Process Systems, including Biosystems

11th IFAC Symposium on Dynamics and Control of

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11th 6-8, 2016. NTNU, Trondheim,
Symposium on DynamicsNorway
and Controlonline
of
Process Systems, including Available
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June 6-8,Systems, including
2016. NTNU, Biosystems
Trondheim, Norway
June 6-8, 2016. NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
ScienceDirect
IFAC-PapersOnLine
Energy-based visualisation 49-7 (2016) 314–319
of an axial-flow compressor system for the purposes
Energy-based visualisation of
of Fault
Energy-based visualisation an axial-flow
of anDetection
axial-flowand compressor
Diagnosissystem
compressor system for
for the
the purposes
purposes
of Fault Detection
of Fault Detection and Diagnosis
L.B. Fouché*, and Diagnosis
K.R. Uren*,
G. van Schoor*
L.B. Fouché*, K.R. Uren*,
L.B. Fouché*,
 K.R. Uren*,
G. van Schoor*
G. van
*School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Schoor*
Engineering,
 North-West University, Potchefstroom,
South-Africa *School
(Tel: (+27)83 643 3327; e-mail: 
lbfouche@yahoo.com; Kenny.Uren@nwu.ac.za; George.vanSchoor@nwu.ac.za)
of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, North-West University, Potchefstroom,
*School of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, North-West University, Potchefstroom,
South-Africa (Tel: (+27)83 643 3327; e-mail: lbfouche@yahoo.com; Kenny.Uren@nwu.ac.za; George.vanSchoor@nwu.ac.za)
South-Africa (Tel: (+27)83 643 3327; e-mail: lbfouche@yahoo.com; Kenny.Uren@nwu.ac.za; George.vanSchoor@nwu.ac.za)

Abstract: As the complexity of industrial systems increases, the necessity also increases for more
reliable, robust
Abstract: As the andcomplexity
accurate Fault Detection systems
of industrial and Diagnosis
increases,(FDD) the techniques.
necessity also Thisincreases
article proposes
for morea
Abstract:
methodology As the the complexity ofofanindustrial systems increases, an the necessity also increases for more
reliable, robustforand design Fault
accurate FDD system,
Detection based
and Diagnosis on (FDD) energy visualisation
techniques. of an proposes
This article axial-flow a
reliable, robust
compressor system. and accurate Fault Detection and Diagnosis (FDD) techniques. This article proposes
residuala
methodology for theThis method
design of aninvestigates
FDD system, the steady
based state
on an andenergy
transients of the system
visualisation of anfor axial-flow
methodology
generation. A for the design
nonlinear of anderived
FDD system, based on an systemenergy that visualisation of an axial-flow
compressor system. This model
methodisinvestigates forthethissteady
compressor
state and transients of arethe capable
systemofformodellingresidual
compressor
compressor system. Thissuch
instabilities method
as investigates
rotating stall, the steady
surge and stateAand
leaks. transients ofanalysis
power-energy the system is done forusing
residual
the
generation. A nonlinear model is derived for this compressor system that are capable of modelling
generation.
state variablesA nonlinear
of the model
system is derived
under normal for
and this
faultcompressor
conditions system
and are that are capable
visually presented. of Two
modellingfault
compressor instabilities such as rotating stall, surge and leaks. A power-energy analysis is done using the
compressor
conditions instabilities
are analysed such
in as rotating
terms of power stall,
and surge
energy. and leaks.firstAtest
power-energy analysis is done using the
state variables of the system under normal and fault The
conditions and caseareintroduces a leak
visually presented. in theTwo system.
fault
state variables
The secondare of
focuses the system
on the under
more complex normal and fault conditions and are visually presented. Two fault
conditions analysed in terms of powersituation
and energy. whenThethefirst
system
test caseentersintroduces
an unstable operation,
a leak namely
in the system.
conditions
rotating areThe
stall. analysed
results inindicate
terms ofthat power
the and energy.
power and The first
energy of testsystem
the case introduces
may be a leak
useful for inthe
thepurposes
system.
The second focuses on the more complex situation when the system enters an unstable operation, namely
TheFDD.
of second focuses on the more complex situation when the system enters an unstable operation, namely
rotating stall. The results indicate that the power and energy of the system may be useful for the purposes
rotating stall. The results indicate that the power and energy of the system may be useful for the purposes
©
of FDD.
2016, IFAC (Internationalvisualisation,
of FDD. Energy-based
Keywords: Federation ofAxial-flow
Automatic Control)
compressor,Hosting Fault by detection
Elsevier Ltd. andAlldiagnosis,
rights reserved.
Rotating
stall, Leak.
Keywords: Energy-based visualisation, Axial-flow compressor, Fault detection and diagnosis, Rotating
Keywords: Energy-based visualisation, Axial-flow compressor, Fault detection and diagnosis, Rotating
stall, Leak. 
stall, Leak.
1. INTRODUCTION  Leaks are caused by corrosion and development of high
 pressures
Leaks are in causedcomponents
by corrosion that and results in an undesired
development of high
As the complexity of1. INTRODUCTION
1.large-scale
INTRODUCTION industrial systems increases, discharge Leaks are ofcaused pressure by from
corrosion
the
pressures in components that results in an undesired
and development
system. Instabilities of high
are also
issues such as safety, reliability, performance and cost pressures
common in components
in axial-flow that results Gravdahl
compressors. in an undesired (1998)
As the complexity of large-scale industrial systems increases, discharge of pressure from the system. Instabilities are also
As the complexity of important.
large-scaleFaults
industrial
that systems
occur inincreases, discharge
discussed two of pressure from such the system. Instabilities
namely are also
become
issues all theasmore
such safety, reliability, performance a system
and cost common in examples
axial-flowof compressors. instabilities Gravdahl rotating
(1998)
issues such as safety, reliability, performance and cost common in axial-flow compressors. Gravdahl (1998)
can
becomeinfluence
all theall fourimportant.
more of these factors.
Faults that A properly a system stall
occur in designed and surge.
discussed two examples of such instabilities namely rotating
become
FDD all thecan
system more important.
minimise the Faults that
severity of occur
the in a system discussed two examples of such instabilities namely rotating
consequences
can influence all four of these factors. A properly designed Faults stall and surge.
cause abnormalities in the response of a system, which
can
of influence
these all four of these factors. A properly designed stall and
faults.can surge.
FDD system minimise the severity of the consequences
FDD system can minimise the severity of the consequences in turncause
Faults result in undesired
abnormalities in theenergy
response exchanges within
of a system, the
which
of these(1998)
faults. Faults cause abnormalities in the energy-based
response of a FDD system, which
these faults. categorised FDD systems as either model-free system.
Gertler
of in turn Advances
result in in nonlinear
undesired energy exchanges methods
within the
or model-based. Model-free methods areasbased in turn
have made result in undesired
it possible to monitor energythese exchanges
energy within the
exchanges.
Gertler (1998) categorised FDD systems eitheron physical system.
model-free Advances in nonlinear energy-based FDD methods
Gertler (1998) categorised FDD systemsisasused either model-free any system.
Chen made Advances
(2011) in nonlinear energy-based FDD balances
methods
redundancy,
or model-based.where additional
Model-free hardware
methods are basedtoondetect physical have ithas applied
possible tothis approach
monitor theseto the energy
energy exchanges.
or model-based. Model-free methods are based on physical have made it possible to monitor these energy exchanges.
deviation
redundancy, in the
wheresystem’s
additionaloperation.
hardware Isermanm
is used (1997)
to detect any of
stated Chena pendulum
(2011) has and robot manipulator
applied this approachintotwo thetest cases.
energy balances
redundancy,
that model-basedwheremethods
additional hardwareanalytical
implement detect any Chen (2011) has applied this approach to the energy balances
is used toredundancy
deviation in the system’s operation. Isermanm (1997) stated of a pendulum and robot manipulator in two test cases.
deviation ina themodel
by system’sof operation. Isermanm (1997) stated This paper aims
of a pendulum and at illustrating
robot manipulator the inpotential of using an
two test cases.
that using
model-based methods the observed
implement system
analytical to detect
redundancy energy-based
that model-based
abnormalities. methods implement analytical
by using a model of the observed system to detect system
redundancy This paper aims at illustrating the potential ofcompressor
visualisation of an axial-flow using an
by using a model of the observed system to detect energy-based This paper aims at illustrating
for designing an FDDof system. the potential
In orderofto using an
illustrate
abnormalities. visualisation an axial-flow compressor
Model-based methods are mostly favoured over model-free system
abnormalities. energy-based
this potential, visualisation
a leak isanintroduced of an axial-flow
in theIncompressor compressor
system,
for designing FDD system. order to illustrate
volume, and system effects
for designing an FDD system.areInanalysed.
order to illustrate
methods sincemethods
Model-based they do arenot impose penalties over
mostly favoured such asmodel-free this the
potential, aonleak theisenergy
introducedresponse in the compressorAsystem, second
Model-based
mass and cost methods
according areto mostly
Bokor favoured
and Szabó over model-free
(2009). Model- this potential,
test case is a leak is introduced
investigated, where a in the compressor
change in operating system,
point
methods since they do not impose penalties such as volume, and the effects on the energy response are analysed. A second
methodsmethods
based since they suchdo as
not observer-based,
impose penaltiesparity-space
such as volume, and and thethe
causes effects on the energy
compressor to enter response
rotating are analysed. A second
stall.
mass and cost according to Bokor and Szabó (2009). Model- test case is investigated, where a change in operating point
mass and cost
parameter according to Bokor
identification and Szabó (2009).
are well-known methods Model- test case is investigated, where a change in operating point
in causes
based methods
based methods
literature.
such as observer-based,
such as observer-based,
parity-space
parity-space
and
and In
causesthisthe compressor
thepaper,
compressorthe stateto enter
to enter
rotating
space
rotatingmodel stall.of an axial-flow
stall.
parameter identification are well-known methods in compressor system is derived in Section 2. The model is
parameter identification are well-known methods in In this paper, the state space model of an axial-flow
literature.
García-Matos et.al. (2013) conducted a model-based FDD on extended In this paper, the state space model effects of an axial-flow
literature. compressorto system include isthe dynamic
derived in Section of a leak
2. The modelin theis
an axial-flow compressor of a Combined-Cycle Power Plant. compressor
plenum. Sectionsystem 3 is derived
contains the in Section
simulation 2.
and The model of
validation is
García-Matos et.al. (2013) conducted a model-based FDD on extended to include the dynamic effects of a leak in the
García-Matos et.al. (2013) conducted a model-based FDD on extended to include the dynamic effects of a leak in the
Their methodology
an axial-flow is based
compressor of on a hybrid approachPower
a Combined-Cycle Plant. the
that entails model.
plenum. The validation
Section 3 contains of the
the simulation
model is done and by comparing
validation of
anphysical
axial-flow compressor of a Combined-Cycle Plant. plenum.
Power model Section 3 contains the simulation and validation
®
model.of
aTheir model
methodology and a multilayer
is based perceptron
on a hybrid approach that entails the
(MLP) model’s
the model. The response to the
validation response
of the modelofis adone Flownex
by comparing
Their
for methodology
residual is based
generation. Thison awashybrid
done approach
for that entails
general fault the
The model.
two Thecases
test validation
are of the modelinis done
investigated section by 4comparing
®from an
a physical model and a multilayer perceptron (MLP) model the model’s response to the response of a Flownex® model.
aconditions
physical model andoccur
a multilayer perceptron model the model’s
(MLP)Typical response to the caseresponse of a and Flownex model.
for residualthat may
generation. in a was
This compressor
done for general fault energy
system. The twoperspective,
test cases one are investigated for a leak in sectionthe4 other from for an
for residual
faults, such generation.
as leaks, This was
blockages and done
fouling forcangeneral
occur fault
in a The twostall.
rotating test Section
cases are5 investigated
concludes the in section
paper with a 4discussion
from an
conditions that may occur in a compressor system. Typical energy perspective, one case for a leak and the other for
conditions that mayaccording
occur in toa Breese
compressor system. Typical of energy perspective,
the results one case futurefor a leak and the other for
compressor
faults, such system
as leaks, blockages et al. (1992).
and fouling can occur in a rotating stall. and planned
Section 5 concludes work.
the paper with a discussion
faults, such as leaks, blockages and fouling can occur in a rotating stall. Section 5 concludes the paper with a discussion
compressor system according to Breese et al. (1992). of the results and planned future work.
compressor system according to Breese et al. (1992). of the results and planned future work.
Copyright © 2016 IFAC 314
2405-8963 © 2016, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Copyright
Peer review©under
2016 responsibility
IFAC 314Control.
of International Federation of Automatic
Copyright © 2016 IFAC
10.1016/j.ifacol.2016.07.311 314
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2. STATE SPACE MODEL Model parameters (continued)

A number of axial-flow compressor models can be found in Symbol Parameter Value Unit
literature. These models range from simplistic 1-D models of Vp Plenum volume 1.5 m3
Greitzer (1976) to complex 3-D models of Takata and ρ Density 1.15 kg/m3
Nagano (1972). The set of differential equations in Greitzer Co
Shut off value of compressor
0.3
(1976) is used for the state space model in this paper. The characteristic
H Comp. characteristic semi-height 0.18 -
model is capable of representing the dynamics of both
rotating stall and surge. Temperature effects are however not W Comp. characteristic semi-width 0.25
included. The model is further expanded to include the N Rotor speed 4583 r/min
dynamics of a leak in the plenum volume.
2.2 Compressor system governing equations
The system considered in the derivation of the state space
model is shown in Fig. 1. Three main components are The set of first-order differential equations that describe the
identified in the system. These components include the dynamics of the compressor system is derived from the
compressor, plenum and throttle. The compressor is located conservation of mass and momentum balances for the
in the inlet duct while the throttle is located in the outlet duct. compressor system. The set of equations is given by
dm c Ac
 =  pc  pi   (1)
dt Lc
dm t At
 p o  p t , ss  , (2)
dt Lt
dp p a 2
 m c  m t  , (3)
dt V p
dpc 1
=  pc,ss  pc  , (4)
ompressor hrottle dt τ
with pp the plenum pressure, ∆ c the pressure rise across the
compressor, ∆ i the pressure difference between the plenum
and inlet and ∆ o the pressure difference between the plenum
and outlet. The compressor time lag τ fo nd in (4) is given by
nlet d t len m tlet d t 2RN stall ,
 (5)
U
Fig. 1. Compressor system. where Nstall is the number of rotor revolutions required to
develop a stall cell and is selected as 2, as in Greitzer (1976).
The set of first order differential equations is given in section
2.2. These equations govern the dynamics of the system and The characteristic that describes the pressure rise across the
include the characteristics of the compressor and throttle compressor is modelled by a third-order polynomial function.
components. In section 2.3, a fault condition is implemented This function relates the mass flow rate through the
within the governing equation of the plenum. In the latter part compressor ṁc [kg/s] to the steady state pressure rise across
of this section, the complete model, including the fault the compressor ∆ c,ss [Pa], and is given by
condition, is presented in state space format.
C 0  (NRπ ) 2  15 m c3 3m c2
 .(6)
p c.ss =  H  2
 
2.1 Model parameters
900  πRN(ρA cW) 2 ρ(AcW) 2

The throttle characteristic is defined by a second-order
The model parameters and values for the compressor system polynomial function. The function relates the mass flow rate
considered in this paper are given in Table 1. through the throttle ṁt [kg/s] to the pressure drop across the
throttle ∆ t [Pa] and is given by
Table 1. Model parameters
m t2 . (7)
Symbol Parameter Value Unit pt ,ss =
2ut ρAt2
a Speed of sound 340
m/s
U Compressor mean rotor speed 48
2.3 Fault dynamics
Ac Compressor duct area 0.01
m2
At Throttle duct area 0.01
A leak in the plenum is one type of fault that may occur in a
Lc Compressor duct length 3 m compressor system. The result of this fault is a decrease in
Lt Throttle duct length 0.8 m the performance of the system. Certain effects may be
R Rotor mean radius 0.1 observed when the fault occurs.

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316

The effect of a leak may be included in the mass balance 3. MODEL SIMULATION
equation as follows:
The state space model is validated with Flownex®, a systems
dp p a 2
CFD software package capable of simulating complex
  m c  m t  m h   (8)
thermal-fluid systems. Flownex® incorporates a large variety
dt Vp
of system components, all of which are validated with
with ṁh [kg/s] the mass flow rate through the leak. Deriving measured data. Fig. 2 depicts the compressor system as
the first-order differential equation for the mass flow rate implemented in Flownex®.
through the leak results in
dm h Ah
  p h  p amb   (9)
dt Lh
with Ah [m2] the area of the outflow, Lh [m] the thickness of
the brim formed, ∆ h [Pa] the pressure drop across the leak
and ∆ amb [Pa] the pressure difference between the plenum
and ambient pressure. The mass flow rate through the leak is
derived from (9). Two assumptions are made for this
derivation. Firstly the thickness of the brim is negligibly
Fig. 2. A Flownex® model of the compressor system.
small, that is Lh→0. Finally, the characteristic of the leak is
considered a quadratic polynomial function as in (7), with a
fixed opening. The mass flow rate is given by The compressor characteristic is generated from (6),
converted to a non-dimensional form, normalised and
 1  introduced to the compressor component in Flownex®.
m h  p p 2 Ah2   p amb  . (10)
p 
 p  3.1 Model simulation and validation

2.4 State space representation The ambient pressure is chosen as 100 kPa and the initial
conditions of the state variables are given by
The nonlinear state space model consists of the state
x 0  0.4165 0.4165 100754 754 .
T
differential equation and the output equation as follows: (17)
  A(x)x  Bu ,
x (11) The inputs to the system are given by
y(t )  C(t )x(t )  D(t )u(t ) . (12) u  100000 100000 4583 .
T
(18)
The state variables of the compressor system are selected as The analytic model is simulated and validated by comparing
in (13) and the input vector as in (14). its response to the response of the Flownex® model. The

x  m c m t pp p c   x
T
1 x2 x3 x4 
T
(13) comparison of the response is shown in Fig. 3 for the
transition between the operating points.
u   pi N   u1 u 2 u3 
T T
po (14)
The A and B matrices of the compressor system are given by
(15) and (16) respectively.
 A Ac 
 0 0  c
Lc Lc 
 
 x (t ) At (15)
0  2 0 
 2ut Lt At Lt 
A 
 a2 a2 a2 2 1  
 2 Ah
  p 
amb  0
 Vp Vp Vp x3 (t ) 
   
2
 15Hx1 (t ) 3Hx1 (t ) 1
 
  2RNA3W 3 2A2W 2 0 0  (a)
 c c  

 Ac 
L 0 0 
 c  (16)
 At 
B 0  0
Lt 
 0 0 0 
 
 0 C 0  2 R 2 
0
 900 

The state space model allows the next step of analysing the
system from an energy perspective. (b)

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Fig. 4. System node diagram.

The power throughout the compressor system is calculated by
m (t )
(c) Pi (t )   p(t )  Q(t )  p(t )  (19)

with ṁi [kg/s] the mass flow rate, ρi [kg/m3] the density, Qi
[m3/s] the volumetric flow rate and pi [Pa] the pressure.
Using the convention that all power values are positive, the
net power of an element can be calculated by
Pnet (t )  Pin (t )  Pout (t )  Pdis (t ) , (20)
with Pin [J/s] the power in, Pout [J/s] the power out and Pdis
[J/s] the power dissipated. The net power Pnet calculated in
(20) equals 0 for faultless steady state conditions. An
imbalance of the power in, power out and power dissipated
(d) cause energy to be stored in components. The energy stored
Fig. 3. (a) Compressor mass flow rate. (b) Throttle mass flow can be calculated by the time integral of the net power:
rate. (c) Plenum pressure. (d) Compressor pressure rise. t
E stor (t )  E0 (t 0 )   Pnet (t ) dt , (21)
t0
The compressor system is initially operated at a particular
operating point (1) with a throttle opening of 100%. After 1 where E0 [J] is the initial stored energy at t = to.
seconds, the throttle opening is instantly changed to an
opening of 30% and the system undergoes a transient to a
4.1 Steady state energy response under normal conditions
new operating point (2). At 3 seconds the throttle opening is
changed back to an opening of 100%, thus bringing the
The steady state power is calculated from (19) and the steady
system back to the initial operating point (1).
state energy is calculated from (21). The power matrix at
The discontinuities observed in the transients of the state operating point 1 is given by
variables are caused by the compressor time lag that is
 PA PB  36491.12 273.17 
considered in the analytic model. The IAE performance index P PD  36491.12 36491.12 (22)
indicates the error between the response of the analytic and P1   C 
Flownex® models and is indicated in the legend of each state  PE PF   273.17 36491.12
variable.    
 PL 0  0 0 
4. ENERGY ANALYSIS and the energy vector is given by

The main contribution of this paper is the energy  EC   22468.77 

E1   E P   882690.57
. (23)
visualisation based on the energy analysis of the system’s
energy. Ortega et al. (2001) describe dynamical systems as  ET   5994.93 
energy transformation devices. This is advantageous when
dividing complex nonlinear systems, such as compressor When the system operates at operating point 2 the power
systems, into sub-systems. The energies of the sub-systems matrix is given by
add together to represent the complete system’s energy 29434.67 465.95 
profile. 29434.67 29434.67 (24)
P2 =  
The compressor system is divided into three subsystems,  465.95 29434.67
represented by nodes, as portrayed in Fig.4. These nodes are  
 0 0 
labelled as follows: the compressor node C, the plenum node
P and throttle node T. The power flowing in and out of each and the energy vector is given by
node is denoted by the subscripts A to F, and the power loss  14309.80 
due to a leak is denoted by the subscript L. The stored energy
E 2  1848086.13
. (25)
in each node is denoted by subscripts C, P and T.
 4390.77 

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318

These matrices indicate the ideal steady state operating the compressor node in Fig. 5, plenum node in Fig. 6 and
points on the power-energy plane and can now be used for throttle node in Fig. 7. A leak is introduced in the plenum
residual generation. with a selected area of 0.0008 m2. The result of the leak is a
transient from point 1 to 3. The same throttle adjustment is
introduced with the leak present. The result is a transition
4.2 Power and energy residual generation for a leak
from point 3 to 4 and back.
Power and energy residuals may be useful to identify faults
that can occur in systems. These residuals are investigated
when a leak is introduced with an opening of 0.0008 m2 in the
plenum of the compressor system. The power matrices for
both operating point 1 and 2 are recalculated and given by
36941.80 243.64  31746.60 447.44 
36941.80 34205.37 ,  
P1,f =   P2, f  31746.60 27700.66 . (26)
 226.56 34205.37  390.41 27700.66
   
 2736.43 0   4045.94 0 
The stored energy at both operating points is given by
Fig. 5. Compressor net power vs. energy stored for a leak in
 23047.10   16709.39  the plenum.
= 782891.04 E 2,f = 1648046.43
E1,f
, . (27)
 5444.68   4035.23 
A power residual matrix ri,p is defined as the difference
between the power matrix under normal conditions Pi and
the power matrix under a fault condition Pi,f. This matrix is
defined as
ri , p  Pi  Pi , f . (28)
The energy residual vector ri,e is defined as the difference
between the energy vector under normal conditions Ei and
the energy vector under fault conditions Ei,f as
Fig. 6. Plenum net power vs. energy stored for a leak in the
ri ,e  Ei  Ei , f . (29) plenum.

The calculated power and energy residual matrices for

operating points 1 and 2 are
 - 450.68 29.53   2311.91 18.15 
 - 450.64 2285.75 and  2311.91 1734.01 . (30)
r1, p    r2, p   
 46.61 2285.75  75.54 1734.01
   
- 2736.43 0   4045.94 0 
The calculated error vectors for operating point 1 and 2 are
 - 578.33    2399.59 

r1,e = 99799.53  and
r2,e = 200039.70
. (31)
Fig. 7. Throttle net power vs. energy stored for a leak in the
 550.25   355.54  plenum.
The residual matrices and vectors indicate that when a fault In Fig. 5 to Fig. 7, the responses of the three components
occurs in the system, the power flowing through the leak indicate changes in the trajectories and shifts of the power-
becomes an additional loss. The residuals indicate a shift in energy characteristics after a fault has occurred. The
the steady operating points to less efficient steady state compressor dissipates more power, resulting in a slightly
operating points. This is portrayed in the power-energy planes smaller net power characteristic. This can be noted in a
of Fig. 5 to Fig. 7 in section 4.3. comparison of the maximum and minimum values of power-
energy characteristics before and after the fault. Also, one can
4.3 Transient energy response under normal and fault
see a considerable increase in the stored energy in the
conditions
compressor node after the fault has occurred. On the other
hand, the leak introduced a loss of stored energy in the
The transient behaviour of the compressor system in the
plenum and throttle node. From these power-energy graphs,
power-energy plane can be observed when a transition
features such as path length, area and centre of mass may be
between the two operating points occurs. This is shown for
extracted and used for residual generation.

318
IFAC DYCOPS-CAB, 2016
June 6-8, 2016. NTNU, Trondheim, Norway L.B. Fouché et al. / IFAC-PapersOnLine 49-7 (2016) 314–319
4.4 Rotating stall
An axial-flow compressor is prone to become unstable when
operated to the left of the maximum on its compressor
characteristic as stated by Greitzer (1998). In such an event,
the compressor enters a condition known as rotating stall.
According to Gravdahl (1998), rotating stall occurs when the
circumferential flow pattern is disrupted. This leads to a
decrease in the pressure of the compressor and plenum.
For this test case shown in Fig. 8, the compressor is operated
at operating point 1 with a throttle opening of 20%. This
operating point occurs near the maximum of the
ompressor’s characteristic. The operating point is changed
to point 2 with a throttle opening of 16% that is located to the
left of the maximum of the compressor characteristic. At
operating point 2, the compressor pressure rise as well as the
energy stored in the plenum decreases due to the occurrence
of rotating stall. In Fig. 8(a), the power-energy cycle that is
portrayed after the transition indicates considerable unwanted
energy exchange. This is confirmed in Fig. 8(b) which shows
the plenum energy for the shift in operating point.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8. (a) Plenum net power vs. energy stored in rotating
stall. (b) Energy stored time response.
A damped response can be observed in the transient before
the response converges to a steady operating point. Such
characteristics are to be expected for an unstable operation
such as rotating stall. Within the power-energy plane, this
operation is also easily differentiated from a fault such as a
leak, which does not necessarily cause instability. In fact, it is
interesting to note that the introduction of a close-coupled
valve was the solution proposed by Gravdahl (1998) for
combatting instability of rotating stall.
319
319
5. CONCLUSION
Initial experiments have shown the potential of the power-
energy plane for calculating residuals. The premise is that a
predictable pattern may be observed for faults within these
different system components, ultimately leading to the
isolation of the fault to a certain component of the system.
However, generating and analysing a residual for the
transient response may also give a clear indication of a fault.
It is encouraging to notice that instability is also clearly
differentiable from other faults using the energy visualisation
perspective. The authors aim to continue research of this
perspective for fault detection and diagnosis. The research
further proposes to investigate how the energy representation
may be used for control and condition monitoring. There is
also interest to see how a fundamental approach to a system’s
energy relates to modern energy-based control techniques.
ACKNOWLAGEMENT
This work is based on the research supported in part by the
National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa (Grant
Number 91093). Any opinion, finding and conclusion or
recommendation expressed in this material is that of the
author(s) and the NRF does not accept any liability in this
regard.
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