) Assessment of Future Requirement of Resources: Looking
at the extent of present use of a resource and growth rate of population
it is highly essential to determine the future requirement of the resource.
It is through this effort also unnecessary use and wastage of resources
can be checked and at the same it would help in expediting exploration
of alternative resource.

S U M M A R Y
 Definition of Economic Geography: The branch of Geography in which the study
of human activities relating to the production, distribution, consumption and exchange
of resources is done with respect to space and time is called Economic Geography.
 A few major branches of Economic Geography: Resource Geography, Agricultural
Geography, Industrial Geography, Geography of Marketing, Transport Geography and
Geography of Tourism.
 Definition of Resource: All the materials necessary for human living are called
resources. As air, water, sunshine, soil, plants, animals, fruits, minerals, etc are all
useful to man, these are all resources.
 Main Characteristics of Resource: Utility, Functionality and Dynamism.
 Types of Resource: Resources are broadly classified into three divisions: Natural
resource, Man-made resource and Human resource.
 Resource Conservation: Generally the act or concept of complete use of resources
without any kind of destruction and misuse is known as Resource Conservation.

E X E R C I S E
1. What is Economic Geography? What is its main subject matter? Mention the important
branches of Economic Geography.
2. Write in brief about the scope of Economic Geography.
3. What do you mean by economic activities of man? What are such economic activities?
4. Write briefly about the subject matter of the important branches of Economic Geography.
5. Why ‘Resource Geography’ is known as an important branch of Economic Geography?
6. What is meant by ‘Resource’? Mention its main characteristics.
7. ‘Resource is Dynamic’. – Explain.

14
14 Geography
 8. Briefly discuss about the necessities of resources with examples.
9. Write in brief about the relationship between resource and man.
10. Briefly discuss about the relationship between resource and science-technology.
11. Write about classification of resources with examples.
12. What is meant by natural resource? Write briefly with examples.
13. What is man-made resource? Write in brief about its use with examples.
14. What are the differences between renewable and non-renewable resources? Discuss
briefly with examples.
15. What is meant by ‘Conservation of Resources’? What is its necessity?
16. Write in brief about the methods of resource conservation.
17. Write in brief about the organizations associated with resource conservation and their
role.
18. Write short notes:
(a) Resource (b) Human Resource
(c) Wealth (d) Renewable Resource
(e) Personal Resource (f) National Resource
(g) Biotic Resource (h) Resource Conservation
(i) Resource Recycling (j) IUCN
19. Write the differences between:
(a) Resource and Wealth
(b) Economic Geography and Resource Geography
(c) Resource and Neutral Staff
(d) Biotic and Abiotic Resource
(e) Renewable and Non-Renewable Resource
(f) Personal resource and National resource
(g) Man-made Resource and Human Resource
(h) Recycling of Resource and Innovation
20. Choose the correct answer:
(a) Which of the following is man-made resource?
(1) Rivers (2) Mineral Oil (3) Irrigation Canal (4) Forest
(b) Which one of the following is abiotic resource?
(1) Air (2) Plants (3) Animals (4) Fungus
(c) Which one of the following is non-renewable resource?
(1) Air (2) Water (3) Crops (4) Coal
(d) Which one of the following animals is about to be extinct?
(1) One-horned Rhino (2) Pygmi Hog
(3) Giraffe (4) Gayal (Mithun)
(e) The organization IUCN is under which of the following organizations?
(1) UNESCO (2) UNO (3) WWF (4) UNEP

Economic Geography : Subject Matter and Resource 15

15
 CHAPTER-02

ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

KEY POINTS
● Meaning of Environment
● Environmental Problems
● Major Environmental Problems– Pollution, Desertification, Global warming.

2.0. Introduction:
The environment as a theme has drawn utmost attention of the
people during the contemporary period. Although the term 'environment'
has been in use for a long time, it has now acquired special importance.
Presently, almost in all kinds of academic, administrative, commercial and
political discussions, the issues relating to environment are commonly
referred.
That the environmental problems have disturbed people in almost all
parts of the world have been currently in media. Now-a-days, all kinds
of media are seen putting more emphasis on the environmental issues. That
we should keep the environment healthy has become goal and objective
for all of us. Necessary importance for environmental education has also
been given in the school and college curricula.
2.01. The Meaning of Environment:
In a broad sense, environment denotes the condition around an
orgnism or a community of organisms. Such a condition includes all

Geography
16
necessary elements for survival. These elements are both biotic and
abiotic. The biotic elements include all sorts of plants and animals ranging
from microbes to large mammals. On the other hand, land, water, air
and all other lifeless elements fall under the abiotic category. These biotic
and abiotic elements through their interaction create necessary condition
or environment for life. In other words, each and every organism or
community of organisms depend upon the conditions around. Thus
organisms are also constituents of their environment. Human beings are
also an organism and they also depend on the environment around.
The meaning of environment is very wide and
complex from geographical point of view. Four
major shperes of the earth determine its environment.
These are– (A) Lithosphere, (B) Hydrosphere, (C)
Atmosphere and (D) Biosphere. These spheres are
interconnected. The condition created by the
interaction among them may broadly be called
environment. The famous geographer Peter Haggett
says that the environment is an outcome of the
interaction among land, water, air and life. In this
sense, the earth’s environment is a vast and Fig. 2.1 : Global Eco-system
complicated system. Within such a vast system, the local and regional
environments have been functioning. It means that the environments of all
the localities are the constitutents of the vast global environmental system.
In order to understand the earth's environment, it is necessary to have
brief ideas on the above mentioned spheres and their interactions.
(A) Lithosphere :
The land component of the earth composed of rocks, soils, minerals,
etc forms the lithosphere. The lithosphere covers all the continents where
we find the mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, valleys and coasts. The
characteristics of the lithosphere and its change in course of time depends
on the other three components (hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere)
of the earth's environmental system.
(B) Hydrosphere :
The seas and oceans have formed the earth's hydrosphere. The
hydrosphere covers about 71% of the earth's surface. The rivers, lakes and
other waterbodies distributed in the continents are also parts of the
hydrosphere. The status and change in the hydrosphere depend on the status
of the lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.

Environment and Environmental Problems

17
 (C) Atmosphere :
From the earth's surface upward extends a gaseous layer. Composed
of Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Carbon-di-Oxide, Argon, etc. this gaseous
layer is called the atmosphere. The atmosphere extends broadly to a height
of about 10000 km from the surface of the earth. The characteristics and
change of the atmosphere depend on the other three components of the
environmental system.
(D) Biosphere :
The biosphere covers those parts of the earth's environment where
life forms occur. These include the earth's surface, down to a few meters
from the earth's surface, the seas and oceans and the lower stratum
of the atmosphere where birds and insects fly. So far 1.75 million
species of plants and animals have been identified in the biosphere. Of these,
human beings (Homo sapiens) constitute only a single species.
It has been mentioned already that the four major spheres of the
earth's environment are interdependent. The interactions among them
have given rise to what we call environment. The innumerable elements
of these spheres through a complicated network of relationships have
determined the earth's present environment. The
environment is changing both in terms of space
and time.
Each of the geographical regions of the
world has its own characteristics, although
they are interrelated. The quality of the natural
elements varies from region to region. There
are regional variations with respect to land,
water, climate, natural vegetation and wildlife.
The natural environment of the places close
Fig. 2.2 : Coastal environment
to the equator is significantly different from
that of the polar areas. The environment of the desert areas is again different.
The environment of the river valleys (Fig. 2.3) differs from that of the coastal
areas at least to a certain extent (Fig 2.2). Thus the different geographical
conditions create various types of environment. Changes occur within the
same environment in course of time. Hundred years back from now the
environment of the Brahmaputra and the Barak Valleys was notably different,
for instance.
Factors like population growth, industrialization, urbanization,
expansion of transport and communication are responsible for the rapid
change of the earth's environment. The shrinkage in forest cover,
wetlands, etc has its negative impact on the biosphere and also on the

Geography
18
atmosphere. With the spread of
population and human activities
to the mountainous and the
desert areas as well, such areas
have experienced rapid
environmental changes. Under
such circumstances, the study
and proper conservation of
environment have acquired
added importance. Fig. 2.3 : River valley environment

2.02. Environmental Problems:

No environmental problem occurs, if the quality of the
environmental elements and the mutual relations among them remain
normal. At the beginning of the human civilization, there was no problem
of pollution like to-day. Natural phenomena like earthquake, volcanic
eruption, cyclones created some problem, but never took lives like
today. People coexisted with all these. It is important to note that no
major problem occurs so long a balance is maintained among the natural
and man-made elements. Environmental problems did not disturb
people badly so long the relations among the elements of lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere were in balance. But during
the last three hundred years or so world population and demand for
resources increased so much that the relation among the environmental
elements could not remain normal. All the spheres of the earth's
environment were put under the
growing pressure of human
activities. The forest cover
declined on the one hand and
the presence of Carbon-di-
Oxide in the atmosphere started
increasing on the other. As a
result, new problems began to
appear. As these problems are
basically linked with the
environment, they are referred
to as environmental problems.
We know that in normal
condition the Carbon-di-Oxide
(CO2) content in the atmosphere Fig. 2.4 : Industrial pollution

Environment and Environmental Problems

19
 is 0.035%. This gas absorbs the solar energy reflected from the earth’s
surface and thus helps in maintaining a favourable temperature condition
for lives both in the atmosphere and the earth's surface. But, if the content
of this gas increases in the atmosphere due to certain reasons, then there
will be some change in the normal temperature of the atmosphere and
the surface of the earth. In the contemporary period, because of the
increasing trend of use of fossil fuel in the industries and transport
vehicles, the Carbon-di-Oxide content in the atmosphere has increased.
This has created serious problems like global warming (Fig. 2.4).
Similarly, the processes like deforestation has accelerated the problem
of soil erosion. Thus, the growing anti-natural human activities have led
to rise of environmental problems in the world.
It should be mentioned here that the environmental problems can
be geographically divided into three different groups– (A) Local problem,
(B) Regional problem and (C) Global problem. The local problems may
remain confined to small areas, so far as their genesis and spread are
concerned. The instances of such problem may be the land pollution
created by a small-scale industry, water scarcity in winter due to
shallowing of a wetland, bank erosion problem created by a river in
a locality and so on. On the other hand, some problems may be regional
in occurrence. The flood problem of the Brahmaputra or the Barak Valley,
problem of water pollution in a vast industrial region, problem of
underground water shortage in an urban area, problem of soil erosion
in a river basin are some examples of such regional environmental
problem. Sometimes a regional problem may cover more than one
country.
Some of the environmental problems on the other hand, cover the
entire world. Such problems do not have any geographical boundary.
For instance, we can refer to the problem of global warming. As this
problem is linked with the atmosphere, it is limitless in terms of coverage.
Its impact is felt in the lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, in addition
to the atmosphere. The management of such problem needs international
efforts.

2.03. Major Environmental Problems:

Currently our earth including its people has confronted with
various types of environmental problems. The root cause of all these
problems is the overgrowing human activities. Factors like spread of
human settlements, expansion of agricultural land, growth of industries
and urban centres, expansion of transport and comunication have

Geography
20
together disturbed the interrelationship
among the environmental elements. This has
created severe problems in the environmental
system. The problems that have caused great
loss to human beings and the biological
world include different types of pollution,
desertification, landslide, soil erosion, global
warming, artificial flood, rise of sea level,
etc. (Fig. 2.5). Here, some of the major
environmental problems have been
Fig. 2.5 : Problems of soil erosion
discussed.
2.3.1 Pollution :
The process of contamination of the environment by harmful
substances is simply called pollution. Many of the man-made substances,
if added largly to the environment, it may cause harm to the biotic world.
Such substances are generally called pollutants. Zinc, Sulpher di-Oxide,
Carbon-monoxide, etc. are some of the environmental pollutants. The
major elements of environment-land, water and air-being polluted for
various reasons may cause harm to human beings and other life forms.
Presently, the pollution of these three elements has led to serious
problems in different parts of the world.
Land Pollution : Land is an important element of nature. It is an
indispensible resource for human being. The development of human civilization
has been possible mainly based on this resource. It is, however, regretable
that the land is getting polluted due to basically human factors. Land looses
its natural properties and fertility, when it comes into contact with certain
chemicals, poisonous metals, industrial wastes, radioactive substances, acid
rain and so on. In such a situation, land is considered to be polluted.
Generally, modern farming practice, expanding industries and
increasing deforestation are held mainly responsible for land pollution.
The modernization of agriculture encouraged the application of chemical
fertilizer, irrigation, insecticides, etc., in the crop land. The application
of chemical fertilizers causes change in the soil composition and
properties. Similarly, the use of underground water in the fields affects
the natural property of soil. Moreover, the insecticides and weedicides
applied in the fields destory the helpful microbes and other life forms
in addition to the targetted insects and weeds. All these pollute the
land by changing its natural properties. The industrial wastes and
chemical substances also pollute land, if they get mixed with the soils.

Environment and Environmental Problems

21
 The remains of coal and petroleum also pollute land when these are
extracted from below the surface without proper care. Thus land pollution
has become a widespread problem in most parts of the world.
Air Pollution : The atmosphere is mainly composed of gaseous
substances. Some liquid and solid substances are also present in the
atmosphere in different states. Among the gaseous substances, Nitrogen
(78.08%), Oxygen (20.94%), Argon (0.93%) and Carbon di-Oxide
(0.035%) are important. By maintaining a definite proportion, these
substances keep the atmosphere in a balance. Surely various problems
will occur, if this balance is somehow disturbed. The natural state of
the atmosphere may be changed, if certain solid, liquid or gaseous
substances are added to the atmosphere by some natural or human
processes. If such a change causes some harm to the biotic and abiotic
elements, then the atmosphere is said to be polluted.
Among the natural factors that contribute towards polluting the
atmosphere, the important one is the
volcanic eruption. The smoke, ashes and
gases that come out from the earth's
interior during eruption pollute the air. The
example of the eruption of Mount
Pinatubo in Phillippines may be cited as
example in this connection. During this
eruption as high as 15-20 million tonnes
of sulphur di-oxide (SO2) gas was emitted
to the atmosphere and the prevailing
winds spread the pollutants to cover a
Fig. 2.6 : Eruption of Mount Pinatuba, 1991 huge part of the earth's atmosphere.
Moreover, in certain parts of the earth,
forest fire also pollutes the atmosphere.
Primarily the human activities are responsible for polluting the
atmosphere. The growth of industries, urbanization, growth of vehicular
traffic and nuclear explosions are some of the major man-made factors
that cause air pollutions. Actually, the atmosphere started getting
polluted after the beginning of industrial revolution in Europe. The
increasing use of fossil fuel has added harmful gases like Carbon-
monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxide (NO 2), Hydrocarbon (HC), Sulphur-
dioxide (SO 2 ), etc. to the atmosphere. These gases pollute the
atmosphere.
One of the important consequences of atmospheric pollution is the
occurence of acid rain. It has been seen that during the last few decades

Geography
22
some of the industrially advanced areas have faced problems arising out
of acid raining. Such problems have taken serious turn in the industrial
areas of West Europe, United States of America and Eastern Canada.
Generally, acid rain occurs when there is maximum concentration of
Sulphur di-oxide and Nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere. Such rains
destroy forests and pollute water of the wetlands.
Water Pollution : Just like the atmosphere, the hydrosphere is also
more or less polluted. The natural state or quality of water gets changed
when certain chemical substances,
particles, microbes, radiations are added
to or passed through it. The process of
such change in water is called pollution.
In simple words, pollution means the
process of making water unusuable due
to mixing of some pollutants. Generally the
water is polluted if there are human
settlements, industries, agriculture, etc. in
the water sources, where from wastes get
mixed with water. Polluted water harms Fig. 2.7 : Polluted water wastes
the plants and animals present there (Fig.
2.7). Such water is not usable for human beings.
Generally, the industrial and urban wastes pollute the water of
the rivers flowing through or by the side of the towns. The example
of the Ganga flowing through North India may be cited in this connection
(Fig 2.8). The wastes generated in the towns and cities and industries
located on the banks of this river have been drained to the river for
a long time and as a result the water of the river, which was considered
to be sacred, is now badly polluted. Similarly, from a survey carried
out in the United States of America it is
evident that 55% of the total length of the
rivers of the country is polluted by
agriculture related factors. The remaining
16% is polluted by the cities, while 13%
by mining activities and another 13% by
housing development activities. In the same
way, the twenty two towns along with
more than 300 industries therein have
polluted the water of the Yangtze river in
China. We all know how the water of the
Bharalu river flowing through the Guwahati Fig. 2.8 : Pollution in Ganga river

Environment and Environmental Problems

23
 city is being polluted by the urban and industrial wastes (Fig. 2.9).
Cleaning these rivers and to make them pollution free has paused great
challenge before the coutries concerned.
The water of the rivers and wetlands located close to the big
industrial regions is polluted by the increasing proportion of acid in the
water. The Sulphur di-oxide and Nitrogen oxide
present in the atmosphere may come down in the
form of acid rain and pollute the waterbodies. Many
of the aquatic plant and animal species may be
extinct, if the acid content in the water increases.
On the other hand, due to various causes the ocean
water is also getting polluted now. Becuse of the
dumping of industrial wastes and accidents of the
oil ships, the ocean water may be polluted. Thus,
the water pollution caused by various factors has
adversely affected human health and fertility of soil
Fig. 2.9 : Water pollution in Guwahati in the continents.
2.3.2 : Desertification
The deserts are naturally located in certain specific areas of the
world. In the deserts, rainfall is scarce, but evaporation is more.
Therefore, the desert environment is dry. Natural vegetation is scarce
in the deserts. About 20% of the world’s land surface is covered by
the deserts. The snow-covered areas of the polar regions are called cold
desert. Here, only the matters relating to the tropical hot deserts are
discussed.
Desert and desertification do not mean the same thing.
Desertification is such a process which renders the productive areas
of the tropical region a desert-like situation. The term desertification,
however, denotes the spread of the deserts
to their peripheral areas (Fig. 2.10). It is
worth mentioning in this connection that the
environment of the Sahara desert in Africa
became so dry in the early 1970s that many
animals had to die. People were also badly
affected. Under such circumstances, a meeting
was held at Nairobi in 1977 under the
patronage of the United Nations. Concerned
with the problem of desertification, the
Fig. 2.10 : Desertification meeting defined desertification as– "the

Geography
24
diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land leading
ultimately to desert-like conditions." The process of desertification
reduces the productivity of land and causes expansion of desert to the
neighbouring and even the distant lands. This means that this process
contributes towards the spread of the deserts and conversion of fertile
areas into deserts. At present, around 35% of the world’s land surface
is affected by the process of desertification.
Generally, a number of natural and human factors favour the process
of desertification. Among the natural factors, drought and global warming are
important. The drought condition affects the land productivity and the growth
of natural vegetation. This accelerates the desertification process. But the
scientists are of the opinion that the global warming, which has made presently
everybody worried about, would be a dangerous factor for increasing
desertification. There is no doubt that the increasing temperature will make
the desert environment more dry.
Many have held human activities responsible for desertification.
Such activities include overgrazing, expansion of agriculture and
deforestation. During the contemporary period, the rapid population
growth has increased pressure in the desert and semi-desert regions.
This pressure has helped greatly in the
expansion of the deserts. At present, the dry
areas of about 100 countries of the world
have faced the problem of desertification. The
proportion of area severely affected by
desertification is very high in the continent of
North America. As high as 27% of the total
dry areas of the continent has been affected
by desertification. The next position is
occupied by South America with 22%,
followed by Asia, Africa and Australia
respectively with 20%, 18% and 8%. The low Fig. 2.11 : Measure to resist desertification
rainfall areas of the North - Western India have been under the impact
of desertification.
The solution of the problems of desertification is now a challenging
task before the people of the world. Without international co-operation, it
will not be possible to resolve this issue. As it is linked with the process
like global warming, desertification has gradually acquired a very complicated
dimension. The problem will be more intensified, if human activities are
directed against nature. It is, therefore inportant to take steps for reducing
desertification (Fig. 2.11).

Environment and Environmental Problems

25
 2.3.3 Global Warming :
The earth has experienced a variety of changes during its 4,600
million years long history. The causes of these changes were basically
natural. But lately the changes experienced by the earth are mostly man-
made. Although the change in climate was caused by natural factors earlier,
the present change in atmosphere as well as earth's surface temperature
is ascribed to the human activities by the scientists. Termed as global
warming, this particular problem has now badly threatened the people of
the world (Fig. 2.12).
The source of temperature
for the earth's surface and
atmosphere is the solar energy.
Out of the total incoming solar
energy, 30% is reflected back by
the cloud and the surface of the
earth. The atmosphere absorbs
19% of the solar energy and the
remaining 51% is released by the
earth to the atmosphere as latent
heat. Thus the atmosphere and
the earth maintain a balance with
respect to temperature.
Fig. 2.12 : Threat of global warming Maintaining such a balance of
temperature has been made possible by the gases present in the atmosphere
in specific proportion.
It should be remembered in this connection that certain gases can
trap the energy reflected back by the earth's surface. These gases include
Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), water vapour,
etc. These gases help in increasing the atmospheric temperature by traping
the energy reflected back by the earth and therefore these are called
greenhouse gases. These gases constitute only 0.1% of the total volume
of gases in the atmosphere. These gases naturally help in maintaining a
balance in the temperature on the earth's surface and the atmosphere. But,
if some how some variation occurs in the proportion of these gases in the
atmosphere, the natural state of temperature will change. Atmospheric
temperature generally increases with the increase of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere.
Among all the environmental problems that have greatly disturbed
the people of the world, the problem of rise of temperature in the

Geography
26
atmosphere and the earth's surface as well, is the most important one.
This has now become a global problem and the question of survival
of the entire living world is connected with this. Therefore, the issue
of global warming has become a common subject matter in all kinds
of academic, administrative, political and economic discussions.
The role of Carbon-di-oxide, among all the greenhouse gases,
in global warming is the most significant. We all know that the use
of fossil fuel started increasing gradually after the industrial revolution
and just to meet the demands of certain industries cutting of trees also
increased. As a result, the proportion of Carbon-di-oxide gas in the
atmosphere started rising. In addition to human activities, volcanic
eruption also caused increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Thus during the 150 years or so there has been an increase of Carbon-
di-oxide alone in the atmosphere by 30%. Moreover, there has also
been increase in the proportion of gases like Methane, Nitrous oxide,
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC s), etc. All these gases have caused increase
in the atmospheric and earth's surface temperature by traping more and
more solar energy.
It has already been established that the average surface
temperature of the earth has increased by about 0.76 0C from the pre-
industrial revolution level. At the same time it has been estimated that
the average temperature of the
earth's surface will increase by
about 5.8 0 C. This type of
temperature increase will greatly
change the earth's environment and
threaten the very existence of lives
in the world. In view of this, most
of the countries of the world are
ready to take up necessary
programmes to control
temperature rise. The United
Nations has come forward to
provide necessary guidance to the
people of the world.
A variety of problems will be
there due to the rise of atmospheric
temperature. Among them, however,
melting of snow in the polar areas,
rise of sea level, change in the Fig. 2.13 : Future result of global warming

Environment and Environmental Problems

27
 growth and distribution of plants and animals, fall of crop output,
desertification, etc. are important. It has been estimated that a rise of
atmospheric temperature by 2-3 0C will cause melting of snow on the
north and south polar regions and rising of sea level (Fig. 2.13). Thus,
if the sea level rises by one meter from the present level, about 5 million
sq.km of coastal area will get submerged. At the same time many
populated islands, deltas, and coral islands will get submerged.
Fortunately the people of the world are aware of these problems and
the countries have agreed to take up necessary plan unitedly to curb
the problem of global warming.

S U M M A R Y
 In a broad sense, environment denotes the condition around an orgnism or a community
of organisms. Such a condition includes all necessary elements for survival.
 Four major shperes of the earth determine its environment. These are – (A) Lithosphere,
(B) Hydrosphere, (C) Atmosphere and (D) Biosphere.
 The environmental problem can be considered geographical in three different ways– (A)
Local problem, (B) Regional problem and (C) Global problem.
 The problems that have caused great loss to human beings and the biological world include
different types of pollution, desertification, landslide, soil erosion, global warming, artificial
flood, rise of sea level, etc.
 The growth of industries, urbanization, growth of vehicular traffic and nuclear explosious
are some of the major man-made factors that cause air pollutions.
 At present, around 35% of the land surface is affected by the process of desertification.
 During the 150 years or so there has been an increase of Carbon-di-oxide alone in the
atmosphere by 30%. Moreover, there has also been increase in the proportion of gases
like Methane, Nitrous oxide, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), etc. All these gases have caused
increase in the atmospheric and earth's surface temperature by traping more and more
solar energy.
 A variety of problems will be there due to the rise of atmospheric temperature. Among
them, melting of snow in the polar areas, rise of sea level, change in the growth and
distribution of plants and animals, fall of crop output, desertification, etc. are main.

Geography
28
 E X E R C I S E
1. Write in your own words the meaning of environment.
2. Mention some of the biotic and abiotic elements of environment.
3. Write the meaning of lithosphere.
4. What are the features included in the hydrosphere?
5. Write about the composition of the atmosphere.
6. Give an outline of the extent of the biosphere.
7. Discuss briefly the relation among the four major components of environment.
8. Mention the major causes of environmental change.
9. Explain the meaning of environmental problem.
10. Write geographical divisions of the environmental problems.
11. What is a local environmental problem? Give examples.
12. Give two examples of regional environmental problem.
13. Which problems are considered as global environmental problem?
14. Mention the major environmental problems of the world.
15. Give the meaning of the term pollution.
16. What is water pollution? How does it occur?
17. Write a short note on land pollution.
18. Write how air is polluted.
19. What is a desert? Give the definition of desertification.
20. Mention the causes of desertification.
21. Is it possible to control desertification?
22. What is global warming? Mention its causes.
23. What are the probable consequences of global warming?
24. Write how to control global warming.
25. Is there any environmental problem in your own locality? If yes, then explain their causes
and indicate some measures for their solution.

Environment and Environmental Problems

29
 C HAPTER -3

GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD

KEY POINTS
● Brief Introduction of the Earth
● Distribution of the Continents and Oceans
● Location and Characteristics of the Oceans
● Location and Geographical Characteristics of the Continents
● Capital, Land Area and Population of the Countries of the World

3.1 Brief Introduction of the Earth:

The earth, the only habitat of man, is very large. Its total surface area
is 510 million square km. It may be mentioned that only about 29 per cent
of the earth’s surface area, that is 149 million square km is covered by
land and the remaining 71 per cent, that is 361 million square km is covered
with water. The land portion of the earth is constituted by the continents
like Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, South America, Oceania and
Antarctica. On the other hand, the huge water portion of the earth is covered
with the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic and Southern oceans. It may be
mentioned that among the continents Asia and among the oceans the Pacific
are the largest ones in area. According to the estimates of 2015 the total
population of the world is 730 crores or 7.3 billion.
It is notable that the topographic character, climate, soil, plants,
animals, etc are different in different places on the earth. It is due to such

Geography
30
variations of different elements of the natural environment the population
distribution and the man’s ways of living are not the same in different places
on the earth. Even the socio-economic advancement of different places on
the earth greatly depends on the prevailing characteristics of the natural
environment. That is why the areas having favourable natural environment
and rich in natural resources are generally economically advanced. On the
other hand, many areas on the earth having unfavourable natural environment
and devoid of necessary natural resources are economically lagging behind.

3.2 Distribution of Continents and Oceans:

According to the Continental Drift Theory, in the early stage, that
is about 300 million years before (Permian Period of Palaeozoic Era),
the earth’s lithosphere was together as a single landmass, which was
surrounded by hydrosphere. This state of lithosphere of the earth is
known as Pangaea, and the hydrosphere surrounding the Pangaea is
known as Panthalassa. After passage of sometime a narrow and
elongated sea was formed due to fracture almost in the middle of the
Pangaea in east-west direction. It is known as Tethys sea. Formation
of this Tethys sea divided the Pangaea into two parts in north-south
direction. Its northern part is called Angaraland or Laurasia and the
southern part Gondowana Land. During the Mesozoic era, that is about
250 million years ago, due to splitting and continental drift the Laurasia
and Gondowanaland got further divided and moved towards the equator
and the west and thereby the continents of present form were created.
According to the theory of continental drift, North America, Greenland
and the landmass of Europe and Asia north of Indian sub-continent
were formed after division of the Laurasia. On the other hand, following
division of the Gondowanaland South America, Africa, Madagaskar,
India, Arabian region, Malayasia and its other islands, Australia,
Antarctica, etc were formed.
A large portion of the earth’s surface covered by the oceans and
seas including rivers, lakes, etc is known as the Hydrosphere. On the
other hand, another part of the earth’s surface formed by land slightly
above sea-level is called the Lithosphere. It may be mentioned that both
these two large hydrosphere and lithosphere of the earth are not forming
two separate clusters. It means hydrosphere and lithosphere are pen-
etrating within each other through fragmentation of both the units. Of
course, all the oceans and seas of the earth excepting the Caspian sea,

Environment and Environmental Problems

31
32
W

r
es

phe
ter

is
n

em
He

H
m

n
si p

ter
he

es
r

W
Fig. 3.1 : The Continents and the Oceans of the World.

Geography
Dead sea and Aral sea are being linked with one another. But the
lithosphere, having surrounded by water from all sides, remains divided
into four divisions. It means the first part of lithosphere is formed by the
continents of Asia, Europe and Africa; the second part is formed by the
continents of North America and South America; the third part by Australia
including a large number of islands constituting the continent of Oceania;
and the fourth part by the continent of Antarctica. On the other hand,
among the five oceans of the earth, which are all interlinked and surrounding
the continents, the Pacific is located between Asia, North America and
South America; the Atlantic is located between North America and South
America and Europe and Africa; the Indian ocean is located on the south
of Asia, east of Africa and west of Oceania; the Northern or Arctic Ocean
on the north of North America, Europe and Asia; and the Southern ocean
is on the south of South America, Africa and Oceania (Fig. 3.1). It may
be mentioned that a large proportion of the hydrosphere (57 per cent)
is confined to the southern hemisphere. On the other hand, a large portion
of the lithosphere (67 per cent) is confined to the northern hemisphere.
That is why about 90 per cent of the world’s human population lives in
the northern hemisphere.
3.3 Distribution and Characteristics of the Oceans:
It is not possible to determine the exact boundaries of all the
oceans in the earth as they are all interconnected. Even then the spatial
extent of the oceans has been roughly fixed for ease of their study.
Out of five oceans, as already mentioned, three oceans, such as the
Pacific, Atlantic and Indian, are spatially spread to both northern and
southern hemispheres. Only, the Southern ocean is located in southern
hemisphere, and the Northern ocean in the northern hemisphere (Fig.
3.1). Among all the oceans, with respect to land area or spatial extent,
the Pacific ocean is the largest and the Northern ocean is the smallest
(Table 3.1).
Although the water surface of the oceans is smooth, their bottom
topography is very rugged. The way mountains, hills, plateaus, plains,
etc. make the topography of the lithosphere rugged, in the same way
ridges, trenches, etc also turn the oceanic floor rough. The average depth
of ocean floor is 4000 meter. We know that from the line of contact
of lithosphere and hydrosphere the depth increases towards middle of
the ocean and different landforms are found. Generally, from the coast
to the middle of oceans and seas there exist Continental Shelf,

Environment and Environmental Problems

33
 Continental Slope, Deep Sea Plain, Oceanic Canyon, Oceanic Ridge and
Island and Deep Sea Trench (Fig. 3.2). In fact, the shallow part of the
oceans and seas (depth up to about 200 meter) surrounding the coasts
is called the Continental Shelf. The considerably deep part (depth up
to about 2000 meter) after the continental shelf is known as the
Continental Slope. After the continental slope there exist very deep
oceanic floor (depth up to 4000 meter), deep oceanic trench (on an
average with depth up to 8000 meter in the middle of the ocean) and
a large number of scattered ridges, islands, etc appearing above the
sea level. Among the oceanic trenches, the Mariana Trench or
Challenger Trench (with depth 11, 022 meter) of the Pacific ocean
floor is the deepest.
Continental Shelf
Continental Slope
Coast

Ocean

Fig. 3.2 : Continental Shelf (Mahidhal)

Table 3.1: Distribution of Land Area of the Oceans

Land Area Proportion to Total Land
Ocean (in million km2) Area to the Hydrosphere
(in per cent)
1. Pacific Ocean 165.2 45.8
2. Atlantic Ocean 82.4 22.8
3. Indian Ocean 73.4 20.3
4. Southern Ocean 20.3 5.6
5. Northern Ocean 14.1 3.9
Total Hydrosphere 361.0 ––

The areal extent and major characteristics of the of the oceans are
presented below.

Geography
34
 (1) Pacific Ocean : With
a land area of about165 million
km 2 the Pacific Ocean is the larg-
est ocean in the world (Table 3.1).
This ocean covers about one-third
Asia
of the earth’s surface area. In North
terms of land area it is little more America
than two times of the Atlantic
ocean. The Pacific ocean is sur- Pacific Ocean
rounded by Alaska state of the South
United States of America, eastern America
part of Siberia and the Arctic
Australia
ocean on the north; Australia, New
N
Zealand and the Southern ocean
on the south; western coasts of W E
North and South America on the S
east; and eastern coasts of Asia
and islands of Japan, Philippines, Fig. 3.3 : Pacific Ocean
etc on the west (Fig. 3.3). The
average depth of the Pacific ocean is about 5000
meter. The Pacific ocean has at least 20,000
number of small and big oceanic islands.
Among these islands, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines,
North Atlantic
New Zealand, Indonesia, Hawaii, etc are worth Europe
America
mentioning. Again, the oceanic trenches like Ocean
the deepest Mariana trench, Aleutian, Kurile,
Philippine, Tonga, Peru-Chile, etc are impor- N
tant. Some of the major seas under the Pacific W E
ocean include Bering sea, Okhotsk sea, Japan S Africa
sea, South China sea, Philippine sea, Alaska
sea, etc.
(2) Atlantic Ocean : With an area of
South
about 82 million km 2 the Atlantic ocean is the
America
second largest ocean in the world (Table 3.1).
Atlantic
The Atlantic ocean covers about one-sixth the
Ocean
earth’s surface area and it is about half of the
Pacific ocean. The shape of the Atlantic ocean
is like that of English letter ‘S’. It is surrounded
by Greenland and the Arctic ocean on the north;
the Southern ocean on the south; the continents Fig. 3.4 : Atlantic Ocean

Environment and Environmental Problems

35
 of Europe and Africa on the east; and the contents of North America
and South America on the west (Fig. 3.4). The average depth of the
Atlantic ocean is about 3000 meter. It may be mentioned that there is
a ridge named Mid-Atlantic Ridge almost in the middle of the Atlantic
ocean in north-south direction. Its northern part is called Dolphin Rise
and the southern part Challenger Rise.
The Atlantic ocean has innumerable small and big ocean islands.
Among them, Iceland, Newfoundland, British Isles, West Indies, Canary,
Falkland, Bermuda, etc are worth mentioning. Some of its important oceanic
trenches include Puerto Rico, Romanche and South Sandwich. Some of the
major seas under the Atlantic ocean are Mediterranean sea, Baltic sea,
Caribean sea, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador sea, Hudson sea, etc.
(3) Indian Ocean : With an area of about 73 million km 2 the
Indian ocean is the third largest ocean in the world (Table 3.1). Its areal
extent is slightly less than half of the area of the Pacific ocean. The
Indian ocean is bounded on the north by Indian sub-continent and South-
East Asia; on the south by the Southern ocean; on the east by Australia
and the islands of
South-East Asia; and
on the west by Africa
and Madagascar (Fig.
3.5). The average
depth of the Indian
ocean is about 4000
meter. It has a few oce-
anic trenches like
Sunda, Socotra-
Chagos, Seychelles,
Madagascar, Crozet,
etc. Some of the im-
portant seas under the
Fig. 3.5 : Indian Ocean Indian ocean include
Arabian sea, Persian Gulf, Bay of Bengal, Andaman sea, Red sea, etc.
On the other hand, some of the important oceanic islands in the Indian
ocean are Sri Lanka, Andaman and Nicobar islands, Indonesia, Maldives,
Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar, etc.
(4) Southern Ocean : With an area of about 20 million km2 the
Southern ocean is the fourth largest ocean in the world. It surrounds the

Geography
36
content of Antarc- Arctic Ocean
tica. Roughly the
North Europe
Southern ocean lies America Asia
to the south of 400
Arlantic Pacific
south latitude. Actu- Ocean Africa Ocean
ally, it is an extension Ocenia
South
Indian
of the Pacific ocean, Pacific America
Ocean
Atlantic ocean and Ocean
Australia
Indian ocean (Fig.
3.5). Due to its loca-
tion in the south polar Southern Ocean
region the Southern
ocean remains cov- Fig. 3.6 : Southern Ocean
ered with ice in most
part of the year. Rusia Rusia
(5) Arctic Ocean : With an area of
about 14 million km2 the Arctic ocean is the À˘G
ÙˬœÚ
Â≈√˝◊√ÀάÚ
smallest ocean in the world. Its area is about
one-fifth of the Indian ocean. As the Arctic North Pole
ocean surrounds the north pole, its shape is
circular. Infact, the northern part of Asia, Arctic Ocean

Europe and North America surround the Greenland

Alaska
Arctic ocean (Fig. 3.6). Its average depth Greenland
is about 3500 meter. Due to its location in Sea
the north polar region, the Arctic ocean
Canada
remains covered with thick ice in most part
of the year. Fig. 3.7 : Arctic Ocean

3.4 Location and Geographical Characteristics of the

Continents:
About 67 per cent of the earth’s lithosphere is confined to the
northern hemisphere. Of the 7 continents of the world, excluding South
America’s major portion, Africa’s southern part, Oceania and Antarctica,
the remaining major portion is located in the northern hemisphere. It is
notable that the continents of North America, Europe and Asia are
completely within the northern hemisphere. On the other hand, in east-
west direction, North America and South America are located in the
western hemisphere and the remaining major portion in the eastern
hemisphere. Although the international boundaries are fixed among the
countries, the boundaries between the continents are basically determined

Environment and Environmental Problems

37
 through some physical elements like rivers, seas, oceans, etc. For instance,
the boundary between the continents of Europe and Africa is determined by
the Mediterranean sea, and between Asia and Africa by the Red sea. On
the other hand, the boundary between Europe and Asia is determined physically
by the Ural mountain range. Again, the boundary between North America
and South America is formed by the Panama Canal.
The presence of hills and mountains, plateaus, plains, coastal plains,
etc has kept the topography of the lithosphere highly rugged. Of course,
the topography is not same in all parts of the continents. Besides, the
climate also does not remain the same in different places on the earth.
For instance, the climate of the equatorial and tropical region is hot and
wet; mid-latitude region temperate; and polar region extremely cold. Due
to such a variation of climatic condition the vegetation character also differs.
For example, it is evergreen forest in the equatorial region; short grass
and thorny vegetation in the hot and dry desert region; mosses, lichens
and fern-type vegetation in the polar region.
Depending on differences in climate, soil and topography the agri-
cultural practices and crop production also vary from one area to another.
Accordingly, the areas with favourable physical conditions and having
economic advancement in agriculture, industry, trade, transport, etc witness
a very high density of population. Hence, the population density is very
low in the extremely hot and cold regions.
Table 3.2 : Distribution of Areas of Continents.
Continents Areas Areas of Continents in
(in Million sq. Km) proportion to total lithosphere
1. Asia 44.6 29.9
2. Europe 10.9 7.3
3. Africa 30.1 20.2
4. North America 24.3 16.3
5. South America 17.8 11.9
6. Oceania 8.1 5.4
7. Antarctica 13.2 8.8
Total lithosphere 149.0 –
Out of altogether seven continents of the world the snow covered
continent of Antarctica does not have any permanent human settlement.
Hence, here the geographical location and some physical characteristics
relating to topography of the remaining six continents are presented below.

Geography
38
 (1) The Continent of Asia : Asia is the largest continent in the
world. With a land area of 44.6 million km2 the continent of Asia covers
about 30 per cent of the earth’s land area (Table 3.2). The continent

Environment and Environmental Problems

39
 of Asia is mainly located in the northern hemisphere. It lies between
78 0 north latitude in the north to 10 north latitude in the south, and 250
east longitude in the west to 170 0 west longitude in the east. It may
be mentioned that the islands located in the Pacific ocean, such as Japan,
Taiwan, Philippine, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, etc and that located in the
Indian ocean, such as Andaman and Nicobar, Sri Lanka, Lakshadweep,
Maldives, Bahrain, etc are all in Asia. The continent of Asia is surrounded
by the Arctic ocean on the north; the Indian ocean on the south; the
Bering strait and the Pacific ocean on the east; and the Red sea, Suez
canal, Mediterranean sea, Caucasus mountain, Caspian sea, Ural river
and Ural mountain range on the west (Fig. 3.8). As per 2014 estimates
the population of Asia is 430 crores, which constitutes about three-fifth
of the world’s population. There are 51 countries in Asia.
The continent of Asia is covered with high mountain ranges,
plateaus, river valleys, low-lands, coastal plains, islands, deserts, etc.
Its central part is full of mountains and plateaus. Among the mountain
ranges, the north-south Ural mountain ranges forming the western
boundary of the continent, the world’s highest the east-west running
Himalayan mountain ranges and the offshoots in the middle, and the
Karakoram ranges, Kunlun ranges, Altain ranges, Tienshan ranges, Altai
mountain, Aravalli ranges, etc are worth mentioning. The world’s highest
peak Everest (8,848 meter) belonging to the Himalayan mountain system
and the second highest peak Godwin Austin or Mount K2 (8,611 meter)
belonging to the Karakoram mountain system are both located in the
content of Asia. On the other hand, among the plateaus, the Tibetan
plateau, the world’s highest Pamir plateau, Siberian plateau, Mongolian
plateau, Deccan plateau, Arabian plateau, Iranian plateau, etc are
important.
Many large rivers being originated from such highland region of
mountains, hills and plateaus flow to the oceans and seas in north, south
and east direction and have formed a number of fertile plains and deltas.
Among the worth mentioning rivers, the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra
are flowing almost in the south-central part of the continent; Yenisei, Ob
and Lena rivers in the northern part; Amur, Hwang Ho, Yangtze Kiang
and Sikiang rivers in the eastern part; and Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi,
Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Barak, Menam, Irawati and Mekong rivers
in the south and south-east. There are many small and large lakes in
Asia. Among the lakes, Balkhas, Baikal, Chilka, Sambar, Dal, Pulikat,
Kolleru, Loktak, etc are worth mentioning. Besides, Gobi, Thar and
Arabian deserts are also located in the continent of Asia.

Geography
40
 (2) The Continent of Europe : The continent of Europe is situated
along the north-western boundary of Asia. It is located completely in the
northern hemisphere. It extends from 360 north latitude in the south to 710

Fig. 3.9 : The Continent of Europe

EUROPE
200 400 600
Kilometres
0

Environment and Environmental Problems

41
 north latitude in the north, and from 100 west longitude in the west to 650
east longitude in the east. Its geographical area is 10.9 million km2, which
constitutes 7.3 per cent of the earth’s land area and three times the land
area of India (Table 3.2).
It may be mentioned that the islands like British islands, Ireland, Iceland
and Shetland in the Atlantic ocean; Crete, Sicily, Malta, Sardinia, Corsica
and Balearic islands in the Mediterranean sea; and Gotland, Aland, Novaya,
Zemlya, Svalbard and Greenland are in the Arctic ocean are all under the
continent of Europe. Europe is surrounded by the Arctic ocean on the north;
the Mediterranean sea, Caspian sea and Black sea on the south; the continent
of Asia on the east; and the Atlantic ocean on the west. It means that the
continent of Europe is surrounded by seas and oceans from three sides
(Fig. 3.9). Physically, the continent of Europe is separated from Asia by
the Ural mountain range and the Ural river. According to the estimates of
2014, the population of Europe is 74 crores, which constitutes about 10.4
per cent of the world’s total population. There are 44 countries in Europe.
The physiographic structure of Europe is very complex and diverse.
In respect of physiography Europe can be broadly divided into two parts
– northern part and southern part. The northern part which stretches
from the coastal France on the west to the Ural mountain ranges on
the east is almost a plain land. But, the southern part (from Spain to
the Black sea) having covered with hills, mountains and plateaus is highly
rugged. Among the mountain ranges of the southern Europe, the Alps,
Pyrenees, Carpethian and Caucasus are worth mentioning. The ‘Mount
Albrus’ peak (5,633 meter) of the Caucasus mountain range is the highest
place of Europe. On the other hand, the highest peak of the Alps is
‘Mount Blanc’ (4,807 meter). Europe is full of rivers, lakes, etc. Among
the rivers, Elbro of Spain; Rhone and Seine of France; Rhine and Elbe
of Germany; Oder and Vistula of Poland; Danube of Austria, Hungary
and Romania; Dnieper of Balarus and Ukraine; Po of Italy; Thames of
the Great Britain; Don, Volga and Ural of Russia, etc are worth
mentioning. Some of the important lakes of Europe are Onega, Ladoga,
Sudskowe, Venarn, etc.
(3) The Continent of Africa : Africa is the second largest
continent in the world. With an area of slightly more than 30 million
km2 the continent of Africa covers about 20 per cent of the world’s
total land area (Table 3.2). The equator which passes almost through
middle of continent divides it into two parts. Africa is located between
370 north latitude in the north to 340south latitude in the south, and 510

Geography
42
 AFRICA
0 320 640

Kilometres

Fig. 3.10 : The Continent of Africa

Environment and Environmental Problems

43
 east longitude in the east to 170 west longitude in the west. It is
surrounded by the Mediterranean sea on the north; the Southern ocean
on the south; the Indian ocean on the east; and the Atlantic ocean on
the west (Fig. 3.10). With an area of 2.4 million km2 algeria is the largest
country of the continent. As per estimates of 2014, the population of
Africa is 11 crores. There are 53 countries in Africa.
Excluding the narrow coastal plains, the major part of the
continent is a large plateau. There is no high mountain range in
Africa. Of course, the small patches of highlands scattered through-
out the continent have made its topography rugged. The Kilimanzaro
peak (5,895 meter) located on the east is the highest place of the
continent. Among the highlands of Africa, the Atlas mountain of
northern fringe, the Ethiopian highland of north-eastern fringe, the
Adamawa highland of western fringe, Drakensberg highland of South
Africa, etc are worth mentioning. The continent is full of rivers and
lakes. Apart from the world’s longest river Nile, its other main rivers
include Congo (Zaire), Niger, Zambezi, Orange, Limpopo, Volta,
Senegal, Chive Ogu, Lurio, Luangwa, Kaledon, etc. Among the
lakes, Victoria, Albert, Tanganyka, Chad, Volta, Nyasa, Cabora
Bassa, Malawi, Turkana, Kivu, Kochow, Abbe, etc are worth
mentioning. Besides the world’s largest Sahara desert, the Kalahari
and Namibia deserts are also located in Africa.
(4) The Continent of North America : North America is the
world’s third largest continent. Its land area is 24.3 million km2, which
constitutes 16.3 per cent of the world’s land area (Table 3.2). As this
continent is located on the north of South America and also in the northern
hemisphere, it is called North America. This continent extends from 70 north
latitude on the south to 830 north latitude on the north, and from 500 west
longitude on the east to 1680 west longitude on the west. The continent
of North America is surrounded by the Northern ocean on the north; South
America, Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific ocean on the south; the Atlantic
ocean on the east; and the Bering sea, Bering strait and the Pacific ocean
on the west (Fig. 3.11). Along with Canada, United States of America and
Mexico; Guatemala, Costarica, Panama, etc of the central America; and
Cuba, Jamaica, Bahama, Dominican Republic, etc of the Carribean islands
there are altogether 23 countries in North America. The world’s second
largest country Canada is the largest country in North America. As per 2014
estimates the total population of North America is 565 million.
The physiographic character of North America is highly diverse.
Its highest place is McKinley peak (6,194 meter) and lowest place is
Geography
44
 NORTH AMERICA
0 400 800 1200
Kilometres

Fig. 3.11 : The Continent of North America

Environment and Environmental Problems

45
 Death Valley (86 meter below sea level). The western and eastern parts
of the continent are hilly and mountainous in north-south direction. On
the other hand, the remaining part of the continent is covered with high
and low land plains. On the basis of physiographic character North
America can be mainly divided into four divisions– (1) Rocky moun-
tainous region, (2) Great upland plain region, (3) Appalachian Highland
region, and (4) Coastal lowland plains. The Rocky mountainous region
consisting of the lofty young folded mountain ranges is located in the
western part of North America from Alaska to Mexico in north-south
direction. Besides, the coastal west is characterized by the mountain
ranges like Cascade, Sierra Nevada and Coast-range, and the eastern
part extending from Newfoundland in the north to Florida in the south
being characterized by hills and mountains, narrow valleys, fragmented
plateaus, etc forms the rugged Appalachian highlands. The Alleghany and
Blue Ridge mountains are located in the southern part of this region.
There is a wide plain land of the Atlantic coast located on the east of
Appalachian highlands stretching from Nova Scotia in the north to
Panama in the south. Along the western coast of the continent there is
a narrow California coastal plain. Besides, there are innumerable small
and large islands in the north, south-east and western parts of the
continent.
There are many rivers and lakes in North America. Among the rivers,
Missouri, Missisippi, Yukon, Mackenzie, Riogrande, Red, Arkansas, Colo-
rado, Colombia, Snake, Ohio, Tennessee, Hudson, St. Lawrence, etc are
worth mentioning. On the other hand, the major lakes of the continent include
Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, Ontario, Great Bear, Great Slave, Winnipeg
and Great Salt. There is a desert-like area in the south-western part of
the continent called Colorado.
(5) The Continent of South America : The continent located
just on the south of North America is South America. It is located between
120 north latitude on the north to 550 south latitude on the south and
350 west longitude on the east to 810 west longitude on the west. The
shape of this continent is like a reversed triangle. It means its northern
part very wide and southern part is very narrow. The geographical area
of the continent is about 18 million km 2, which is 11.9 per cent of the
world’s land area (Table 3.2). The continent of South America is
surrounded by North America and Carribean sea on the north; the Southern
ocean on the south; the Atlantic ocean on the east; and the Pacific ocean
on the west. With Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia,
Argentina, Chile, etc there are altogether 12 countries in South America.
Geography
46
 SOUTH
AMERICA
0 400 800 1200
Kilometres

Fig. 3.12 : The Continent of South America

Environment and Environmental Problems

47
 The world’s fifth largest country Brazil is the largest country of South
America (Fig. 3.12). According to 2014 estimates, the total population
of South America is 407 million.
The physiographic character of South America is highly diverse.
It contains almost all the landforms including high mountains, riverine
plains, plateaus, coastal plains, islands, deserts, etc. The western part
of South America is covered the high Andes folded mountain ranges in
north-south direction from Panama Canal to Cape of Horn. It is worth
mentioning that with a length of about 8,000 km it is the longest mountain
system in the world. In respect of altitude also the position of Andes
is just next to the Himalayas. Its highest peak is Acancagua (7,020
meter).The great Brazilian plateau is located in the central-eastern part
of the continent. On the other hand, Ecuador plateau and Parana-
Patagonia plateau are located respectively in the northern and southern
fringe areas of the Andes mountain system. Both the Pacific and Atlantic
coastal plains of South America are narrow. Among the rivers of the
continent, Orinico, Amazan, Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay, etc are worth
mentioning. These rivers have created very large plains covering most
part of the continent. It may be mentioned that the world’s highest lake
‘Titicaca’ is also located in this continent. The Atacama hot desert and
Patagonia temperate desert are located in the extremely rainless dry parts
of the Andes mountain ranges.
(6) The Continent of Oceania : The continent of Oceania is
formed by the great island of Australia and many other small and large islands
located in the south-west Pacific ocean including New Zealand, Tasmania,
New Guinea, etc. Located on the south of Asia this continent is completely
a part of southern hemisphere. It roughly extends from 00 equator on the
north to 480 south latitude on the south, and 1800 longitude on the east
to 1130 east longitude on the west. The land area of this continent is about
8 million km2, which constitutes 5.4 per cent of the world’s total land area
(Table 3.2). Australia is the largest country of this smallest continent, and
it is the sixth largest country of the world. The continent of Oceania is
surrounded by the islands of Java, Sumatra, Celebes, etc of the South-
East Asia and the Pacific ocean on the north; the Southern ocean on the
south; the Pacific ocean on the east; and the Indian ocean on the west
(Fig. 3.12). Along with Australia and New Zealand the continent of Oceania
altogether has 14 countries. As per 2014 estimates, Oceania has about 38
million population.
Australia, the main land of Oceania, is an ancient plateau. It has narrow

Geography
48
coastal plains all around. The eastern part of Australia is a highland region
formed by the Great Dividing Range and Snowy mountain. This region is
known as the Australian Alps. The Murray and Darling rivers have created

Fig. 3.13 : The Continent of Oceania

OCEANIA
1200
800
Kilometres
400
0

Environment and Environmental Problems

49
 a great plain in the south-eastern part of Australia. Besides these two major
rivers, the other important rivers of Australia are Baliando, Fitzroy, Flinders,
Victoria, Sowan, etc. Among the lakes, Eyre, Barlee, Carnezie, Mackay,
Carey, etc are worth mentioning. The western part of Australia is covered
with a wide desert. Among the deserts of Australia, the Great Victoria, Great
Sandy, Tanamy, Simpson, Gibson, Little Sandy, Tirarie, Pedirka, etc are
important.

3.5 Countries of the World:

There are altogether 197 countries in the world. Among these, in
terms of land area Russia is the largest country and Vatican city the
smallest country in the world. On the other hand, with respect to
population size, China is the most populous country and Vatican city
the least populous country in the world. Again, out of all countries of
the world, Asia has 51 countries, Europe 44, Africa 53, North America
23, South America 12 and Oceania 14. The list of countries under each
continent is furnished below. In this list the capital, land area and
population of each country is included.

Table 3.3: Capital, Population and Area of the Countries of the World
(A) Capital, Population and Area of the Countries of the continent of Asia

Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)
1. Afghanistan Kabul 3,22,47,000 652,090
2. Armenia Yerevan 30,17,106 29,800
3. Azerbaijan Baku 96,51,000 86,600
4. Bahrain Manama 14,12,299 694
5. Bangladesh Dhaka 16,04,11,000 1,43,998
6. Bhutan Thimphu 7,57,000 47,000
7. Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan 4,13,000 5,765
8. Cambodia Phnom Penh 1,54,17,100 1,81,035
9. China Beijing 137,19,20,000 95,96,961
10. Cyprus Nicosia 11,53,000 3,355

Geography
50
 Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)
11. Georgia Tbilisi 38,04,000 69,700
12. India New Delhi 131,40,97,616 32,87,263
13. Indonesia Jakarta 255741973 1904569
14. Iran Tehran 7,84,83,446 1648195
15. Iraq Baghdad 3,70,56,000 4,38,317
16. Israel Jerusalem 83,75,384 22,145
17. Japan Tokyo 12,68,66,820 3,77,873
18. Jordan Amman 81,18,000 89,342
19. Kazakhstan Astana 1,75,44,274 27,24,900
20. Korea, North Pyongyang 2,49,83,000 1,20,538
21. Korea, South Seoul 5,07,13,867 99,538
22. Kuwait Kuwait City 38,37,700 17,818
23. Kyrgyzstan Bishkek 59,51,000 1,99,900
24. Laos Vientiane 69,03,049 2,36,800
25. Lebanon Beirut 61,85,000 10,400
26. Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 3,07,88,840 3,29,847
27. Maldives Malé 3,46,946 298
28. Mongolia Ulaanbaatar 30,29,335 15,64,116
29. Myanmar (Burma) Yangon 5,21,47,000 6,76,578
30. Nagorno-Karabakh Khankendi 1,45,000 4,400
31. Nepal Kathmandu 2,80,39,000 1,47,181
32. Oman Muscat 42,01,000 3,09,500
33. Pakistan Islamabad 19,90,47,300 7,96,095
34. Philippines Manila 10,29,65,300 3,00,000
35. Qatar Doha 23,94,524 11,000
36. Russia Moscow (Europe) 14,43,02,000 1,70,98,242
37. Saudi Arabia Riyadh 3,15,65,109 21,49,690

Environment and Environmental Problems

51
 Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)
38. Singapore Singapore 55,41,121 699
39. South Ossetia Tskhinvali 70,000 3,900
40. Sri Lanka Colombo 2,08,68,800 65,610
41. Syria Damascus 1,70,65,000 1,85,180
42. Taiwan (Republic of China) Taipei 2,34,68,000 35,980
43. Tajikistan Dushanbe 84,52,153 1,43,100
44. Thailand Bangkok 6,51,21,250 5,13,115
45. Turkish Republic of Nicosia 2,64,172 3,355
Northern Cyprus
46. Turkmenistan Ashgabat 53,73,000 4,88,100
47. Uzbekistan Tashkent 3,12,90,791 4,47,400
48. Vietnam Hanoi 9,17,14,080 3,31,689
49. Yemen Sanaá 2,67,37,000 5,27,968
50. United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi 95,77,000 83,600
51. East Timor Dili 11,71,000 14,874

(B) Capital, Population and Area of the Countries of the continent of Europe :
Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)
1. Albania Tirana 28,92,000 28,748
2. Andorra Andorra la Vella 78,000 468
3. Austria Vienna 86,15,955 83,854
4. Belarus Minsk 95,24,247 2,07,600
5. Belgium Brussels 1,12,11,064 30,528
6. Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo 36,50,114 51,197
7. Bulgaria Sofia 71,81,000 1,10,912
8. Croatia Zagreb 44,25,000 56,538

Geography
52
 Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)

9. Czech Republic Prague 1,05,51,227 78,866

10. Denmark Copenhagen 56,76,025 43,094
11. Estonia Tallinn 13,40,504 45,100
12. Finland Helsinki 54,76,031 3,38,145
13. France Paris 6,43,46,720 5,51,500
14. Germany Berlin 8,11,32,000 3,57,022
15. Greece Athens 1,15,20,785 1,31,957
16. Hungary Budapest 1,08,35,030 93,032
17. Iceland Reykjavík 3,30,828 1,03,000
18. Ireland Dublin 46,30,308 70,273
19. Italy Rome 6,24,66,780 3,01,318
20. Latvia Riga 21,78,454 64,600
21. Liechtenstein Vaduz 37,570 160
22. Lithuania Vilnius 32,41,000 65,300
23. Luxembourg Luxembourg City 5,69,202 2,586
24. Macedonia Skopje 20,70,100 25,713
25. Malta Valletta 431486 316
26. Moldova Chisinau 41,09,000 33,851
27. Monaco Monaco 35,253 2
28. Montenegro Podgorica 6,42,421 14,026
29. Netherlands Amsterdam 1,69,42,373 41,528
30. Norway Oslo 51,94,411 3,85,155
31. Poland Warsaw 3,84,78,001 3,12,685
32. Portugal Lisbon 1,03,49,000 91,982
33. Romania Bucharest 2,18,38,000 2,38,391
34. San Marino San Marino 33,000 61
35. Serbia Belgrade 73,97,190 88,361

Environment and Environmental Problems

53
 Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)
36. Slovakia Bratislava 54,24,051 49,033
37. Slovenia Ljubljana 20,64,000 20,256
38. Spain Madrid 4,63,68,000 5,05,992
39. Sweden Stockholm 98,04,792 4,49,964
40. Switzerland Bern 82,92,451 41,284
41. Turkey Ankara 7,82,15,000 7,83,562
42. Ukraine Kyiv 4,58,28,000 6,03,700
43. United Kingdom London 6,50,92,000 2,42,900
44. Vatican City Vatican City 800 0.44

(C) Capital, Population and Area of the Countries of the continent of Africa :

Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)
1. Algeria Algiers 3,99,48,000 23,81,741
2. Angola Luanda 15,941,390 12,46,700
3. Benin Cotonou 1,05,83,000 1,12,622
4. Botswana Gaborone 21,39,000 5,81,730
5. Burkina Faso Ouagadougou 1,54,50,000 2,74,000
6. Burundi Bujumbura 97,42,000 27,834
7. Cameroon Yaoundé 2,37,39,000 4,75,442
8. Cape Verde Praia 5,14,000 4,033
9. Central African Republic Bangui 55,51,900 6,22,984
10. Chad N'Djamena 1,17,07,000 12,84,000
11. Comoros Moroni 797,900 2,235
12. Congo, Democratic
Republic of the Kinshasa 673,40,200 23,44,858
13. Congo, Republic of the Brazzaville 3,798,900 3,42,000
14. Djibouti Djibouti City 8,79.000 23,200

Geography
54
 Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)

15. Egypt Cairo 8,90,74,000 9,97,677

16. Equatorial Guinea Malabo 6,93,000 28,051
17. Eritrea Asmara 52,00,000 1,17,600
18. Ethiopia Addis Ababa 9,81,48,700 11,04,300
19. Gabon Libreville 17,51,000 2,67,668
20. Gambia Banjul 19,51,000 11,295
21. Ghana Accra 2,76,72,000 2,38,533
22. Guinea Conakry 94,02,098 2,45,857
23. Guinea-Bissau Bissau 17,88,000 36,125
24. Ivory Coast Abidjan 1,81,53,870 322,463
25. Kenya Nairobi 4,43,06,000 5,80,367
26. Lesotho Maseru 19,24,381 30,355
27. Liberia Monrovia 45,03,000 1,11,369
28. Libya Tripoli 63,17,000 17,59,540
29. Madagascar Antananarivo 2,30,47,400 5,87,041
30. Malawi Lilongwe 1,51,74,000 1,18,484
31. Mali Bamako 1,67,49,000 12,40,192
32. Mauritania Nouakchott 36,41,000 10,25,520
33. Mauritius Port Louis 12,62,660 2,040
34. Morocco Rabat 3,41,21,000 4,46,550
35. Mozambique Maputo 2,57,36,000 8,01,590
36. Namibia Windhoek 24,82,100 8,24,292
37. Niger Niamey 1,58,84,462 12,67,000
38. Nigeria Abuja 18,18,39,400 9,23,768
39. Rwanda Kigali 1,13,31,300 26,338
40. Senegal Dakar 1,46,90,400 1,96,722
41. Seychelles Victoria 92,833 455
42. Sierra Leone Freetown 65,02,960 71,740

Environment and Environmental Problems

55
 Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)

43. Somalia Mogadishu 1,11,23,000 6,37,657

44. South Africa Bloemfontein 5,50,41,000 12,21,037
45. Sudan Khartoum 4,38,83,000 25,05,813
46. Swaziland Lobamba 12,86,000 17,364
47. Tanzania Dar es Salaam 5,22,91,000 9,45,087
48. Togo Lomé 72,31,000 56,785
49. Tunisia Tunis 1,10,26,000 1,63,610
50. Uganda Kampala 3,61,41,000 2,41,038
51. Zambia Lusaka 1,44,73,900 7,52,618
52. Zimbabwe Harare 1,73,54,000 3,90,757
53. South Sudan Juba 1,13,00,000 6,19,745

(D) Capital, Population and Area of the Countries of the continent of North America :
Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)
1. Antigua and Barbuda St. John's 90,000 442
2. Bahamas Nassau 3,77,000 13,878
3. Barbados Bridgetown 2,78,000 430
4. Belize Belmopan 3,68,000 22,966
5. Canada Ottawa 3,58,33,000 99,70,610
6. Costa Rica San José 48,32,000 51,100
7. Cuba Havana 1,11,39,000 1,10,861
8. Dominica Roseau 78,000 751
9. Dominican Republic Santo Domingo 1,05,08,000 48,671
10. El Salvador San Salvador 68,66,000 21,041
11. Grenada St. George's 1,11,000 344
12. Guatemala Guatemala City 1,41,83,752 1,08,889
13. Haiti Port-au-Prince 1,09,24,000 27,750

Geography
56
 Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)

14. Honduras Tegucigalpa 83,40,000 1,12,088

15. Jamaica Kingston 27,27,000 10,991
16. Mexico Mexico City 12,70,17,000 19,58,201
17. Nicaragua Managua 62,62,000 1,30,000
18. Panama Panama City 39,80,000 75,517
19. Saint Kitts and Nevis Basseterre 42,696 261
20. Saint Lucia Castries 1,75,000 539
21. Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines Kingstown 1,20,000 388
22. Trinidad and Tobago Port of Spain 13,51,000 5,130
23. United States Washington, D.C. 32,12,34,172 96,29,091

(E) Capital, Population and Area of the Countries of the continent of South America :
Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)

1. Argentina Buenos Aires 4,24,26,000 27,80,400

2. Bolivia La Paz 1,04,75,500 10,98,581
3. Brazil Brasília 20,45,19,398 85,14,877
4. Chile Santiago 1,80,25,000 7,56,096
5. Colombia Bogotá 4,82,18,000 11,38,914
6. Ecuador Quito 1,52,79,000 2,83,561
7. Guyana Georgetown 753,000 2,14,969
8. Paraguay Asunción 70,20,000 4,06,752
9. Peru Lima 3,11,51,643 12,85,216
10. Uruguay Montevideo 35,62,000 1,75,016
11. Venezuela Caracas 3,06,20,000 9,12,050
12. Suriname Paramaribo 5,76,000 1,63,820

Environment and Environmental Problems

57
 (F) Capital, Population and Area of the Countries of the continent of Oceania :
Population Area
Country Name Capital (as per 2015 (in sq km)
estimates)

1. Australia Canberra 2,38,88,000 77,41,220

2. Fiji Suva 867,000 18,274
3. Kiribati South Tarawa 1,13,400 726
4. Marshall Islands Majuro 81,000 181
5. Micronesia,
Federated States of Palikir 110,487 702
6. Nauru Yaren District 13,635 21
7. New Zealand Wellington 45,98,066 2,70,534
8. Palau Melekeok 19,949 459
9. Papua New Guinea Port Moresby 77,44,600 4,62,840
10. Samoa Apia 1,94,210 2,831
11. Solomon Islands Honiara 6,41,900 28,896
12. Tuvalu Funafuti 11,800 26
13. Vanuatu Port Vila 2,77,500 12,189
14. Tonga Nuku'alofa 103,300 747

S U M M A R Y
 The total surface area of the earth is 510 million km2. Its 29 per cent is covered by
land (Lithosphere) and 71 per cent by water (Hydrosphere)
 The lithosphere of the earth is formed by the continents like Asia, Europe. Africa, North
America, South America, Oceania and Antarctica. Among these Asia is the largest continent.
The continent of Antarctica does not have any permanent human settlement.
 The hydrosphere of the earth is formed by the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic and Southern
oceans. Among these the Pacific Ocean is the largest.
 According to the estimates of 2015 the total population of the world is 730 crores.
 The ocean floor is rugged. The floor of the oceans has landforms like ridge, canyon,

Geography
58
 oceanic hill, trench, etc. The average depth of the oceans is about 4,000 meter. The Mariana
Trench or Challenger Trench with depth 11,022 meter located in the Pacific Ocean floor
is the deepest trench in the world.
 The surface of the lithosphere is also made rugged by the hills and mountains, plateaus,
plains, coastal plains, etc. The highest mountain range of the world is the Himalayas. It
is located in Asia. The highest peak of this mountain range is the Everest and its height
is 8,848 meter.
 There are altogether 197 countries in the world. Among these countries, in terms of land
area, Russia is the largest and Vatican City the smallest. In respect of population, China
is the largest and Vatican City the smallest.

E X E R C I S E
1. Write in brief about the earth’s lithosphere and hydrosphere.
2. How was the earth in the early days according to the Continental Drift Theory?
3. Write briefly about the topography of the ocean floor.
4. Write briefly about the distribution of oceans and continents.
5. Write in short about the landforms present on the earth’s land surface.
6. Briefly discuss the physical characteristics of Asia.
7. Give your answer with reasons:
(a) Why do 90 per cent of the world’s total population concentrate in the northern hemi-
sphere?
(b) What is the reason behind lack of permanent human settlement in Antarctica?

8. Give short answer to the following questions:

(a) Which has created a natural boundary between Asia and Europe?
(b) Which is the longest mountain range of the world and where it is located?
(c) In terms of land area which are the largest and smallest countries of the world?
(d) Which country of the world is spread to two continents?
(e) In terms of population which are the largest and smallest countries of the world?
(f) What is the name of the major mountain range of North America? In which part of the
continent is it located?
(g) Which is the world’s largest desert and where is it located?
(h) Write the names of two northerly and two easterly rivers of Asia.

Environment and Environmental Problems

59
 (i) Write the names of one each of major mountain range, river and desert of Australia.
(j) Write the names of three countries of Europe located in the Mediterranean region.
9. Write short notes:
(a) Pangaea (b) Arctic Ocean
(c) The Continent of Oceania (d) The rivers of Asia
(e) The lakes of Africa (f) The rivers of Europe
(g) The Appalachian Highland Region (h) The lakes of North America
10. Write the differences between:
(a) Continental shelf and Continental slope
(b) Everest Peak and Godwin Austin Peak
(c) The Continent of Oceania and the Continent of Antarctica
(d) Gobi desert and Atacama desert
11. Choose the correct answer:
(a) Which is the world’s second largest ocean?
(1) Pacific Ocean (2) Indian Ocean
(3) Atlantic Ocean (4) Southern Ocean
(b) Which is smallest continent of the world?
(1) North America (2) Europe (3) Antarctica (4) Oceania
(c) In which ocean Falkland island is located?
(1) Atlantic Ocean (2) Arctic Ocean
(3) Pacific Ocean (4) Indian Ocean
(d) Which sea has separated the continents of Asia and Africa?
(1) Mediterranean Sea (2) Red Sea
(3) Caspian Sea (4) Arabian Sea
(e) What has naturally separated Asia from Europe?
(1) Ural mountain range (2) Caucasus mountain
(3) Caspian Sea (4) Volga river
(f) In which continent is Ecuador located?
(1) North America (2) South America
(3) Africa (4) Asia
(g) What is the capital of Brazil?
(1) Rio de Janeiro (2) Sao Paulo
(3) Brasilia (4) Lima

Geography
60
 C HAPTER -4

GEOGRAPHY OF ASSAM
KEY POINTS
● Population and Settlements of Assam
● Ethnic and Linguestic diversity
● Transport System of Assam
● Resources of Assam : Types and Characteristics
● Crisis of Natural Resources
● Economy of Assam : Agriculture and Industries
● Problem and Prospect of Economic Development of Assam

4.1. Population and Settlement:

Assam is one of the important states of North-East India. Assam is
bounded by seven Indian states and two foreign countries. Arunachal Pradesh
state and foreign country Bhutan are on its north, Mizoram and Meghalaya
on its south, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Manipur on its east and
West Bengal, Tripura and foreign country Bangladesh on its west. It is
important to note that Assam is linked with the state of West Bengal as
well as the Indian landmass through a 50 km narrow land corridor on the
west. In other words, the entire north-eastern region is connected with India
through the narrow landmass of Assam and so, Assam is called the gateway
of North-East India.
Assam extends from 24009' N to 27058' N latitudes and 89042' E
to 96001' E langitudes (Fig. 4.1). It covers 2.4 per cent of India's total
area, i.e., about 78,438 km2. According to Census of India, 2011 about

Environment and Environmental Problems

61
 Fig. 4.1

Geography
62
2.6 per cent population of India live in Assam. Total population of Assam
is 312.05 lakh and out of which 159.39 lakh are male and 152.66 lakh
female. Literacy rate in the state was 63.25 per cent in 2001 and it increased
to 72.19 per cent in 2011 (Table 4.1). Sex ratio (number of female per
1000 male) indicates that in 2001 sex ratio was 935, which increased to
958 in 2011. This suggests that the rate of birth of female child has slightly
increased in the state.
Table 4.1 : Some Characteristics of Assam's Population (2001-2011).
Population Characteristics 2001 2011
(a) Literacy rate (%) 63.25 72.19
(b) Sex ratio (No. of female per 1000 male) 935 958
(c) Rural population (%) 87.10 85.90
(d) Urban population (%) 12.90 14.09
(e) Scheduled caste population (%) 6.85 7.15
(f) Scheduled tribe population (%) 12.41 12.45
On the other hand, as per population data of 2001, about 87 per
cent population of Assam lived in villages, which decreased to 85.90 per
cent in 2011. Against this the urban population, however, increased from
12.90 per cent to 14.09 per cent during 2001-2011. So, it is clear that
there is ongoing migration from village to town and due to which the
percentage of people living in village has decreased while the same has
increased in towns. On the other hand, the percentages of scheduled caste
and scheduled tribe population have remained same in 2001 and 2011
indicating the almost same growth of population of the two groups during
the period (Table 4.1).
As in the case of other states of India, the process of urbanization
is still going on in Assam and the urban population has been increasing along
with the number of towns. According to 2011 census, there are seven first
class towns and six second class towns in the state. The list of these towns
is presented in Table 4.2. Guwahati, the capital city of Assam with a
population of 9,68,549, is the most populous urban centre of the state.
Next to Guwahati, Silchar town of Barak Valley and Dibrugarh town of
Upper Brahmaputra Valley have attained second and third position
respectively among the seven first class towns of Assam on the basis of
urban population size. On the other hand, Dhubri town of Lower
Brahmaputra Valley having urban population of 65,756 is the most populous
town among the six second class towns of Assam. Next to Dhubri the hill
town Diphu occupies the position.

Environment and Environmental Problems

63
Table 4.2 : Population of class-I and Class-II towns of Assam (2011).
Sl. No. Town Class of Towns Population (2011)
1. Guwahati I 968,549
2. Silchar I 228,985
3. Dibrugarh I 154,019
4. Jorhat I 153,249
5. Nagaon I 147,137
6. Tinsukia I 125,637
7. Tezpur I 100,477
8. Dhubri II 65,756
9. Diphu II 63,654
10. North Lakhimpur II 59,793
11. Karimganj II 57,585
12. Sibsagar II 55,595
13. Goalpara II 53,455

Note : According to Census, the towns with population of one lakh or more are regarded as
class-I towns and the towns with population from 50 thousand to one lakh are regarded as Class-
II towns.

4.1.1. Trend of Population Growth :

Population is a dynamic entity. Alongwith population, its
distribution and composition are also continuously changing. The
growth and change of population takes place by three ways– birth
rate, death rate and migration. Population is growing in all the
countries and states of the world.
In a developing country like India the growth of population is
generally high. Like the other states of India population is also
increasing fast in Assam. The data on population growth in Assam
from 1901 to 2011 are presented in Table 4.3.
According to the data of Table 4.3, Assam's population was 3,289,680
in 1901 which is 1.38 percent of India's population. Population of the state
was gradually increasing in every decade since 1901 and it stood at
6,694,790 in 1941. It is noticed that Assam's population increased by more
than two times during 1901-41. In 1941 its population was 2.10 percent
of the country's total. Looking at the decadal growth rate it is seen that

Geography
64
 Table 4.3 : Trend of Population Growth in Assam (1901-2011).
Years Population Percentage of Decadal Population Density
India's Population Growth Rate
(in percentage) (Population per km2)
1901 3,289,680 1.38 – 42
1911 3,848,617 1.52 16.99 49
1921 4,636,980 1.84 20.48 59
1931 5,560,371 1.99 19.90 71
1941 6,694,790 2.10 20.40 85
1951 8,028,865 2.22 19.93 102
1961 10,837,329 2.46 34.98 138
1971 14,625,152 2.66 34.95 186
1981* 18,041,248 2.64 23.36 230
1991 22,414,322 2.65 24.24 286
2001 26,655,528 2.59 18.92 340
2011 31,205,576 2.58 17.07 398
Note : In *1981 no census was held, so in that year the population data mathematically calculated
by the Census of India are given.

during 1901-11, the population growth rate was 16.99 percent. But after
that, during 1911-21 the growth rate increased to 20.48 per cent. However,
in the subsequent decades, the growth rate remained more or less same,
such as 19.90 per cent in 1921-31, 20.40 per cent in 1931-41 and 19.93
per cent in 1941-51 (Table-4.3). But during post Independence period since
1951, the population of the state increased at faster rate. Especially, during
the two decades 1951-61 and 1961-71, the growth rate of population
increased to 34.98 per cent and 34.95 per cent respectively against that
of the previous two decades. But, the growth of population declined slowly
during the next decades which is evident from the tabulated data for the
decades 1971-81, 1981-91, 1991-2001 and 2001-2011. This slow decline
in population growth rate may be attributed to gradual decrease in birth
rate and also the little control of migration from Bangladesh due to growing
awareness of the public and the governments in recent years. Comparative
data on decadal growth of population in Assam and India during 1901-
2011 are presented in figure 4.2.

Environment and Environmental Problems

65
66
DECADAL GROWTH OF POPULATION IN ASSAM AND INDIA, 1901-2011

Fig. 4.2

Geography
4.1.2 Distribution of Population :
Besides population growth, another important aspect is population
distribution. Looking at the population distribution pattern of the state, it
is observed that distribution of population and settlements is not uniform
in all the regions or places. In some regions population is more and its
density is also more, while in other regions population is less and density
is sparse. Generally, more settlements and population in a region indicate
high density of population. Similarly, the sparse settlements and less
population in a region indicate low density of population there. According
to the census data (Table-4.3) the population density of Assam was only
42 persons per km2 in 1901, i.e., during the beginning of the 20th century.
As time passed, population density started to grow along with population
increase and the same grew by two times in 1941 (85 persons per
km2) as compared to 1901. Just after the Independence, i.e., in 1951 the
density of state population increased to 102 persons per km2. In the
subsequent period, population density increased substantially. It is seen
from the table- 4.3 that population density was 286 in 1991, 340 in 2001
and 398 persons per km2 in 2011.
Population distribution is not same in all the regions of the state
depending on the varied physical environments prevalent in different regions.
So, population density is also not same in all the regions. Generally, the
regions having no favourable physical conditions, and developed economic
and transport system have sparse settlements and less population. As against
this, the regions have high population density where the favourable physical
and economic conditions prevail. In table-4.4 the data on population and
its density in the Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys and also the hill region
of Assam during 2001 and 2011 are presented. In the Brahmaputra valley
population is thick due to its plain land, fertile soils and favourable conditions
for development of agriculture and transport. So, about 85 per cent of
Assam's population live in the Brahmaputra Valley. Its population density
was 403 persons per km2 in 2001 and this increased to 470 persons
per km2 in 2011. The Upper Brahmaputra Valley region is inhabited by
about 21 per cent of the population of the valley accounting for population
density of 305 persons per km2 according to 2011 census. On the other
hand, about 27 per cent of the population of the valley live in the Middle
Brahmaputra Valley region which accounts for population density of 595
persons per km2 in 2011. Similarly, the Lower Brahmaputra Valley region
is inhabited by about 36 per cent population of the valley. Population density
is relatively higher here being 558 persons per km2. In the entire Brahmaputra

Environment and Environmental Problems

67
68
Table 4.4 : Geographical region-wise population distribution in Assam (2001-2011)
Area Percentage Percentage share of Population Density
Regions (Km2) share of Assam's Population Assam's Total Population (Persons per km2)
Total Area 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011
(A) Brahmaputra Valley 56,194 71.64 22658369 26411056 85.00 84.63 403 470
[1] Upper Brahmaputra Valley 21,706 27.67 5847045 6625840 (21.94) (21.23) 269 305
[2] Middle Brahmaputra Valley 14,340 18.28 7222997 8532357 (27.09) (27.34) 504 595
[3] Lower Brahmaputra Valley 20,148 25.69 9588327 11252365 (35.97) (36.06) 476 558
(B) Barak Valley 6,922 8.82 2995769 3624599 11.24 11.62 432 524
(C) Hill Region 15,322 19.54 1001390 1169921 3.76 3.75 65 76
Assam 78,438 ---- 26655528 31205576 ---- ---- 340 398
Source : Based on Census of India data and computations done by the author.
Note : Figures in the brackets indicate percentage of population to the total population of the Brahmaputra Valley.

Geography
Valley of the state variation of population density in its upper, middle and
lower parts is noticeable. Population density is higher in the middle region
than that of the upper region and again it is higher in the lower region than
that of the middle region of the valley. On the other hand, the Barak Valley
happens to be densely populated due to its fertile alluvial plain with favourable
conditions for transport and agricultural activities. According to 2011 census
data, population density of the Barak valley is 524 persons per km2 and
about 11 per cent of Assam's population live in the valley. In contrary to
this, the hill region comprising the districts of Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao
situated between the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley has sparse settlements
and low population due to its inconvenient physiographic conditions. About
3.75 per cent of state population live in this hill zone and it represents the
lowest population density as compared to other regions of the state. Density
of population in the hill zone was only 65 persons per kim2 in 2001 and
it increased slightly to 76 persons per km2 in 2011.
District wise distribution and density of population in Assam are
interesting. The population data (2001 and 2011) of the districts of Assam
are presented in table 4.5. As the four districts– Chirang, Kamrup (Metro),
Baksa and Udalguri were created after 2001, so their population data of
that year are not given in the table. However, the data on population and
area of other six districts such as Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari,
Kamrup and Darrang have changed due to creation of these four districts.
Among the districts of Assam, as per 2001 census data, the Kamrup
district is the most populous district with 2,522,324 population and the Dima
Hasao district is the least populous district with 1,88,079 population of the
state. But, the Nagaon district with 28,23,768 population became the most
populous district of Assam in 2011 while the Dima Hasao district with
214,102 population was regarded as the least populous district in that year.
In the case of population density data of 2001, the Nagaon district recorded
highest density of population (583 persons per km2) and the Dima Hasao
district recorded the lowest density of population (38 persons per km2)
in the state. But, according to 2011 census data, the Kamrup (Metro) district
has the highest density of population (2010 persons per km2). In this case,
however the influence of high population concentration in Guwahati city is
noteworthy. On the other hand, the Dima Hasao district has the lowest
density of population (44 persons per km2) in the state. Population
distribution pattern in the districts of the upper, middle and lower
Brahmaputra Valley reflects that in 2011 among the districts of upper
Brahmaputra Valley, Lakhimpur and Sibsagar districts have population
density more than the average density of Assam (398 persons per km2).

Environment and Environmental Problems

69
 Table 4.5 : District-wise population of Assam (2001-11)
Population Density
District Population (Persons per km2)
2001 2011 2001 2011
1. Dhubri 1637344 19,49,258 545 1171
2. * Kokrajhar 905764 8,87,142 256 280
3. * Bongaigaon 904835 7,38,804 420 425
4. Goalpara 822,035 10,08,183 451 553
5. * Barpeta 1647201 16,93,622 508 632
6. * Nalbari 1148824 7,71,639 509 763
7. * Kamrup 2522324 15,17,542 581 436
8. * Darrang 1504320 928500 432 491
9. Sonitpur 1681513 19,24,110 316 365
10. Lakhimpur 889,010 10,42,137 390 457
11. Dhemaji 571944 6,86,133 177 213
12. Morigaon 776,256 9,57,423 500 618
13. Nagaon 2,314,629 28,23,768 583 711
14. Golaghat 946,279 10,66,888 270 302
15. Jorhat 999,221 10,92,256 350 383
16. Sibsagar 1,051,736 11,51,050 394 431
17. Dibrugarh 1,185,072 13,26,335 351 393
18. Tinisukia 1,150,062 13,27,929 303 347
19. Karbi Anglong 813,311 9,56,313 78 93
20. Dima Hasao 188,079 2,14,102 38 44
21. Karimganj 1,007,976 12,28,686 557 673
22. Hailakandi 542,872 6,59,296 409 497
23. Cachar 1,444,921 17,36,617 382 459
24. Chirang × 4,82,162 × 244
25. Kamrup (Metro) × 12,53,938 × 2010
26. Baksa × 9,50,075 × 475
27. Udalguri × 8,31,668 × 497
Assam 2,66,55,528 3,12,05,576 340 398
Note : The four districts – Chirang, Kamrup(Metro), Baksa and Udalguri were created after
2001 and so their data are not given for 2001. As a result of creation of these districts, the
population data of other six districs indicated by *marks got changed. Further, six new districts
like Biswanath, Charaideo, West Karbi Anglong, Hojai, Majuli and Mankachar have been formed
during 2015-16.

Geography
70
 Fig. 4.3

Environment and Environmental Problems

71
 Again among the districts of the middle Brahmaputra Valley, Morigaon,
Nagaon, Darrang and Udalguri districts have population density more than
the state average. Similarly, among the districts of the lower Brahmaputra
Valley, all the districts except Chirang and Kokrajhar districts, i.e., the
districts of Dhubri, Bongaigaon, Goalpara, Barpeta, Nalbari, Baksa, Kamrup
and Kamrup (Metro) have population density more than the state average.
Again all the three districts of the Barak Valley, i.e., the districts of Karimganj,
Hailakandi and Cachar have their population density more than the state
average. The two districts of the hill region, i.e.,Karbi Anglong and Dima
Hasao district, on the other hand, have the lowest density of population
and sparse settlements among all the districts of Assam during 2001 and
2011 (Figure-4.3).

4.1.3. Causes of Population Growth:

Basically two causes are responsible for high population growth in
Assam. One of these causes is the natural growth of population and the
other is the large scale migration into the state from outside. But the
contribution of migration towards population growth in the state is more
than that of the natural growth. The natural growth of population, in fact
depends on birth and death rates. The birth and death rates of Assam's
population are not much different from the average rates of Indian population.
This means that due to natural growth the population of Assam is growing
almost at the same rate the India's population is growing. So, the high growth
of population in Assam clearly suggests that if there was no large scale
migration to Assam, the growth of Assam's population would have taken
place at normal rate. Thus migration is regarded as the main cause of
population growth in the state.
Although migration into Assam was continuous since the time
when the Britishers took over India in 1826, it occured at slower rate.
But, migration had started actively from the beginning of the last
century. During the time of partition in 1947 a large number of Hindu
refugees migrated to Assam from the then East Pakistan (Now
Bangladesh). Again the population of Assam increased rapidly during
the post Independence period from 1951 to 2001. During this period
the growth rate of Assam's population was 232 per cent against the
national growth rate of 185 per cent. Such an abnormal growth of
population in the state is due to unabated flow of migrants from
Bangladesh. On the other hand, population has also increased slowly
due to decrease in death rate caused through applications of modern

Geography
72
medical facilities. However, very recently it has been observed that
the growth rate of population in the state has slightly declined. The
main reasons behind this are the slowly decreasing birth rate and
nominal check of migration from Bangladesh in recent years.
4.1.4. Ethnic and Linguistic Diversity:
Different ethnic and linguistic groups of people have been
migrating to the North-East as well as Assam from its northern, eastern,
southern and western sides since ancient times till today due to its
peculiar geographical location. The charming natural environment,
plentiful water resourses, fertile soils of the river valleys, high rainfall
and presence of varied species of plants and animals of Assam naturally
attracted the migrants. Thus various groups of people migrated to
Assam in different times. Presently, Assam is one of the states of India
which is full of diversities. As the climate, physical environments and
socio-economic condition vary from regions to regions, the state is the
meeting place of multi-coloured cultures where religious, ethnic and
linguistic variations among the people prevail. Such variations and
diversities are the special characteristics of Assam and these have been
immensely enriching the Assamese society and culture.
Each flow of migration to Assam taking place from different regions
can be recognised as a human stream. The social scientists have the opinion
that the first human stream migrated to Assam was probably the Austric
group of people. They came from South-East Asia. The Khasis and Jaintias
widely inhabited in Meghalaya state belong to this Austric group. Some of
these people are found to live in the areas of Karbi Anglong and Dima
Hasao bordering Meghalaya. Some Jaintia people also live in Cachar district
along the Meghalaya border.
The second human stream coming to Assam after the Austric
group was the Tibeto– Burman language speaking Mongoloid
people. These people came across the Himalayas from Central
Asia and settled in different parts of Assam. Almost all the tribes
except the Khasis presently residing in Assam are basically of
Mongoloid origin. The different tribes of Mongoloid living in the
hills and plains of Assam mainly include the Bodo, Mishing,
Rabha, Tiwa, Deori, Sonowal Kachari, Mech, Barmans of Cachar,
Karbi, Dimasa Kachari, Garo, Kuki, Hmar, Hajong, Rengma Naga
and Zeme Naga. Among these tribes the Bodo, Mishing, Rabha,
Tiwa Deori, Sonowal Kachari, Mech and Barmans of Cachar are
recognised as plain tribes, while the Karbi, Dimasa Kachari, Garo,
Kuki, Hmar, Hajong, Rengma and Zeme Naga are recognised as

Environment and Environmental Problems

73
 hill tribes. However, the Koch-Rajbongshis residing in Assam
basically are of Mongoloid origin. The distribution of Mongoloid
people in the state reveals that they generally live in the plains
and near the river banks, foothills and hill slopes. Among all these
tribes, the Bodos form the largest tribal group on the basis of
population size. Although the Bodos are distributed more or less
in all parts of the state, their concentrations are mainly confined
to the north bank of the Brahmaputra, especially in Kokrajhar,
Bongaigaon, Chirang, Baksa and Udalguri districts and the northern
parts of Darrang and Sonitpur districts. On the basis of population
size, the Mishing tribe is the second largest tribal group in Assam.
The Mishings generally prefer to settle along the river side and
they are mostly found in the riverine tracts of Lakhimpur,
Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat and Sonitpur districts. The Rabhas,
in general have their scattered distribution in Assam. But they are
concentrated mostly in Goalpara, Kamrup and Darrang districts.
Tiwa (Lalung) are mostly concentrated in Morigaon and Nagaon
districts of middle Assam and also in Sonapur region of Kamrup
district, Dhemaji region of Dhemaji district and Titabor region of
Jorhat district. The Deories are found mostly in Lakhimpur,
Dibrugarh, Sibsagar and Jorhat districts. The Sonowal Kacharis
are found to settle in Upper Assam region, especially in Dibrugarh,
Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia, Jorhat and Golaghat districts. The
Mech have their less population and they are confined to South
Salmara of Goalpara district, Khowang of Dibrugarh district and
Parokhowa of Karbi Anglong district. The Barmans of Cachar
mostly live in the Barak Valley and some of them are scattered
in Dima Hasao and Karbi Anglong districts. On the other hand,
the whole Karbi Anglong district is the home of the Karbis. On
the basis of population size, the Karbi tribe is the third largest
tribe in Assam. Besides Karbi Anglong, some Karbi people are
also found to live in Kamrup, Nagaon, Sonitpur and Dima Hasao
districts. Similarly, besides living in the whole of Dima Hasao
district, the Dimasa Kachari are also found in some parts of Karbi
Anglong and Cachar district. The Garos have their settlements
along the southern parts of Dhubri, Goalpara and Kamrup district
bordering the Garo Hills of Meghalaya. The Kukis have settled
in Dima Hasao district and they are one of the important tribes
in the district from the point of their population size. The Hmar
people are less in number and they are mostly confined to Dima
Hasao district. The Hajongs mostly live in Karbi Anglong and
Dima Hasao district. However, some settlements of the Hajongs
are found in Goalpara district along the Meghalaya border. The

Geography
74
Rengma Naga people have their limited numbers as well as
settlements. They are, especially found to settle in the hilly region
between Chokihola in the north and Barpathar in the south of
Karbi Anglong district. On the other hand, the Zeme Nagas have
their settlements in north-earter part and south Mibong area of
Dima Hasao district.
Most probably, the Indo-Aryan language speaking group of people
migrated to Assam from the Gangetic Plain just after the flow of the
Mongoloid people. They were originally of Caucasoid racial stock. First
of all, they migrated to Assam under the patronage of the local kings or
administrators and subsequently at their own and also being attracted by
the economic resources of the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley they came
to the state. This process of migration is still going on. Most of the non-
tribal groups of people presently living in Assam belong to the Caucasoid
stock. The Brahmins, Kayasthas, Kalitas, Nath-Jogis, Koibartas etc. are
the people of this racial group which is represented by a large section of
Hindu population of the state. These people have expanded their settlements
in the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley and laid the foundation of Vaidic
civilization and culture.
In the early part of 13th Century another group of Islamic people
(soldiers) of Indo-Aryan origin came to Assam under Mahammad Bin
Bakhtiar Khiliji, a Muslim General of Kutubuddin on their way to Tibet.
In subsequent period, there were several invasions undertaken by the Muslim
soldiers under the patronage of the Mugal kings of Northern India. In most
of the invasions, some Muslim soldiers along with their fellow members having
different skills were either kept as prisoners or engaged by the local kings
and the people in various works. In this way, some muslims settled in Assam
and they grew in numbers over time. Later on, they expanded their
settlements gradually and established Muslim society and culture in the
Brahmaputra and Barak Valley. Now, the Muslim community has emerged
as one of the important ethnic groups in Assam.
Another important ethnic group who migrated to Assam was the
Ahoms. The Ahoms basically belong to the Mongoloid stock. They came
to Myanmar from China and then in 1228 under the leadership of Seu-
Ka-Pha the Ahoms came across the Patkai hills from the Shan plateau
of northern Myanmar. They settled first in upper Assam and established
the Ahom kingdom. Later on, they brought almost the entire Brahmaputra
Valley under their rule. The Ahoms ruled for about six hundred years
and made substantial contributions to the society and culture of Assam.
Presently, the Ahoms have their settlements mainly in Tinsukia, Dibrugarh,

Environment and Environmental Problems

75
 Sibsagar, Jorhat, Golaghat, Lakhimpur and Dhemaji district of upper
Assam region and also in Morigaon, Nagaon and Sonitpur district of
middle Assam region.
The Koch-Rajbongshis are another notable ethnic group in Assam.
Under the leadership of Koch king Bisva Singha, the Koches established
kingdom on the western part of Assam and later on extended it upto the
Barnadi of Lower Assam. After his death, his sons king Naranarayan and
Chilarai became most powerful and expanded their kingdom from Lower
Assam to Upper Assam. Gosain Kamal, brother of king Naranarayan took
the lead to construct the 'Gohain Kamal Ali', a road extending from Koch
Bihar to Narayanpur of Lakhimpur district, which still signifies the glory of
the Koch kingdom. The contributions of the Koches to socio-cultural and
religious fields of Assam are specially significant. Presently, the Koch-
Rajbongshi people are found distributed mainly in the districts of Dhubri,
Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Goalpara, Chirang, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup,
Baksa, Udalguri, Kamrup (Metro), Darrang, Morigaon, Nagaon, Sonitpur,
Lakhimpur, Golaghat.
After the annexation of Assam by the British, the British needed some
educated and skilled persons for carrying out their administrative, economic
and commercial activities. For this purpose they brought some skilled persons
from Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan etc. Even some Nepali people
were brought to be employed in military services. Subsequently many other
Nepalies came to the State in search of livelihood. They engaged themselves
mainly in agriculture and livestock rearing. Later on, when the British started
tea cultivation in Assam, there was the need for labourers. But the local people
of Assam did not show their interests to work in tea cultivation. So, the
British brought the tribal people of Chotanagpur plateau of Central India to
Assam to work in the tea gardens. These tribals are Austric in origin speaking
the Mundari group of language. Now, these people are mostly concentrated
in the tea cultivated districts of upper and middle Assam region. Tea tribes
are one of the important ethnic groups of Assam. They have significantly
contributed to the field of colourful cultures of Assam.
An important human stream to Assam was the migration of the landless
Muslim peasants from the then East Bengal (Now Bangladesh). This migration
continued from about the last decade of 19th century to just before the
Independence. At first under the patronage of the landlords of the undivided
Goalpara district and later on in the interests of the administrators the landless
peasants of the East Bengal migrated to Assam and settled in the vast fertile
lands and sparsely populated regions. Subsequently, a large number of Hindu
refugees migrated from the then East Pakistan to India during partition at the
time of Independence. Some of them also migrated to Assam and settled
there. The migrated Muslim peasants occupied the river side fertile plains
and floodplains, while the Hindu migrants selected and occupied the areas

Geography
76
near railway stations, market centres, towns and places convenient for
business activities. It is a notable fact that the migration from Bangladesh is
still continuing and the migrants mostly settle down in the floodplains and
char areas of the Brahmaputra and Barak river. On the other hand, the internal
migration process among the states of India is usually going on. This inter-
state migration continues, especially due to social, economic and educational
reasons. As a result of such migration, a large number of people have migrated
to Assam from different states, mainly Rajasthan, Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal,
Manipur etc. and they have also permanently settled here.
In this way as mentioned above, the people of various ethnic groups
have been migrating to Assam from different places since ancient period to
the present. As a result, the demography of Assam has largely changed. The
state has now become a site of religious, linguistic, social, cultural, economic
and occupational diversities. People of almost all major religions live in Assam.
Here the Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Budhists, Jains, Sikhs and people of
different tribal religions live together. The Hindu population by number is
highest in the state followed by the Muslim, Christian, Budhist, Jain and Sikh
population. According to the census of India, 1991 the Hindu population
represented 67.13 per cent of the total state population. But, it came down
to 64.91 per cent in 2001. On the other hand, the Muslim population
accounted for 28.43 per cent of the total state population in 1991 and in
2001 it increased to 30.94 per cent. However, the Christian, Sikh and Jain
population of the state are also increasing at slow rate. Looking at the linguistic
composition of state population, it has been observed that Assamese and
Bengali are the two major scheduled languages of Assam. Assamese is the
state language. Assamese is the major language spoken in the Brahmaputra
Valley, while Bengali is the major language spoken in the Barak Valley.
According to census data the Assamese speaking population in the state had
decreased during 1991-2001. In 1991 Assamese speaking population and
Bengali speaking population were 57.29 per cent and 21.51 per cent
respectively of the Assam's total population. But, the Assamese speaking
population decreased to 53.08 per cent and the Bengali speaking population
increased to 29.96 per cent in 2001. Besides the districts of the Barak Valley,
the districts of the Brahmaputra Valley have also recorded increase of Bengali
speaking population. On the other hand, the various tribal groups of Assam
also have their own languages which are non-scheduled. Among these
languages the major ones are the Bodo, Mishing, Karbi, Dima Hasao, Garo,
Tiwa and Rabha. The tribals use their respective languages in their locality.
Again in the towns and cities and commercial areas, Hindi is mostly used in
speaking. As per census data the Hindi speaking population of the state had
increased from 3.43 per cent to 6.40 per cent during 1991-2001. Besides,
there are Nepali speaking people in the state accounting for 2.30 per cent of
state total population. These people are scattered in different districts, but

Environment and Environmental Problems

77
 mostly concentrated in Sonitpur, Nagaon and Tinsukia district. In this way,
Assam being the home of various linguistic groups represents prominent
linguistic diversities.

4.2. Transport System:

Presently transport is an essential component of economic development.
Besides, establishing communications and linkages among different regions, a
good transport system helps in the exchange of resources, knowledge, culture
and civilization. In addition to the creation of employment opportunities, a country
may attain overall development through an efficient transport system. A well co-
ordinated transport system covering land, water and air ways is the life line of a
country. The development of economic sectors like agriculture, industry,
commerce, communication etc. depends on efficient transport system. The
transport system, besides in the economic sectors plays an important role in the
development of social, cultural and political fields of a country. A well developed
transport system strengthens national integration and unity amidst inequalities,
variations and diversities prevalent in a country.
It has already been mentioned that Assam is the gateway of the North-
East India. Through this gateway the states of North-East India are maintaining
links with entire India. So, the economic development of North-East India is
closely associated with the development of the transport system of Assam. Again
as Assam stands geographically at a distant location within India, the transport
system has become one of the essential requisites for its economic development.
The available transport systems of Assam are the road transport, rail transport,
water transport and air transport. But there is more scope for development of
these transport systems.

4.2.1. Road Transport :

Road transport is the oldest system of transport. It is convenient
for movement of public and goods. It is more suitable for short distance.
The road transport system has its significant role on the rural economy
of Assam The main advantages of road transport are (a) Road transport
is convenient, fast and reliable, (b) It can easily make linkages and
connections with the small and interior places, (c) It can nicely provide
communications among the hills, plateaus and plains, (d) In transporting
the agricultural and industrial products, road transport system is especially
useful, (e) In the case of repairement, construction etc. The road
transport system involves less expenditure as compared to some other
transport systems, (f) Road transport system has directly helped in the
development of tourism industry of the state by connecting the tourist
spots by roads.

Geography
78
 Table 4.6 : Data of the Roads in Assam (Length in km.)

Types of Roads Road Length Road Length

(2007-08) (2015-16)
1. Surfaced Roads 10,488 25,546
(Excluding National Highways)
2. Unsurfaced Roads 24,458 19,316
3. National Highways 2,754 3,863
4. State Highways 3,134 2,530
5. Major District Roads 4,413 4,379
6. Rural Roads 26,221 36,544
7. Urban Roads 1,177 1,409

There are all total seven types of roads in the roads transport
system of Assam, which are – Surfaced road, Unsurfaced road, National
Highway, State Highway, Major district road, Rural road and Urban
road. Taking all these roads together Assam has a total road length of
48,725 km in 2015-16. lengths of the roads are presented in Table-
4.6 for the periods 2007-08 and 2015-16. It is seen from the table
that the surfaced roads (Excluding National Highways) have been
constructed in the state by about two and half times in length during 2007-
08 and 2015-16. During the same period, the lengths of National
Highways, rural roads and urban roads have been increased. But the
lengths of unsurfaced roads have decreased indicating that some portions
of these roads are converted to surfaced roads. However, the lengths
of state roads and Major district roads have remained same (Table-4.6)
suggesting no further construction of such roads.
The National Highways and other roads have their active role to
play in the development of inland water transport systems of the state.
Moreover, the National Highways have paved the way for development
by connecting Assam and the other states of North-East India with the
different states of the country. The National Highways falling in Assam
are mentioned in Table-4.7.
4.2.2. Railway Transport :
Another major component of the transport system is the railways
transport. The railway transport has substantially contributed towards
the economic development of India. Presently, railway transport has

Environment and Environmental Problems

79
 Table-4.7 : The National Highways (N.H.) in Assam (2015-16)
Sl. N.H. Extension Road
No. No. Length (Km)
1 31 W.B.Border-Gouripur-North-Salmara-Bijni-Nalbari-Rangia-Chariali-
Amingaon (NH-37) 307.75
2 31B North Salmara - Abhayapuri - Jogighopa (NH-37) 19.66
3 31C W.B. Border - Kochugaon - Sidli - Bijni (NH 31) 93.00
4 36 Nagaon - Dabaka - Amlakhi - Nagaland Border 154.20
5 37 Goalpara(NH-31B)-Paikan-Boko-Guwahati-Dispur-Sonapur-Raha-
Nagaon-Bokaghat-Numaligarh-Jorhat-Jhanzi-Sibsagar-Moranhat-
Dibrugarh-Tinsukia-Makum-Saikhoaghat-Arunachal Pradesh Border 645.33
6 37A Kuwari Tal (NH-37) - Tezpur (NH 52) 23.10
7 38 Makum - Ledo - Lekhapani 56.35
8 39 Numaligarh-Garampani-Naojan-Bokajan-Nagaland Border 106.78
9 44 Meghalaya Border-Badarpur-Karimganj-Patharkandi-Tripura Border 110.77
10 51 Paikan - Meghalaya Border 21.87
11 52 Baihata Chariali-Mangaldai-Dhekiajuli-Tezpur-Gohpur-Bander Dewa-
North Lakhimpur-Dhemaji-Kulajan-Arunachal Pradesh Border
Arunachal Pradesh Border - near- Saikhowaghat(NH-31) 540.76
12 52A Gohpur – Arunachal Pradesh Border 9.23
Arunachal Pradesh Border – Bander Dewa
13 52B Kulajan – Dibrugarh – Arunachal Pradesh Border 79.32
14 53 Badarpur (NH-44) - Silchar-Lakhimpur-Manipur Border 73.55
15 54 Dabaka-Lumding-Langting-Haflong-Silchar-Dwarband-Mizoram Border 321.37
16 61 Jaji-Amguri-Nagaland Border 17.51
17 62 Damara-Meghalaya Border 8.60
18 151 Karimganj–Bangladesh Border 14.06
19 152 Patacharkuchi–Hajua-Bhutan Border 38.00
20 153 Ledo-Lekhapani-Arunachal Pradesh Border 23.70
21 154 Dhaleswari (Badarpur)-Bhairabhi-Mizoram Border 88.23
22 315A New Arunachal Pradesh Border-Nahorkatia–Tinsukia (NH-37) 64.22
23 127B New Srirampur-Dhuburi-Meghalaya Border 74.00
24 127C Shyamthai-Hithijhar State PWD road starting from NH 27
(New) in Chirang District, Assam and meeting at Galegphu in Bhutan 40.00
25 127D Rangia-Darrangamela State PWD road starting from NH-27 in the
(New) district of Kamrup, Assam and meeting at Samdrupjunjkhar in Bhutan. 48.60
627New Nelie (Amsoi Gate)-NH-27 connecting Rajagaon, Doyangmukh, Umrangso,
Khobak and terminating at NH-27 near Harangajao in the State of Assam 244.00
427New Howli on NH-27-Barpeta-Hajo-Jalukbari on NH-27 108.00
329New NH-29 near Manja connecting Diphu and terminating at its junction
with new NH No. 27 near Lumding 54.60
117A NH-17 near Bilasipara connecting Kokrajhar and terminating at its
junction with New NH-27 near Garubhasa in the State of Assam 47.00
715A NH-27 near Nakhola connecting Jagiroad, Marigaon, Kaupati, Rowta,
Udalguri, Khoirabari and terminating at Indo/Bhutan Border
in the State of Assam 125.00
127E NH-27 near Barama connecting Baska, Subankhata and terminating at
Indo/Bhutan border in the State of Assam 65.00
702 New Sonari-new NH-215 near Sapekhati in the State of Assam 32.00
702C New Sibsagar on NH-2 connecting Simalguri and terminating at its junction
with new NH-702 at Sonari 48.00
702D New Nagaland-Border-Mariani-Near-Jorhat 28.00
Source : Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Govt. of India

Geography
80
 Fig. 4.4

Environment and Environmental Problems

81
 gradually progressed in Assam and it has been able to influence the
economy of the state. Like the road transport system, the railway
transport system has also some advantages, such as (a) Railway transport
is convenient and reliable in carrying passengers and goods for longer
distance, (b) In the case of transport of necessary resources essential
for infrastructural and industrial development along with the economic
development of Assam, the railway transport system has been playing
a vital role, (c) Employment opportunities are created due to expansion
of railway transport in the state, (d) This transport system has enhanced
national unity by connecting Assam with the distant states of the country
and (e) Railway transport has become auxiliary to the development of
road transport system.
The railway transport system of Assam comes under the railway
zone known as Nort-East Frontier Railway. The Head Quater of this
zone is located at Maligaon, Guwahati. According to data available with
the North-East Frontier Railway zone, the total length of rail lines in
Assam was 2458.93 km during 2012-13. Out of this total length, Broad
Gauge line extends for 1,470.06 km and Metre Gauge line extends
for 988.87 km. Presently almost all the districts of Assam are connected
by railways (Figure-4.4).
4.2.3. Water Transport :
The water transport system of Assam is basically the inland water
transport system. Assam is a land of rivers. The Brahmaputra and Barak
river and their numerous tributaries, which account for 32 per cent
of the total water resources of India are serving as the waterways of
the state. The 891 km. long course of the Brahmaputra from Sadiya
to Dhubri and 121 km. long course of the Barak are navigable. The
navigable waterway of the Brahmaputra (891 km. long) was declared
in 1988 as the second National Waterway of the country. This
waterway has been contributing much to the economic development
of entire North-East India including Assam. On the other hand, the
121 km. long waterway of the Barak river extending from Lakhipur
to Bhanga was declared by the central government in 2013 as the 6th
National Waterway of the country. This waterway is expected to be
helpful in enhancing the economic development of the entire North-
East India, especially Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura and
Arunachal Pradesh by transporting goods through ships at cheaper rate.
There are two government agencies which are engaged in promoting
the water transport system of Assam. These two agencies are the

Geography
82
Central Inland Waterways Corporation and the Directorate of Inland
Water Transport (IWT). The main responsibilities of these two agencies
are the effective utilization of water resources in water transport,
transportation of goods and passengers using waterways as the
cheapest mode of transport, proper use of the waterways of the region
on commercial basis etc. There are a number of river ports including
Pandu along the Brahmaputra river. In addition to these, there are more
than 30 pairs of ferry ghats on the Brahmaputra for transporting both
passengers and cargo. At present, as many as 96 ferry services are
operating on the river Barak, Brahmaputra and its tributaries under the
three divisions of the Inland Water Transport. Besides, the IWT
department has introduced 61 numbers of cargo cum passenger services
in the state connecting the interrior places where road communications
are not available. Moreover, large number of ferry and bhoot-bhooty
services of private owners are also operating under unorganised sector
for transporting goods and passengers. The advantages of the inland
water transport of Assam are (a) There are more scope and
opportunities for expansion of the water transport system in Assam
being a land of rivers, (b) Expenditure for fuel in water transport is
less as compared to other modes of transport, (c) Water transport
is more useful in transporting heavy goods, (d) The inland water
transport has been serving for the transport of goods and passengers
within the state, (e) Like the road transport, the water transport has
no such problem of air pollution, (f) The water transport system has
been extending help to the people of places backward in road
communication for movement of goods and passengers, (g) During
natural disasters, especially flood in the state the water transport plays
an important role, (h) There are no problems like repairing,
maintenance, road construction etc. in the case of water transport
system, because the natural rivers and streams are used as waterways.
4.2.4. Air Transport :
Air transport is an integral component of the modern transport
system. At present the air transport sector of Assam has made some
developments. Assam now stays connected with different places of
India through air transport. The air transport of the state is in operation
through the civil airports located at Guwahati, Tezpur, Jorhat, Dibrugarh,
North Lakhimpur and Silchar. In addition, one more civil airport located
at Rupshi, Dhubri is lying closed for long time. All the major airlines
under private sectors are operating regular flights to and from Guwahati.

Environment and Environmental Problems

83
 Besides these, some private compaines and agencies are also operating
helicopter services within the state or connecting the interior places
of the states of North-East India.
The airport located at Borjhar (Guwahati) is known as the Lokapriya
Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport. This is the only international airport
in whole of North-East. The number of aircrafts, passengers and loads of
cargo handled (at domestic and international level) in this airport are
mentioned in table-4.8.

Table-4.8 :Data on Air Services of the Lokapriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport,
Guwahati.
Average Number of Average Number of Average Cargo
Year Flights Handled Passengers Handled (Commercial) Handled
per day per day per day (tonnes)
2009-10 72 4357 14.45
2010-11 74 5301 23.34
2011-12 77 6150 21.26
2012-13 74 5690 16.47

The data mentioned in the table 4.8 show that there is no noticeable
difference in number of daily flights handled by the LGB International
Airport during 2009-10 and 2012-13. But the number of passengers on
daily average has increased by more than 1000 passengers during that
period and during 2011-12 year there was the rocord of highest 6150
number of passengers on daily average basis. The cargo transported on
commercial basis increased in subsequent years from 2009-10 and the
highest amount of cargo was 23.34 tonnes on daily average basis
transported during 2010-11.
4.2.5. Problems of Transport Systems :
Although Assam has some facilities of the modern transport
system, it still remains backward in the transport sector as compared
to some other regions of the country. The road, railway, water and
air transport systems of the state have enhanced the internal growth
of its economy by connecting the places of different locations. Besides
connecting the villages with the towns and interior and backward
regions with developed regions, the transport systems have also played
role to increase production, expand market facilities and meet the basic
needs for economic development. Although the transport system of the

Geography
84
state has contributed much, its development and expansion are still not
upto the mark. Today many regions of Assam are deprived of the
service of the modern transport system. Because, the entire transport
system of the state is not properly and uniformaly developed. The major
problems of this are–
(a) It is realy difficult to expand the transport system in Assam which
is characterised by varied topographic features like hills, plateaus, plains,
floodplains, wetlands etc.
(b) Assam is linked with the mainland of India through a narrow
corridor on the west and this has caused difficulties in the expansion of
transport network.
(c) In some areas the soil properties of Assam are not suitable for
construction and maintenance of roads. Moreover, high rainfall during summer
causes damage to the roads easily. Also, the roads get damaged within a
short period as no suitable and modern technologies are applied in their
construction.
(d) In the case of industrial development, Assam is still backward
as compared to some other states of India. One of the major causes for
this is the underdeveloped transport system of the state. But, the industrial
development, on the other hand may encourage the development of the
transport system.
(e) In spite of immense scope and potentiality for development of
tourism industry in Assam, no proper measures are taken so far for its
development. If due importance is given on the development of tourism
industry of the state, it is sure that the transport sector will also flourish
altogether.
(f) Due to lack of large market in the state the transport system has
not developed. Assam has largely failed to be actively associated with the
field of trade and commerce at inter-state as well as international level and
consequently the intrastructure of transport system has not been developed.
(g) The national and foreign investment in the state shows a declining
trend due to some social and political unrest arising out of ethnic, communal
and insurgency problems emerging from time to time. As a result, the
expansion of trade and commerce has become limited and the transport
sector has suffered a lot.
(h) Although the transport system has developed quantitatively, its
qualitative expansion is not upto the mark. Lack of operative and technical
efficiency is usually noticed in the case of road, railway, water and air
transport.

Environment and Environmental Problems

85
 (i) In order to achieve overall development of the transport system,
there is the utmost need for proper transport co-ordination among the road,
railway, water and air transport. But, lack of such co-ordination is commonly
observed in the state.
(j) Rapid development of transport sector has not become possible
in the state, because the schemes undertaken by the governments for
development and expansion of transport system are not executed in time
and in proper way.

4.3. Resources of Assam:

4.3.1. Types and Characteristics:
Resources are those materials and substances present in our
environment using which we meet our needs and desire.There are various
kinds of resources in the environment and those can be classified into different
types on the basis of their characteristics. Similarly, the resources of Assam
can also be classified.
Resources are mainly of two types– Natural resources and Human
and man-made resources. The natural resources are created in nature
by the natural factors. Some natural resources are renewable while others
are non-renewable. The resources which can be renewed or newly
produced or filled up again are called renewable resources. Alongwith
solar energy and air the resources like water, vegetations, wildlife etc.
of Assam come under this category of resources. On the other hand,
some resources have formed and are geting deposited beneath the earth's
surface for long period of time. But, if such resources are used
continuously, their deposits will be reduced and exhausted at one time
and then these can not be refilled. These resources are callled non-
renewable resources. The mineral resources of Assam like coal, mineral
oil, natural gas etc. belong to this category. Among the renewable and
non-renewable resources, again some are biotic and some are abiotic
resources. Vegetations, wildlife etc. are the biotic, while wind, water,
minerals, soils etc. are the abiotic resources.
The other type of resources is the human and man-made resources.
Man collects resources from nature. Again man creates resources. Man with
his knowledge, intelligence, skills and efficiency creates resources for his
suitable uses and these resources are called man-made resources. For
example, man creates agricultural resources by using the land resources and
also creates hydro-electric power resource by using the water resources.
In order to utilize and mobilize the resources, man builds up necessary

Geography
86
infrastructure and different institutions, which also come under man-made
resources. So, man is really a valuable resource which is called human
resource. Man should be made efficient in terms of his education, knowledge
and intelligence, art and skills etc. for the development of human resources.
As regards to economic development of Assam, both the natural
and human resources are important. Because, Assam is highly rich in
both the resource potentials. There are plenty of natural resources in
Assam and still then Assam remains backward. Its natural resources
are not properly utilised so far. In this regard, there is the need to
improve necessary infrastructure and technology for acquisition,
utilization and management of resources, which will be again created
by man. Moreover, the large size of population of the state provides
the basis for human resource development. Human resource can be
developed only when the population of the state gets qualitatively
enriched. The economic development of Assam is almost impossible
without proper development of its natural and human resources.
4.3.2. Natural Resources :
The natural resources of Assam are created under its favourable
environmental conditions. As the natural environmental conditions vary from
regions to regions, the natural resources also vary in terms of their types,
characteristics and distributional patterns over the regions. Assam has a large
varieties of natural resources and the major ones are land resources, forest
resources, mineral resources and water resources.
Land resource is an essential resource for the biosphere. The
biosphere sustains as land supports the plants and animals. Man
performs all his activities on the land. We have been living on the land
and carrying out all our economic activities like agriculture, industries,
transport and commerce. Land is used by man for different purposes.
But, the characteristics and qualities of land resources are not same
in all regions. Looking at the land qualities of Assam, it has been found
that Assam's lands are composed of four types of soils. These are
(a) Alluvial soils of the plains, (b) Piedmont soils, (c) Hill soils and
(d) Laterite soils. Among these the alluvial soils are important from
the economic point of view. Alluvial soils are of two types– new alluvial
soils and old alluvial soils. The new alluvial soils are found on the
floodplains and river-side plains of the Brahmaputra and Barak rivers
and their tributaries. This type of soil is suitable for cultivation of rice,
jute, pulses and vegetables. On the other hand, the old alluvial soils
are found on the relatively higher plains of the Brahmaputra and Barak

Environment and Environmental Problems

87
 river. These soils are fertile and suitable mainly for rice and tea
cultivation. Agricultural lands are not equally distributed in the state.
As per data of 2009-10 about 35 per cent lands of the total lands
of Assam were brought under cultivation.
Assam was very rich in forest resources before four-five decades
from today. But subsequently the forest resources started decreasing
fast due to rapid growth of population and human encroachment of
the forest lands. However, Assam is still not so poor in forest resources
as compared to some other states of the country. Various types of
forests are found in the plains, plateaus and hills of Assam. These
forests are– (a) Tropical evergreen forest. (b) Tropical semi-evergreen
forest, (c) Reverine forest, (d) Tropical moist deciduous forest and (e)
Tropical dry deciduous forest. These forests are rich in biodiversity
and these provide habitat for a large varieties of plant and animal
species. In the forests valuable tall trees like Nahar, Bonchom, Cham,
Sirish, Ou, Gandhsoroi, Amari, Agaru,Poma, Simul, Khair etc. and
short trees and grass vegetations such as Bamboo, Cane, Nal, Khagori,
Birina, Tora, Koupat, Dhekia, Jhao, Kohua etc. are available. These
plant resources supply bamboo, wood, firewood, thatch, vegetables,
fruits, medicinal plants etc. to the people alongwith the raw materials
necessary for preparing articles for their daily use. Bamboo is
extensively found in the forests of Assam and it is one of the main
forest resources of the state. The forests of Assam, especially the
reserved forests are the habitats for a large variety of wild animals.
Among these animals the world famous one-horned rhinos, elephants,
tigers, bears,wild buffaloes, different kinds of deers, monkeys and
reptiles are notable. The hill region comprising Karbi Anglong and Dima
Hasao district has naturally more forests. The State Forest Report of
India 2011 has revealed that Assam has a total forest area of 16,832
km 2 (including classified and unclassified forests) which is about 34
per cent of its total geographical area. Again 72 per cent of the total
forest areas of the state fall under the reserved forests. At present
there are 5 national parks including Kaziranga and 20 wildlife
sanctuaries including 2 proposed sanctuaries in the state.
Assam is rich in mineral resources. But, these are not suitably
exploited due to their disadvantageous locations and adverse natural
environment. The major minerals of Assam are coal, mineral oil, natural
gas and limestones. As regards production it is observed that production
of natural gas had increased a little during 2009-10 and 2010-11, while

Geography
88
the production of coal, oil and limestone declined slightly during the
same period. Assam is also rich in mineral oil which is known as liquid
gold. In Assam oil exploration was first done in Digboi the Digboi oil
field is the oldest oil field in India. Besides Digboi and other major
oil fields of the state are the Naharkatia, Mora-Hugrijan, Rudrasagar,
Lakoa, Geleki, Borhola and Amaguri oil fields. In addition to oil, Assam
is also rich in natural gas. Generally natural gas is found in most of
the oil producing areas. But the major reserves of natural gas are found
in Rudrasagar, Moran, Lakoa and Naharkatia oil fields. Assam
produces about 25 per cent of India's total production of natural gas.
Coal is another important mineral resources of Assam. Assam's
coal contains more sulpher. Coal is mainly used as a fuel for local
rail and water transport and also for generating electricity. Coal is found
in Makum region of Tinsukia district, Dilly-Jaipur region under
Dibrugarh and Sibsagar district, Charaipung-Tarajan region of Tinsukia
district, Koliajan and Silbheta region of Karbi Anglong district,
Umrangchu and Garampani regions of Dima Hasao district. Moreover,
coal is also found in Singimari area of Dhubri district. Limestone is
another important mineral of Assam. Besides using it in producing
cement and iron and steel, it is also used as raw materials in some
chemical industries. Limestone is found in the two hill districts of Assam.
Its deposits are localised in Koliajan– Manza region, Dilai hill, Silbheta
region and eastern part of Bokajan of Karbi Anglong district and also
at Panimur, Garampani, Tumbung and Umrangchu regions of Dima
Hasao district. The other minerals found in Assam include iron ore,
feldspar, quartz and clay mineral. Iron ore of Assam has low iron
content and hence its exploitation is not economically viable. Iron ore
is found in Chandardinga, Lengupara and Kumri region of Goalpara
district. Feldspar is found in little amount at Hahim area of Kamrup
district. Similarly, quartz is found in Jiajuri hill, Borhola, Chapanala and
western part of Karbi Anglong district. Again several types of clay
mineral are extensively found in Assam. Among these the china clay
is found in Silbheta, Silonijan and Deopani region of Karbi Anglong
district and Fuller's clay is found at Subankhata on the bank of Pagladia
river and also in Bhutan Khuti region of Nalbari district.
The North-East India including Assam is rich in water resources.
Assam has plenty of surface and ground water resources. High rainfall,
perennial water flows of the rivers, water of the ponds, marshes, wetlands
etc. have all enriched the surface water resource of the state. The
Brahmaputra and Barak– the two main rivers and their tributaries of the

Environment and Environmental Problems

89
 state altogether carry about one-third of the water resources of the
country. Besides some large and small marshes and pits Assam has
more than three thousand wetlands. Various types of fishes and different
species of aquatic plants are found in these wetlands and marshy lands.
The surface water, especially the water of the rivers are utilized in the
industrial and transport sectors in addition to agricultural and domestic
uses. The ground water resources are also abundant in the Brahmaputra
and Barak Valleys. In the plains the underground water level exists
within a range of 5 metre from the surface. Like the surface water,
the underground water resources are also used in agricultural, industrial
and domestic purposes. In spite of plenty of surface as well as
groundwater resources in the state, these are not yet tapped and utilized
at desired level.
4.3.3. Human Resources :
It is a fact that the fast growing population has become a burden
of the state. Population problem has created many problems of the
state. If the population problem is not controlled and the large
population can'not be developed as human resources, the population
problem will assume serious dimension. Assam's population as per
2011 census is about 31 million and this accounts for 2.58 per cent
of the total population of the country. Overall literacy rate of the state
is 73 per cent and the male and female literacy rates are 78 per cent
and 67 per cent respectively. Again rural and urban literacy rates are
70 per cent and 88 per cent respectively. Looking at the age-wise
population structure, it is seen that the population of India as well as
Assam is not ageing as in the case of Japan or China. Importantly
about 35 per cent or more than 10 million people of Assam are in
the age group from 15 to 34 years. It is certainly good that the youth
is dominating the Assam's population. The youth in the age group
between 15 years and 34 years represents a major portion (more than
one-third) of the state population. This youth force should be made
efficient in education, intelligence, technical know-how etc. through
proper management. Besides, the weaker sections of the people,
especially the poor communities, differently disabled persons and
woman should be empowered and only then human resource
development is possible in the true sense. It is the time to plan about
how the large population of the state can be developed to human
resource before being the bunden for the state. Now, this is the great
challenge before all of us.

Geography
90
4.3.4 Crisis of Natural Resources :
Natural resources are essential for sustaining the existence of
mankind as well as standard of living. There is, in fact a misconception
among us that natural resource is the free gift of nature. With such
misconception in mind man haphazardly uses the natural resources. As
a result, three major problems arise, such as (a) Resources get polluted
and damaged, (b) Resources become scarce and (c) Severe
environmental and socio-economic problems arise. The natural resources
are degraded not only by human factors, but also by natural factors.
The natural resources of Assam are now not so protected. The
resources are getting degraded day by day. At present the human-
induced factors have become more active and influential than the
natural factors. Population of Assam has increased at faster rate during
last few decades. As a result, pressure of population on natural
environment is increasing. Growth of population has led to expansion
of human settlements and increase in foodcrop production. Man has
started to settle by clearing forests and also filling up the wetlands
etc. Moreover, fertile alluvial agricultural lands are being used for human
settlements. In this way the valuable resources like the forest areas,
marshy lands, wetlands, agricultural lands etc. are gradually decreasing
due to expansion of human settlements. Land use pattern has changed
under population pressure on land and land has been put to some
misuses. Because of this, problems like land erosion, loss of land
fertility, soil pollution etc. are created. Again, the agricultural lands are
needed as emphasis is given to increase foodcrop production due to
increasing population. But, the agricultural lands go on decreasing as
these are also used for human settlements. So, man has expanded
agricultural activities by converting the forest lands and wetlands into
agricultural lands. Moreover, the natural properties of cropland soils
are lost due to use of high amount of chemical fertilizers with the
purpose to increase crop production.
Like the land resources, the forest resources of the state are also
affected by human activities. If the on-going forest destruction process is
not checked by now, the forest resources of the state will soon disappear.
Massive environmental problems would emerge if the forests become
insufficient to maintain the ecological balance in the state. Similarly, the
mineral resources are being increasingly used especially for the development
of the transport, industry and energy sector and one day these non-renewable
resources would be certainly exhausted.

Environment and Environmental Problems

91
 Presently the dimension of man's economic activities has increased.
The processes of urbanization and industrialisation in the state have
progressed gradually and there are some direct and indirect impacts
of these process on the natural resources. If urbanization and
industrialisation continue without proper planning, the air, water and
land resources will be polluted. Now it has been realised that natural
resources of the state should be utilized properly and rationally and
for this, resource planning is very essential. Misuse of resources should
be checked by conserving them through proper planning and only then
the overall development of the state can be achieved.

4.4. Economy of Assam:

4.4.1. Agriculture :
Assam is an agricultural state.Majority of its people (about 75 per
cent) are engaged in agricultural activities. Agriculture is the foundation
of Assam's economy and the agricultural sector is the main driving force
of its economy. The agricultural sector has been playing an important
role in the development of state economy. More than 53 per cent of
the working population of Assam are directly or indirectly engaged in
the agricultural sector.
According to the Agricultural Census, Assam a total of 28.11 lakh
hectares of lands were cultivated in Assam during 2010-11, which is about
88 per cent of the total land available for cultivation. Like in the other states
of India, the majority of the farmers of Assam cultivate on small plots of
land. About 85 per cent of the farmers of the state are small and marginal
farmers.
Amount of rainfall and temperature, soil types and topographical
characteristics are not same in all places of Assam. As a result, there are
variations in crop varieties, production, methods of agriculture etc. over the
regions. Therefore, the whole of Assam has been divided into six agro-
climatic zones based on variation in soil types and properties, topographical
characteristics, and rainfall and temperature distribution over the state. These
zones are (1) Lower Brahmaputra Valley Zone, (2) North Bank Plain Zone,
(3) Central Brahmaputra Valley Zone, (4) Upper Brahmaputra Valley Zone,
(5) Barak Valley Zone and (6) Hill Zone (Table-4.9). The Lower
Brahmaputra Valley Zone comprising ten districts including Kamrup has 9.30
lakh hectares cultivated land and out of this 4.69 lakh hectares (50.43%)
of areas are sown more than once. In the North Bank Plain Zone covering
five districts including Darrang, about 5.37 lakh hectares of lands are

Geography
92
 Table-4.9 : Agro-climatic Zone-wise distribution of Agricultural lands in Assam [2010-11]

Sl. Net Croped Area Shown

No. Agro-climatic Zones Districts covered Area More Than One
(Lakh hectare) (Lakh hectare)
1 Lowar Brahmaputra Valley Zone Kamrup, Kamrup(Metro), Nalbari, Baksa, Barpeta, 9.30 4.69 [50.43%]
Bongaigaon, Chirang, Kokrajhar, Dhubri, Goalpara

Environment and Environmental Problems

2 North Bank Plain Zone Darrang, Udalguri, Sonitpur, Lakhimpur, Dhemaji 5.37 3.36 (62.57%)
3 Central Brahmaputra Valley Zone Nagaon, Morigaon 3.28 0.86 (26.21%)
4 Upper Brahmaputra Valley Zone Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat, Golaghat 6.20 1.94 (31.29%)
5 Barak Valley Zone Cachar, Karimganj, Hailakandi 2.42 1.02 (42.15%)
6 Hill Zone Karbi Anglong, Dima Hasao 1.54 1.01 (65.58%)
Assam 28.11 12.88 (45.82%)

93
 cultivated out of which 3.36 lakh hectares of lands (62.57%) are used
for raising more than one crop. Similarly, the Central and Upper
Brahmaputra Valley Zone have respectively 3.28 lakh and 6.20 lakh
hectares of cultivated lands. Out of these 0.86 lakh hectares (26.21%)
of lands in the Central Zone and 1.94 lakh hectares (31.29%) of lands
in the Upper Zone are used for sowing more than once. In the Barak
Velley Zone covering Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi district, all total
2.42 lakh hectares of lands are cultivated out of which 1.02 lakh hectares
of land (42.15%) are used to grow more than one crop. On the other
hand, the Hill Zone comprising Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao district
has all total 1.54 lakh hectares of cultivated land where the area sown
more than once covers about 1.01 lakh hectares of lands (65.58%).
In Assam as a whole, total cultivated area (Net Cropped Area) amounts
to 28.11 lakh hectares during 2010-11 out of which the area sown more
than once is 12.88 lakh hectares (45.82%).
Rice is the principal crop in Assam. Rice is cultivated in all the
agro-climatic zones, i.e all the districts of the state. As shown in the
table 4.10 rice was cultivated in an area of 25.45 lakh hectares during
2011-12 and about 50.45 lakh metrictonnes of rice were produced.
Three types of rice are cultivated in Assam, such as Autumn rice, Winter
rice, and Summer rice. Among these the winter rice (sali rice) is
extensively cultivated. It is cultivated in about 70 per cent areas of the
total rice growing areas of Assam. Winter rice grows well in the fertile
alluvial soils of the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley. Using plantation
method this rice is cultivated during July-August and crops are harvested
during November-December. Autumn rice is cultivated in the fertile soils
of the plains and it is extensively cultivated, especially in the lower parts
of the Brahmaputra Valley. This type of rice is grown using both sowing
and plantation methods. It is first cultivated during February-March and
harvested during June-July. On the other hand, Summer rice (Bodo rice)
is cultivated more or less in all the districts of Assam. This rice is grown
generally in the low-lying areas during the winter months and harvested
during the summer months of June-July just before flood comes. Since
the Winter rice is usually damaged by flood every year, Summer rice
cultivation has become more popular among the farmers living in the
flood-affected regions.
Besides rice, the other principal foodcrops of the state are wheat,
maize and different varieties of pulses. Blackgram, greengram, lentil, pea,
arahar, gram etc. are the pulses which were cultivated in 1.32 lakh hectares
of land during 2011-12 with a total production of 0.76 lakh metrictonnes

Geography
94
(Table-4.10). Again oilseeds like mustard, sesamum, linseed, castor etc.
were grown in 2.76 lakh hectare of lands and a total of 1.56 lakh
metrictonnes was produced. Among the other crops vegetables, potato,
spices fruits, sugarcane and jute are the principal crops. Vegetables and
fruits were cultivated respectively in 2.66 and 1.36 lakh hectares of lands.
On the other hand, potato and spices were grown each in equal amount
of lands (0.98 lakh hectares).
Jute has been extensively cultivated in Assam by the farmers migrated
from East Pakistan (Now Bangladesh). It is cultivated mostly on the
floodplains of the middle and lower Brahmaputra Valley. Presently jute
cultivation has declined to some extent. Although jute was cultivated in 0.88
lakh hectares of lands during 1995-96, its cultivation came down to 0.66
lakh hectares during 2011-12.
The agro-climatic zones of Assam have their own characteristics.
But the zones falling on the plains have more similarities in their
agricultural patterns. Winter rice and jute are cultivated during summer
period when monthly average rainfall is over 300 mm. Again rainfall
decreases during winter with less than 10 mm of rainfall on monthly
average basis and in this period mustard, wheat, potato and varieties
of vegetables are grown. On the other hand, jhum cultivattion is largely
practised in the hill regions of the state. However, fruits are cultivated on

Table-4.10 : Some Data on the Major Crops of Assam (2011-12).

Area Under Cultivation Production

Name of crop
(Lakh Hectares) (Lakh Metric tonnes)
(a) Rice 25.45 50.45
(b) Wheat, maize and other food crops 0.65 0.68
(c) Pulses (Blackgram, greengram, lentil,
pea, arahar, gram etc.) 1.32 0.76
Total Foodcrops (a+b+c) : 27.42 51.89
(d) Oil seeds (Mustard, sesamum, linseed, 2.76 1.56
castor, etc.)
Other Major Crops :
(e) Jute 0.66 1.09
(f) Sugarcane 0.28 10.53
(g) Fruits 1.36 17.14
(h) Spices 0.98 2.48
(i) Potato 0.98 6.83
(j) Vegetables 2.66 46.20

Environment and Environmental Problems

95
 the suitable slopes of the hills, whereas rice cultivation is carried out in some
narrow river-plains between the hills.
The agro-climatic zone in the hills of Assam covering Karbi
Anglong and Dima Hasao hill district is chiefly characterised by jhum
cultivation (shifting cultivation). About 66 per cent area of Karbi
Anglong district and 85 per cent area of Dima Hasao are covered
by hills. In these hills, jhum cultivation is practised. jhum cultivation
spans over about 5452 km 2 area of Karbi Anglong district and 2597
km 2 area of Dima Hasao district. Generally, the tribal people carry
out jhum cultivation with traditional methods by burning and clearing
the forests on the suitable slopes of the hills. When soil fertility gets
reduced after carrying out jhum cultivation on a plot of land for several
years together, a new plot of land is selected for jhum cultivation. jhum
cultivation characterised by its shifting nature is very closely associated
with the society, culture and living style of the hill tribes. Although this
type of cultivation is a type of mixed agriculture, it fails to give good
production. Some environmental problems like forest destruction, soil
erosion, loss of soil fertility etc. have cropped up due to this method
of cultivation. So, there arises a need for ecofriendly practice of jhum
cultivation and more essentially efforts should be made to popularise
the practice of terrace cultivation instead of jhum cultivation among
the tribal people of the hills.
4.4.2. Industries :
We have already come to know that Assam is rich in natural
resources. In spite of plenty of natural resources including valuable
mineral resources, Assam is lagging behind in the industrial sector.
Assam is still not successful in fostering the process of industrialization
through proper utilization of the resources. However, presently some
schemes have been introduced for industrial development of the state.
In order to execute these schemes the Department of Industry and
Commerce, Govt. of Assam and Assam Industrial Development
Corporation are especially involved. The industrial development plans
are undertaken on the basis of the industrial policies announced by
the central and state governments from time to time. At present, due
emphasis has been given on the development of the Small Scale
Industrial Sector. In this sector, the employment generating
manufacturing and processing industries are taken into account. The
industrial development of the state will attain its pace only when the
problems of industrial development, especially of the energy and

Geography
96
transport sector are removed. In this regard, it is observed that the
environment of industrialization has been gradually improving in the
state. During the period from 2005-06 to 2008-09 the annual growth
of manufacturing industries and their contribution to state economy
came down gradually. But since 2009-10, the growth of these industries
and their contribution to the economy of the state started to increase.

Table-4.11 : The Industrial Parks and Centres Recently Set up in Assam.

Sl. No. Industrial Parks/Centres Location District
1 Software Technology Park Borjhar Kamrup (Metro)
2 Bio-Technology Park IIT Guwahati Kamrup (Rural)
3 Export Promotion Industrial Park (EPIP) Amingaon Kamrup (Rural)
4 Industrial Growth Centre (IGC) Matia Goalpara
5 Industrial Growth Centre (IGC) Balipara Sonitpur
6 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Demow Sibsagar
7 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Dalgaon Darrang
8 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Naltali Nagaon
9 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Malinibeel Cachar
10 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Titabor Jorhat
11 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Silapathar Dhemaji
12 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Nalbari(Tihu) Nalbari
13 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Pathsala Town Barpeta
14 Integrated Infrastructure Development
Centre (IIDC) Moran Dibrugarh
15 Plastic Park Gelapukhuri Tinsukia
16 Mega Food Park Nathkuchi (Tihu) Nalbari
17 Bamboo Technology Park Chaygaon Kamrup (Rural)
18 Jute Park Dhing Nagaon
19 Tea Park Chaygaon Kamrup (Rural)

Environment and Environmental Problems

97
 The Government of India has announced some schemes for
industrial development in Assam as well as North-East India. In this
regard, the North-East Industrial Investment Promotion Policy
announced in 2007 is noteworthy. As a complimentary to this policy,
the Government of Assam has also undertaken some industrial
schemes by announcing the State Industrial Policy in 2008. Presently,
as many as 64 commercial estates and 50 industrial estates/areas have
been established in different districts of Assam under the central and
state industrial policies. Two industrial growth centres are established
at Balipara of Sonitpur district and Matia of Goalpara district. Again
altogether 9 Integrated Infrastructure Development Centres are set up
at Silapathar (Dhemaji), Dalgaon (Darrang), Pathsala (Barpeta),
Malinibil (Cachar), Demow (Sivasagar), Naltoli-Bhomoraguri
(Nagaon), Titabor (Jorhat), Tihu (Nalbari) and Moran (Dibrugarh).
Moreover, some industrial parks and industrial centres are also
recently set up (Table 4.11).
After reviewing the State Industrial Policy of 2008, the
Government of Assam has announced the Industrial and Investment
Policy, Assam in 2014 for industrial development of the state. The
principal aims of this recently announced state industrial policy are
as follows :
(a) To increase the Gross Domestic Product of the state by
developing the manufacturing and service sectors alongwith
various economic activities.
(b) To increase the per capita income and employment opportunities
in the state, especially in the rural areas.
(c) To encourage and increase investment for the development of
micro, small and medium industries.
(d) To create large number of skilled personnel.
The industries of Assam can be broadly divided into five types,
such as– (1) Mining industries, (2) Handicraft industries, (3) Agro-
based industries, (4) Power industries and (5) Service sector
industries. The major industries under each of these five types are
mentioned in table-4.12. However, all these industries are not
discussed here. The agro-based industries including tea industry and
also the fishery and oil industries are described briefly.
Agro-based Industries : Varieties of foodcrops and cash crops are
produced in Assam due to its climate and soils suitable for agriculture. There
is immense scope for setting up different industries in Assam using the

Geography
98
 Table-4.12 : Major Types of Industries of Assam.
Types of Industries
(1) Mining Industries
(2) Handicraft Industries
(3) Agro-based and Allied Industries
(4) Power Industries
(5) Service Sector Industries
Major Industries
Oil and natural gas industry, coal industry, limestone
industry etc.
Handloom and textile industry, bamboo-cane industry,
brass and bell metal industry, pottery industry etc.
Forestry, tea industry, silk industry, rubber industry,
food processing industry, paper industry, Allied indus-
tries– fishery, animal husbandary etc.
Hydropower industry, oil-coal-gas based energy indus-
try etc.
Trade, transport and communication, tourism industry,
hotel business, banking and insurance services, all types
of business, public administration etc.

agricultural products as raw materials. In this regard, some agro-based

industries have come up. At present the major agro-based industries of the
state are forestry, tea industry, silk industry, rubber industry, food processing
industry and paper industry.
Food processing industry is a major type of agro-based industry.
Rcently this industry has gained importance and it is expected to put a
positive impact on the state economy within a short period of time. The
forests of Assam are full of various forest resources and the industries
like paper, plywoods etc. have already grown up based on these forest
resources. But, the various types of fruits, vegetable plants and medicinal
plants found in the forests of Assam are not so far collected and utilized
on commercial basis. However, some agro-based industries are now set
up based on the fruits and vegetables produced in the rural areas of Assam.
Among these, the food parks established at Chhaygaon and Nathkuchi
(Tihu) are notable.
Silk industry is one of the major agro-based industries of the state.
Traditionally three kinds of silks are produced in Assam– Eri, Muga and
Mulberry yarn (Pat). These three silk types have occupied unique position
in Assamese culture and society. The Eri, Muga and Pat cloths prepared
from these silks have received popularity not in India but also in different
countries of the world. Assam is one of the major Eri producing states
accounting for about 65 per cent production of the country. But, the
production of Mulberry yarn is not so high in the state. On the other
hand, Assam has become world famous in the production of Muga

Environment and Environmental Problems

99
 yarn commonly known as 'Golden Silk'. More than 97 per cent Muga
yarn of India is produced in Assam. Alongwith substantial production
of silk, its associated handloom industries have also developed in the
state. At present, there are more than 13 lakh looms in Assam and
about 25 lakhs people are directly or indirectly associated with weaving
industry.
Rubber industry is an another important agro-based industry of
Assam. Next to tea plantation, rubber plantation has now become
popular in the state. The Rubber Board of India has identified Assam
as a most prospective state for rubber plantation based on its suitable
climate. Rubber was planted on about 16.5 thousand hactares of land
during 2006-07. But, during 2012-13 the plantation area was increased
by more than two times to 34.5 thousand hactares of land. In view of
more prospect for rubber production in the state, the Rubber Board
of India has taken scheme to extend the rubber plantation area upto
2 lakh hactares by the end of the 12th five-year plan.
Tea industry is the largest agro-based industry of the state. Assam
has earned a good name in tea industry not only in India but also in
the world. This industry plays an important role in state economy (Fig.
4.5). Assam alone produces more than half of the total tea production
of India. Tea industry in Assam has flourished due to luxuriant growth
of tea under favourable climatic conditions. Assam has a total of 765
tea estates and also 78,091 small tea gardens with area less than 10.12
hactares as per data of 2012. Tea is cultivated in Assam in a total of
318 thousand hactares of land. About 500 thousand tonnes of tea were
produced in 2009 and it increased to 590 thousand tonnes in 2012 (Table
4.13). A large number of people are now employed in tea industry. More
than 6.86 lakhs people are engaged on daily average in the tea industry
Table-4.13 : Comparative Data on Tea Production in Assam and India
Years Total Tea Production (tonnes) Assam's Share of India's
India Assam Total Production (%)
2001 853923 453587 51.95
2005 945974 487487 51.53
2009 978999 499997 51.07
2012 1111760 590120 53.08
2013 1208780 629050 52.04
2014 1207310 610970 50.61
2015 1208660 526185 43.53
2016 1237360 669500 54.11

Geography
100
of Assam. According to an
another source of the Tea Board
of India, the small tea growers
of the state now cultivate tea in
about 88 thousand hectares of
land and produce about 107
thousand tonnes of tea. The
leading position of Assam in tea
production in India is evident
from the Table 4.13. Assam has
earned the glory of producing
above 50 percent of the total tea
production of India during 2001-
2016 only excluding the year 2015 Fig. 4.5 : Monabari tea garden– the largest tea garden of Asia
(Table 4.13).
Fishery : Agricultural sector has its notable contributions towards
economic development of Assam. The extent of agricultural activities is
vast and the fishery and animal husbandary may also be included within
it. Presently, fishery is gradually gaining importance in the economic
sector of Assam (Fig. 4.6). There is immense prospect for fishery
development in the state. Assam is a state full of rivers and tributaries.
Fishes are found in its rivers, wetlands, abandoned channels, marshes,
waterbodies etc. Plenty of fishes are naturally available in the wetlands
of the Barak and Brahmaputra plains and floodplains. Fish production
can be increased by multiplying fish population in these wetlands through
scientific methods and plans. In spite of more demand for fish and more
scope for fish production in the state, the vast wetlands and waterbodies
are not properly utilized for producing fishes. As per 2011-12s data, there
are 430 government registered wetlands in the state covering about 60
thousand hactare areas. Again, there are another 767 non-registered
wetlands covering a total of 40 thousand hactares of area. In addition
to these wetlands, a large number of tanks, marshylands, waterbodies
etc. are regarded as the fish producing grounds. During 2011-12 all total
about 4490 million fish seeds were produced from 3.94 lakh hactare of
fishing ground and in the same period 2.44 lakh tonnes of fishes were
produced in the state. It is observed that production of fish seeds increased
by 2.5 times and fish production increased only by 1.5 times during the
last ten years. District-wise production pattern of fish seeds during 2011-
12 reveals that Barpeta district is the highest producer of fish seeds in
the state and Karimganj and Nagaon district have attained the second

Environment and Environmental Problems

101
 and third position respectively.
Similarly, Nagaon district ranks
first in fish production is the state
during the year, while Cachar
and Dhubri district occupy the
second and the third position
respectively.
The fishery sector
nominally contributes to the
state domestic products, which
is only two per cent. Fish
production in the state is not
Fig. 4.6 : Fishyculture satisfactory in spite of
tremendouns prospects. At present, Assam imports about 0.20 lakh
tonnes of fish annually from other states of the country. But, the amount
of fish proudced in the state as well as imported from outside is not
sufficient to meet the domestic demand. As a result, there is an annual
deficit of 0.52 lakh tonnes of fish in the state and so the price of
fish has increased more and more.
Oil Industry : Assam is rich in oil resources. First exploration of
oil production in the state started in 1889 at Digboi. Digboi is the oldest
oil field of India (Fig. 4.7). When the oil fields of Western India did
not produce oil, the Digboi oil field then earned the pride of producing
three-fourth of the total oil production of the country. This oil field
covering an area of about 13 km 2 supplies oil to the Digboi refinery.
After Digboi, Naharkatia oil field was explored and oil production started
from 1954. Annually 2.5 million tonnes of oil and one million cubic meter
of natural gas are produced from this oil field. Oil from this field is
transported to Noonmati Refinery of Guwahati and Barauni Refinery
of Bihar through pipe lines. Oil production from the Moran-Hugrijan oil
field was started from 1956. Moreover, oil is produced from the major
oil fields like Rudrasagar, Lakowa, Geleki, Borhola and Amaguri.
Presently, there are four oil refineries in Assam. These are Digboi
Refinery, Guwahati Refinery, Bongaigaon Refinery and Numaligarh
Refinery. Digboi Refinery is the oldest of the country. It has its annual
refining capacity of 0.7 million metrictonnes. Guwahati Refinery and
Bongaigaon Refinery have their annual refining capacity of 1 million
metrictonnes and 2.4 million metrictonnes of oil respectively. On the
other hand, Numaligarh Refinery has its annual refining capacity of 3
million metrictonnes of oil. Assam produced about 4.86 million
metrictonnes of crude oil and 2681 million cubicmeter of natural gas
in 2012-13. But, these productions were somewhat less than that of
Geography
102
 Fig. 4.7 : A picture of Digboi oil field

the previous year, i.e., 2011-12.

4.4.3. : Problems and Prospects of Economic Development of Assam
The economy of Assam is mainly dependent on agriculture.
Agriculture is the main occupation of about 75 per cent people of the
state. But, it is important to note that its agricultural sector is not so
developed till now. The reason is that there are some problems of
agriculture of the state. The major problems are –
(a) Traditional agriculture in the plains and jhum cultivation in the hills
are still practised through the age-old methods.
(b) The agricultural lands of the farmers are fragmented into small
plots, where it is difficult to use the modern agricultural implements
and techniques.
(c) Method of irrigation is not developed and irrigation facilities are
not adequate.
(d) Rice is extensively cultivated in the state and it has its significant
impact on agro-economy. But, no due importance is given on
application of modern agricultural methods for development of rice
cultivation..
(e) Agriculture of the state is badly affected by flood and bank erosion.
Annually crops of more than 25 per cent croplands of the state
are damaged by flood and large areas of fertile alluvial lands are
also lost annually due to river bank erosion
(f) In order to protect the agricultural activities as well as the farmers
from severe drought, there is no proper agricultural planning.
(g) Crop protection and crop harvesting methods are not developed.
(h) Facilities for crop preservation, especially for the foodcrops are
very limited.

Environment and Environmental Problems

103
 (i) Farmers have become poor, because there is no provision that
the farmers can directly get the reasonable price for the crops
they produce.
(j) Farmers are in want of facilities for easily obtaining high quality
seeds, necessary fertilizers, agricultural implements and loans at
subsidised rates.
(k) There is lack of developed communication and transport system
linking the interior agricultural regions with the markets of towns
and cities.
(l) The agricultural sector and the agro-based industrial sectors are
not progressing parallely.
(m) There is limited use of comparatively low cost electricity in
mechanization of agriculture and
(n) The overall infrastructure actually lacks in the state for agricultural
development of the state.
However, some modern agricultural methods are being slowly
applied recently in the agricultural sector to a limited extent. As a result,
agricultural production has increased by some amount. Foodcrops are
grown in about three-fourth of the total croplands of the state. Among
these rice is extensively cultivated. So, the agro-economic development
of the state mostly depends on development of rice cultivation. Recently,
the cultivation of fruits and vegetables has expanded. The major cash
crops produced in the state include tea, jute, sugarcane and tobacco.
Tea has made substantial contribution to the state economy. In this
regard, the role of the small scale tea cultivation is also noticeable.
Like the agricultural sector, the industrial sector has also important role
in economy. But, the ongoing industrialization process in the state is slow
in spite of having more prospects. The main reasons for this are–
(a) There is lack of integrated planning for industrial development
through proper utilisation of the natural resources of the state.
(b) Progress of development of agro-based industries is limited and slow
in spite of more prospects.
(c) Underdeveloped transport and communication system.
(d) Insufficient capital.
(e) In proportion to demand and requirement, supply and distribution
of energy is not adequate.
(f) No proper planning to generate enterprising zeal among the local
people.
(g) There is lack of a simple and flexible industrial policy in the state.
(h) Investment in industrial sector is not satisfactory, because the
investors from outside are not so interested to invest, especially due
to insurgency problem arising in the state.
(i) In spite of plenty of prospects, the tourism industry of the state
is not so developed due to problems like inadequate capital
investment, underdeveloped transport system, lack of environment
Geography
104
 to attract foreign tourists, poor infrastructure of the tourist spots
etc.
(j) Due to lack of proper storage for preservation of perishable agro-
products, the food processing industry has not developed much.
(k) Above all, there is lack of necessary infrastructure for industrial
development in the state.
There were no such important industries in the state except the tea
industry and Digboi Refinery before Independence. But during the last two-
three decades efforts are made to promote necessary infrastructure for
industrialisation. As a result, some industries have come up. Among these the
major industries include oil refineries, petro-chemical industries, fertilizer
industry, paper mill, cement industries, sugar mill, cotton and jute industries.
Presently, there are more than 100 medium scale industries and about 17,500
small scale industries in the state. On the other hand, the handloom and
handicraft industries like Eri, Muga and Pat textiles, bamboo-cane industries,
brass and bell metal industries are developed in the state. Muga yarn (Golden
silk) production is the monopoly industry of Assam. But it is important to
note that these local industries have been facing competition from the modern
industrial products imported from outside due to lack of proper markets,
adequate capital investment, infrastructure and modern technology.
Assam in rich in mineral resources. Coal, oil, natural gas and limestones
are the major mineral resources of Assam. A good amount of royalty is
obtained from these resources. Similarly, substantial amounts of revenue are
collected from the forest products, such as wood, bamboo, cane, firewood,
thatch etc. fish resources of the wetlands and sand-gravels of the river beds.
Some revenues are also obtained from the tourism sector. However, there
is more prospect for tourism development in the state. Assam is also rich
in land and water resources. But, no suitable land use planning is taken
up on the basis of soil properties of the state. It is a fact that proper use
of land resources may accelerate the economic development of the state.
On the other hand, the water resources of the Brahmaputra and Barak and
their innumerable tributaries are not utilized properly. If the water resources
are used in the agricultural, industrial, energy and transport sectors with
suitable planning, only then the state economy will flourish.
Like in the other states of India, Assam also has plenty of prospects
for human resource development. But, in view of occupational characteristics
of its population, the state has not been able to achieve development in
the secondary and tertiary sectors except in the primary occupation sector.
Human development is possible only when the people can be employed
in all the economic sectors by creating working skill of the large population
of the state. Moreover, the people of the weaker section, especially the
poor and the woman should be properly empowered. The natural resources
(land, forest, water etc.) should not be unwisely utilized only in the name
of economic development. Emphasis should be given on the uses of the
natural resources with proper planning from sustainable development
perspective. Above all, there should be good co-ordination among the
economic sectors like agriculture, industry. power, transport, service sectors
etc. for overall development of the state.
Environment and Environmental Problems
105
 S U M M A R Y
 Assam covers 2.4 per cent area of India and has 2.6 per cent population of the
country (As per 2011 census).
 Literacy rate and sex ratio have increased in Assam during 2001-11. Again the
percentage of rural population has decreased while percentage of urban population
has increased.
 There are 7 Class-I towns and 6 Class-II towns in Assam as per 2011 census data.
 Although the population growth in Assam depends on birth rate, death rate and
migration, the impact of migration is very significant.
 Assam's population increased by more than two times during the four decades from
1901 to 1941. But, it had increased rapidly during the post Independence period
from 1951 to 1971. However, population decreased slowly during 1981-2011.
 Due to uneven distribution of population in the state, population density also varies
from region to region. In the Brahmaputra Valley population density is found to increase
from its upper part to middle part and then from middle part to lower part. Similarly,
the Barak Valley has high population density and the hill zone covering Karbi Anglong
and Dima Hasao district has low density of population.
 According to data of 2011 census, Kamrup (Metro) is the most densely populated
district, while Dima Hasao district is the most sparsely populated district of the state.
 Different ethnic groups of people have been migrating to Assam since the past and
as a result assemblage of various groups of people with their diversed languages,
religions and cultures took place. Such variations and diversities are the special
characteriesties of Assam and these have been immensely enriching the Assamese
society and culture.
 As because Assam is the gateway of North-East India, the development of the transport
system of Assam is directly helpful for the economic development of the North-East.
 The transport systems of Assam include the road, rail, water and air transport. All
these transport systems suffer from a number of problems. The transport sector of
Assam is not developed up to the mark.
 In the case of economic development of Assam both the resources– natural and human
are important and Assam is rich in these two types of resources.
 The major natural resources of Assam are the land, forest, mineral and water resources.
 Although Assam is rich in natural resources, these are not utilized properly so far.
Presently there arises crisis of natural resources due to improper use and haphazard
exploitation of these. In this regard, the misuse of natural and human resources should
be checked by properly using and conserving these through suitable resource planning,
so as to achieve overall development of the state.
 Assam's economy is basically dependent on agriculture. About 75% of the people

Geography
106
 of the state are engaged in agriculture. Moreover, about 53% or more of the total
working population are directly or indirectly engaged in agriculture.
 Based on the soil types and properties, topographic characteristics, variation in
the distribution of temperature and rainfall, Assam has been divided into six agro-
climatic zones, such as (1) Lower Brahmaputra Valley Zone, (2) North Bank Plain
Zone, (3) Middle Brahmaputra Valley Zone, (4) Upper Brahmaputra Valley Zone,
(5) Barak Valley Zone and (6) Hill Zone.
 Rice is the major crop of Assam. Three types of rices are cultivated, such as
Autumn rice, Winter rice and Bodo rice.
 Jhum cultivation (shifting cultivation) is widely practised in the two hill districts–
Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao.
 Assam is still backward in the industrial sector in spite of plenty of natural resources
including valuable minerals.
 The industries of Assam can be classified into five types, e.g., (1) Mining industries,
(2) Handicraft industries, (3) Agro-based industries, (4) Power industries and (5)
Service sector industries.
 There are ample prospects for development of agro-based industries in Assam.
Tea industry is the biggest agro-based industry of the state and it has a good name
not in India but also in the world.
 Till today slow growth has been observed in the agricultural and industrial sector
and necessary measures are to be taken to remove the problems of these two
major sectors of state economy.
 There are a number of problems and plenty of prospects for economic development
of Assam. The problems should be removed and due emphasis should be given
on the prospects.
 For overall development of the state, the economic sectors like agricultural,
industrial, energy, transport, service sectors etc. should be brought ahead by
maintaining co-ordination among them.

E X E R C I S E
1. Write briefly about Assam's land area, population and population density with necessary
data.
2. Biefly mention how the literacy rate of Assam is increasing.
3. How many first class and second class towns are there in Assam as per 2011 census
data?
4. Describe the trend of population growth in Assam during 1901-2011.
5. Analyse the geographical region-wise distribution of population in Assam.
6. Briefly discuss the causes responsible for variation in the distribution of Assam's population
with suitable examples.

Environment and Environmental Problems

107
 7. Mention the districts of Assam which have highest population and density and lowest
population and density as per 2011 census data.
8. Analyse briefly the causes responsible for growth of population in Assam.
9. Mention the different human migration streams sequentially coming to Assam since the
ancient times to the present.
10. Give the ethnic identity of the Ahoms.
11. Briefly state how the transport system of Assam has been helping the state's economy.
12. Write a short not on water transport in Assam.
13. Mention five major causes which are regarded as hindrance to the development of transport
system of Assam.
14. What do you mean by the term 'resource'? What are the major natural resources of Assam?
15. Name the major oil fields of Assam.
16. Write briefly about the water resources of Assam.
17. What are the causes responsible for degradation of Assam's natural resources?
18. How has the growing population of Assam put impact on the natural resources?
19. Is the vast population of Assam a burden (problem) on resource of the state? Discuss.
20. According to you what steps need to be followed in creating human resource in Assam?
21. Discuss briefly the role of agricultural sector on Assam's economy.
22. What are the agro-climatic regions of Assam? Mention the characteristics of each of them
in brief.
23. What are the types of rices cultivated in Assam? Briefly write about these.
24. Why is rice considered as the principal crop in Assam?
25. What are the pulses cultivated in Assam?
26. Write briefly about jhum cultivation (shifting cultivation) carried out in Assam.
27. What are the major aims of the Assam Industrial and Investment Policy, 2014.
28. What do you mean by the term 'service sector industries'? Briefly explain taking examples
from Assam.
29. What are the major agro-based industries of Assam?
30. Write about the tea industry of Assam in brief?
31. State the present status of the fish industry of Assam.
32. Mention the problems of agricultural development in Assam.
33. Why is the industrial development in the state still slow?
34. Mention the problems of tourism industry of Assam.
35. What are the prospects for economic development of Assam?

Geography
108