Section I

Surveying Measurements

Leveling, horizontal and slope

distance, angles and directions

2. Horizontal and Slope

Distances
Readings:
Readings:6-1,6-4,
6-1,6-4,6-6,
6-6,6-7,6-8,
6-7,6-8,6-14,
6-14,6-
6-
17
17to
to6-24
6-24

Horizontal Distance
Measurement
Tape
Odometer
Subtense Bar
Stadia
EDM
 Tape Measurement
• Accuracy and speed considerations for civil
engineers.
• Sources of Errors:
• Incorrect length of the tape
• Temperature difference
• Sag
• Poor alignment
• Tape not horizontal
• Improper Plumbing
Other methods
• Odometer
• Subtense Bar
• Stadia
 Electronic Distance Measurement
• Early types:
• Transmit light, measure up to 25 miles
• Transmit microwaves, measure up to 50
miles
• Classification of EDM:
• Electro-optical: laser or infra red reflected
from passive prism or surfaces, the US has
installed a prism on the moon.
• Microwave: two positive units.
Topcon EDM
attached to a
WILD
theodolite
Topcon DM-S2
EDM attached to a
WILD theodolite
Reflectors (Prisms)

Pole and bipod

Prism and sighting target
Laser Distance measuring Devices
 Distance Computation

• All measured is phase shift , different signals

of wave length: 10 100 1000 10,000 m are
sent. Each fraction provides a digit(s).
• (Phase shift / 360)*wave length = non complete
cycle length.
• Example: how a distance 3485.123 is measured.
 Electronic Distance Measurement
EDM
The Idea:
To measure the distance between two points (A)
and (B) the EDM on point (A) sends
electromagnetic waves. The waves received at
(B) are reflected back or resent to (A) by a
device onthe
•Knowing (B).speed of electromagnetic waves in
the air, the EDM computes the distance by
measuring the time difference or the shift of the
wave phase angle (will be explained in details
later).
 90°

180° 0°

270°

Phase Angle φ

Assume that λ = 2 m
If φ1 = 80°, it corresponds to a distance = (80/360) * λ = 0.44 m
If φ2 = 135°, it corresponds to a distance = (135/360) * λ = 0.75
m
If φ3 = 240°, it corresponds to a distance = (80/360) * λ = 1.33 m
 Reflectors (Prisms)
• Are made of high quality glass, excellent reflection
capability.
• Accept rotation to right and left, and maybe up and
down, why?? And can be mounted on a tribrach or
a pole, why??
• Reflect the energy at the same path it came through.
The theory is that if a ray of light hits a mirror and
is reflected to hit another mirror and exit the
system, the angle between the first and last rays is
double the angle between the mirrors. The angle
between the mirrors is 90°, three of them resemble
three mirrors installed on the walls at the corner of
a room, That is why they are called “corner
reflectors”
 A

B
C

The angle between the rays A and C is

double the angle between the two mirrors =
2 *90° = 180°
Notice that the objects will look upside
down, notice the box at the tail of the arrow
Prism Constant
Why to consider it?
Aiming at a prism through the telescope of a total station in a
zoo!
Reflectors (Prisms)

Fully rotating
prism

Prism and sighting

target

Pole and bipod

u A reflector might include a single
prism or a group of prisms
u Reflectors can be a simple reflecting
paper-sticker, they are called sheet-
prisms, paper prism, or reflective
sheeting. Very instrumental in
construction sites and deformation
monitoring of structures.
u The sighting target might be lower
than the prism itself, why???
Remarks
• Accuracy: 3mm, and 3ppm is the most
common
• Prismless EDM: up to 100 m, can reach
hard places.