Lesson 1
Introduction to Philosophy
PHILOSOPHY:
 Philosophy originates from the Greek words "philos"
(love) and "sophia" (wisdom), signifying the "love of
wisdom."
 It involves the use of human reason to explore the
fundamental causes, reasons, and principles
governing all things.
 An examination of various areas of knowledge,
driven by the central principles of inquiry and
questioning
PHILOSOPHERS:
 Those who practice philosophy are referred to as
"lovers of wisdom."
 Ancient Greek philosophers were pioneers in various
fields of knowledge, including history, biology,
medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and physics.
MOST NOTABLE ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS:
1. Pythagoras (570 BCE to 495 BCE):
 was a renowned mathematician and scientist.
 He is famously credited with formulating the
Pythagorean theorem.
 Attracted numerous followers and founded a
community dedicated to the study of religion
and philosophy.
2. Heraclitus (535 BCE to 475 BCE):
 He believed that everything in existence is
governed by a higher order or plan known as
"logos."
 He emphasized the constant nature of change,
famously stating, "No man ever steps in the
same river twice."
3. Democritus (460 BCE to 370 BCE):
 He focused on studying the causes of natural
phenomena.
 He was one of the early proponents of the idea
that matter is composed of tiny indivisible
particles known as atoms.
4. Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE to 323 BCE):
 He advocated for a simple and virtuous way of
life.
 He emphasized the importance of
demonstrating virtue through both words and
actions.
 Led an austere lifestyle, often living like a
beggar to exemplify his principles.
 He was a vocal critic of prominent philosophers
like Plato and Aristotle.
 His teachings and views influenced the
development of philosophical schools, including
Cynicism and Stoicism.
5. Epicurus (341 BCE to 270 BCE):
 He believed that philosophy could lead to a life
of happiness.
 His philosophy gave rise to Epicureanism,
which advocates that wisdom and a simple
lifestyle can lead to a life free from fear and
pain.
6. Socrates (470 BCE to 399 BCE):
 He was a prominent philosopher in ancient
times.
 He made significant contributions to the field of
ethics.
7. Plato (427 BCE to 347 BCE):
 He was a student of Socrates and preserved his
mentor's teachings in his writings.
 His teachings and writings are regarded as the
foundation of Western philosophy.
 Plato's Theory of Forms posits that everything
in existence is based on eternal, unchanging,
and nonphysical ideas that can only be grasped
in the mind.
 He focused on the concept of the ideal society
and proposed a model of government and
society ruled by wisdom and reason.
 Plato developed dialectic, a method of inquiry
that involves discussing opposing ideas to
generate new knowledge.
 His enduring legacy includes the founding of the
Academy, an institution of higher learning,
which was the first of its kind in the Western
world.
8. Aristotle (384 BCE to 322 BCE):
 He was a prominent student of Plato and
attended the Academy.
 He disagreed with Plato's Theory of Forms and
emphasized that all ideas and views are
grounded in perception and the sensory world.
 Aristotle's focus on empirical observation
greatly influenced the development of the
physical sciences.
 He made significant contributions to disciplines
such as zoology, psychology, ethics, and
politics.
 Aristotle proposed a systematic classification
system for plants and animals.
 His work in logic led to the formulation of a
formal process for analyzing reasoning, which
gave rise to deductive reasoning (a method
for reaching conclusions or generalizations
through specific statements)
WHY IS THERE NEED TO PHILOSOPHIZE?
 Everyone has the inherent capacity to philosophize,
regardless of formal philosophical study (from our
natural inclination to wonder, doubt, reflect on
experiences, and seek knowledge and discovery)
 Plato: believed that the human need to philosophize
stems from our innate sense of wonder.
 René Descartes: a 15th-century French
philosopher, linked the need for philosophy to doubt.
 Karl Jaspers: a 20th-century Swiss-German
philosopher, identified the need for philosophy in
response to human experiences; coined the term
"limit situations" to describe experiences that
challenge established ideas and frameworks, often
evoking feelings of helplessness, anxiety, or dread.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY:
1. Aesthetics: explores beauty and the concept of
"beautiful."
2. Logic: deals with correct reasoning.
3. Epistemology: delves into the nature of knowledge
and knowing.
4. Ethics: addresses moral questions and dilemmas.
5. Political Philosophy: examines governance,
justice, power, and the rights and obligations of
citizens. Etc.
HOLISTIC THINKING: involves considering large-scale
patterns and looking at the "big picture" when analyzing
a situation or
problem. It emphasizes getting a general sense or
overall impression.
PARTIAL THINKING: focuses on specific aspects of a
situation or problem and is often associated with
analytical thinking, where individuals concentrate on
certain areas to gain understanding.
ENGAGING IN REFLECTION: entails a willingness to
examine one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors with
the aim of gaining a deeper understanding of one's life
and experiences.
PRACTICAL USES OF PHILOSOPHY:
 Critically analyze and interpret concepts, definitions,
arguments, and problems.
 Enhances problem-solving and decision-making
skills.
 Effective communication
 Cultivate wisdom, make informed and sound choices
in daily life
Lesson 2
Methods of Philosophizing
PHILOSOPHIZING: way to reveal the truth about the
various stages of life.
TRUTH: lies at the heart of any inquiry; a fact that has
been verified
KNOWLEDGE:
 simple data that comes from the outside that pass
to our senses
 must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance
 the clear awareness and understanding of
something
 determine if the statement is a claim or a fact
OPINION:
 Comprised of statement which not only give facts
but also provide conclusions or perspectives
regarding certain situations
 The bases for making arguments and convincing
people that certain claim is a fact
 Often influenced by bias
DISTINGUISHING TRUTH FROM OPINION USING:
 Conclusion: judgement based on certain facts
 Explanation: statements that assume the claim to
be true and provide reason why the statement is
true
 Arguments: A series of statements that provide
the reason to convince the reader that a claim or
opinion is truthful; claims of facts; phrased in such
a way that they seem reasonable
FALLACIES: arguments based on faulty reasoning
TYPES OF FALLACIES:
1. Ad hominem: Attacking the person presenting the
argument instead of the argument itself
 "Of course, he believes that the government is
flawed, he is a rebel and a Communist!"
2. Appeal to force: Using the threat of force or an
undesirable event to advance an argument
 "If this peace agreement will not be signed by
the government, then we will have no recourse
but to go to war.”
3. Appeal to emotion: Using emotions such as pity or
sympathy
 "All these charges are baseless; this is just plain
harassment - can't you see how this is affecting
my family?"
4. Appeal to the popularity: The idea is presented as
acceptable because a lot of people accept it
 "Every boy your age already has a girlfriend,
you should go find one!"
5. Appeal to tradition: The idea is acceptable because
it has been true for a long time
 "Marriage should be between a man and a
woman. It has been so for a long time in this
country; it should remain so today and in the
future."
6. Begging the question: Assuming the thing or idea
to be proven is true; also known as "circular
argument"
 "I have a right to free speech; therefore, you cannot
stop me from talking."
7. Cause and effect: Falsely assumes that one event
causes another.
 “Our garage sale made lots of money before Joan
showed up.”
8. Fallacy of composition: When one infers that
something is true of the whole from the fact that it is
true of some part of the whole
 "This tire is made of rubber; therefore, the vehicle of
which it is a part is also made of rubber."
9. Fallacy of division: Assuming that what is true for
the whole is true for its parts
 "You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals!
Surely you can do better in this course!"
BIASES: not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to
tendencies or influences which affect the views of people
TYPES OF BIAS:
1. Correspondence bias or attribution effect:
Tendency to judge a person's personality by their
actions, without regard for external factors or
influences
 "These soldiers who fought in the war are all
bloodthirsty murderers!"
2. Confirmation bias: Tendency to look for and readily
accept information which fits one's own beliefs or
views and to reject ideas or views that go against it
 “How can I accept his view that there is no God? I
am a Christian!"
3. Framing: Focusing on a certain aspect of a problem
while ignoring other aspects
 "Preliminary evidence has still not pointed out the
actual cause of the plane crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the possibility of pilot error.”
4. Hindsight: The tendency to see the past events as
predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to historical
events
 "Magellan's assault on Mactan Island was a
foolhardy venture, made by an overconfident,
careless man who underestimated the valor of the
native Filipinos."
5. Conflict of interest: A person or group is connected
to or has a vested interest in the issue being
discussed
 "As the daughter of the accused, I believe I have the
right to express my opinion on the issue of his
alleged corrupt practices."
6. Cultural bias: Analyzing an event or issue based on
one's cultural standards
 "I do not agree with this Western practice of placing
aged parents in retirement homes. We Filipinos take
care of our family members”
Lesson 3:
The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
MAN: the general term commonly used to refer to the
entire human race.
HUMAN: refers to man as species, Homo Sapiens, or
modern human beings.
HUMAN BEING: to distinguish man from other animals.
PERSON: a human being granted recognition of certain
rights, protections, responsibilities, and dignity above all.
PERSONHOOD: state of being a person.
HUMAN NATURE: refers to the deepest and most
natural behavior of a person that distinguishes humans
from animals; nobody can be considered a man without
human nature.
HUMAN PERSON: someone with an exact origin of his/
her classification.
EMBODIED SPIRIT: the animating core living within
each human person.
SPIRIT: an intangible element that enables us to
exercise thought, possess awareness, interiority, and the
capacity to reach out to the outside world and other
persons.
EMBODIMENT: the representation or expression of
something in a tangible or visible form, enables us to do
and experience all the things that make us human
persons.
TRAITS OF HUMAN PERSONS:
1. SELF-AWARENESS: the awareness of oneself as
an active participant in reality.
2. SELF-DETERMINATION: the awareness of one's
actions and the notion that oneself is the source of
an action.
3. EXTERNALITY: the capability to reach out and
interact with others and the world.
4. DIGNITY: the recognition that each person has a
worth and value that go beyond quantifiable terms;
each person is indispensable and irreplaceable.
5. TRANSCENDENCE: the ability to surpass limits
HOW IS OUR BODY AND SPIRIT RELATED?
Philosophers consider the human person as defined by
the union of the body and the spirit. The human person
is an embodied spirit. Not only are the body and spirit
united, but they are also integrated with each other.
SUSTAINABILITY/ SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT:
reconciling human activities and economic development
with the protection of the environment.
 Environmental integrity: maintaining the state of
the environment
 Economic efficiency: prudence in decision-making
regarding the use of resources to ensure that there
is minimum to zero waste
 Equity: demands that we use our natural resources
in such a manner that these are conserved so that
the next generation will be able to use them.

Lesson 4: Values for Personal Use of Resources:

The Human Person in the Environment  Prudence: ability to regulate one’s actions and
behavior
ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY: (also  Frugality: being thrifty with the use of one’s
“Environmental Ethics”) branch of philosophy resources
concerned with the natural environmental and
humanity's place in it; deals with issues concerning
humanity's role in the world, the interaction between
nature and humans’ response to environment
challenges.

THREE MAJOR VIEWS WITH THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT:
1. Anthropocentrism: the significant role of
humankind in the world; nature as the means by
which humans are able to meet their needs and
survive
2. Biocentrism: humans are not the only significant
species on the planet, all organisms have inherent
value and should be protected
3. Ecocentrism: places great value on ecosystems
and biological communities; humankind is part of a
greater biological system or community, guardians of
nature.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS HAS RESULTED IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF VARIED VIEWS:
1. Social ecology: links social issues with
environmental issues
2. Climate ethics and climate justice: emerged from
growing concerns about climate change, influenced
by environmental justice
3. Environmental aesthetics: a 20th-century
perspective on natural beauty, focuses on
maintaining order and balance in the environment. It
encourages humans to appreciate nature's innate
beauty and relate more effectively to it

ENVIRONMENTALISM:
 Environmental ethics: a moral approach that
analyzes the relationship between humans and the
environment. It also discusses environmental
problems caused by human activities and social
issues that impact the environment