Energy and Buildings xxx (2004) xxx–xxx

4 Reduced linear state model of hollow blocks walls,

5 validation using hot box measurements
6 G. Yan a,b , J.J. Roux b,∗ , C. Teodosiu b , Z. Lihua a
7 a School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology,
8 92 West Da-Zhi Street, Harbin 150001, China
9 b Thermal Sciences Center—Building Physics, National Institute of Applied Sciences Lyon,
10 INSA—Bât FREYSSINET, 20 Av. A. Einstein, 69621 Villeurbanne Cedex, France

11 Accepted 30 March 2004

12 Abstract

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13 It is not obvious to accurately determine the heat loss under dynamic conditions for building envelopes made of hollow blocks using
14 classical one-dimensional heat flow computations. Consequently, complex three-dimensional heat transfers analyses are necessary to cor-

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15 rectly assess their thermal behaviour. This latter approach is characterised by linear state models with high-order matrixes. Therefore,
16 this method is not very practical since it requires cautious numerical implementation and intensive computation time. One way to ob-
17 tain important decrease of the computation time with no significant losses of precision is to use model size reduction techniques. This
18 study presents such an approach based on Moore’s balanced method for two kinds of small-size concrete hollow blocks. The low-order
19 models obtained after reduction for these two hollow blocks configurations are five-order state models (their complete state models had
20 680 modes and 973 modes, respectively). To estimate the accuracy and the efficiency of each reduction, the results are compared to
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21 those issued from the original complete models. The confrontations show that the proposed reduced models provide excellent predic-
22 tion of hollow blocks thermal behaviour for excitation periods higher than 4 min. Moreover, the numerical results were very satisfactory
23 comparing to experimental data obtained by means of classical calibrated hot box measurements. Finally, it must be noted that the ap-
24 proach developed in this study can be extrapolated to all kinds of heterogeneous walls. This can lead to simple “model libraries” within
25 building simulation codes, based on “tabulated values” according to data issued by small matrixes set for each type of hollow blocks
26 envelopes.
27 © 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.
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28 Keywords: Model reduction; Hollow blocks numerical model; Experimental validation

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29 1. Introduction merous theoretical, experimental and numerical studies have 42

been focused on hollow blocks properties. With regard to 43
30 Nowadays, hollow concrete blocks and bricks are becom- the thermal behaviour of hollow blocks, we can quote here 44
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31 ing very popular as they are extremely versatile and durable. several works [1–5]. Among the thermal parameters of hol- 45
32 These construction elements are being widely used in struc- low blocks, the thermal transmittance (U-value, W/m2 K) 46
33 ture of residential buildings, factories and multi-storey build- is the most important one since it allows simple (classical) 47
34 ings as they allow to bringing down their cost very consid- buildings heat loss computations for engineers. Neverthe- 48
35 erably thanks to important savings in materials and masonry less, accurate prediction of thermal transmittance for dif- 49
work. Moreover, hallow blocks envelopes are characterised ferent hollow blocks is not a trivial task as its value can-
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36 50
37 by light weight, improved thermal and acoustic insulation, not be simply acquired by one-dimensional thermal transfer 51
38 as well as ease of ventilation. All these qualities make hol- models. This is the result of hollow blocks particular ge- 52
39 low blocks walls an attractive construction technique as we ometry which leads to three-dimensional heat transfers be- 53
40 can currently notice a growing interest in energy, environ- tween blocks cavities and blocks ribs (thermal bridge phe- 54
41 ment and sustainable development concerns. As a result, nu- nomena). Consequently, there are strict rules in order to de- 55
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termine the thermal transmittance (i.e. the U-value) or the 56

thermal resistance (i.e. R-value, m2 K/W) of hollow blocks 57
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 472 438 460; fax: +33 472 438 522. walls. For example, these values are generally obtained in 58
E-mail address: roux@etb.insa-lyon.fr (J.J. Roux). Europe following classical standards [6] concerning the de- 59
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1 0378-7788/$ – see front matter © 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.

2 doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2004.03.008

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2. Numerical approach 89
Nomenclature
A, B, H, D reduced model matrixes As we already mentioned, under steady-state conditions, 90
C, Λ, Π, J, K complete model matrixes we can simply make use of tabulated U-values for differ- 91
e cavity width of hollow blocks (m) ent kinds of hollow blocks in order to carry out heat loss 92

h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K) calculations. This is extremely valuable for general ther- 93

H cavity height of hollow blocks (m) mal engineering applications. Consequently, our aim is to 94

Nu Nusselt number succeed in proposing a simplified model for dynamic and 95

r aspect ratio multi-dimensional heat transfer within hollow blocks which 96

Ra Rayleigh number will be “straightforward” to exploit as tabulated U-values. To 97

reach this goal, we need to initially pass through complete 98

Greek symbols three-dimensional dynamic representation of hollow blocks 99

ε emissivity thermal behaviour (differential equations system with very 100

λ thermal conductivity (W/mK) high matrix-order) and to use model size reduction tech- 101

σ Stefan–Boltzmann constant niques for assembling reduced models suitable for computer 102
implementation under dynamic specified boundary condi- 103

Subscripts tions. These two main steps of our methodology will be dis- 104

a air cussed below. 105

conv convection
eq equivalent 2.1. Linear state space model 106

F
rad radiation
AL aggregation linear method It is not very difficult to set up the differential algebraic 107

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M Marshall method equations for a conduction heat transfer problem, particu- 108
MO Moore method larly if the thermo-physical properties of the materials are 109
supposed as independent from temperature (this hypothesis 110
is commonly considered as legitimate in heat transfer stud- 111
ies within buildings, as it is consistent with the degree of 112
60 termination of steady-state thermal transmission properties: accuracy usually looked for). After a spatial discretization 113
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61 EN ISO 8990 [7] or EN 1934 [8] (procedure based on hot of the problem in the use of finite volumes, it leads to the 114
62 box measurements) and EN 1745 [9] (procedure based on following matrix state-space equation: 115
63 two- and three-dimensional numerical computations). In ad- ·
64 dition, tabulated U-values for different basic materials and T(t) = C−1 ΛT(t) + C−1 ΠU(t) (1) 116
65 perforation patterns of hollow blocks are commonly tak- ·
66 ing into account within national building thermal regula- where T(t) is the state vector (dimension: n,l): approxima- 117
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67 tions (e.g. “RT2000” [10] in France). However, the U-value tion of temperature field, representing the temperature Ti of 118
68 is only a heat loss indication for buildings envelope under each node i within the spatial discretization; C the square ca- 119
69 steady-state conditions while one should need more accu- pacitance matrix (dimension: n,n), diagonal definite positive 120
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70 rate dynamic data of hollow blocks walls to be able to an- and Cii elements are the calorific capacities of each control 121
71 swer at further demands on envelopes heat loss estimations volume; Λ a square matrix (dimension: n,n), which trans- 122
72 under dynamic conditions. In addition, most general build- lates the heat exchange between the different control vol- 123
73 ing thermal dynamic analysis programs simplify the thermal umes of the system. It is a symmetric matrix because of the 124
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74 conduction problem by assuming one-dimensional heat flow reciprocity of the heat transfers; U(t) a vector (dimension: 125
75 through walls (DOE-2 [11], TRNSYS [12] or CODYBA 6.0 p,l), which regroups the p solicitations acting on boundary 126
76 [13]). As a result, it is not obvious to obtain precise assess- of the studied domain (heat flows, surface or ambiance tem- 127
77 ments of heat loss through walls made of hollow blocks by peratures); Π a rectangular matrix (dimension: n,p), which 128
78 means of classical building simulations codes. This is why, translates the thermal relations between the domain and its 129
the goal of this study is to propose a simple and practi- environment. It represents modes of action of solicitations
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79 130
80 cal model which makes possible efficient predictions of dy- among others on the system. 131
81 namic heat loss through hollow blocks envelopes. Our nu- As for conduction heat transfers, it is generally admitted to 132
82 merical approach is based on reduced linear state model for consider convection and long waves radiation heat transfers 133
83 describing the dynamic thermal behaviour of hollow blocks. within cavities of hollow blocks as linear. The validity of 134
84 The first part of our paper reports on numerical model main this hypothesis will be discussed later (see Section 4). 135
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85 characteristics. This is followed by the description of the hot In addition, we are generally interested in the evolution 136
86 box experimental set-up used in order to compare our nu- of particular outputs or measures within the studied problem 137
87 merical results. The final part of our study is focused on the (e.g. “temperature at a specific point”, “heat flow leaving 138
88 discussion of results. the domain”, . . . ). All these outputs can be regrouped in 139
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140 one vector Y, expressed as linear combinations with constant introduced by Marshall [16]. It is built on matrix partition 192
141 temperature coefficients on nodes and inputs, according to expressed in the modal base and obtained through a temporal 193
142 Eq. (2). criterion (using time constants defined as τ i = |ξ i −1 |, where 194
ξ i denotes the ith eigenvalue). The models of system are 195
143 Y(T) = JT(t) + KU(T) (2)
then classed by decreasing time constants. Assuming that 196
144 where Y(t) is the output vector (dimension q: number of the temporal components of rapid reaction (characterised 197
145 observed outputs); J the rectangular observation matrix (di- by the inequality: τ i < t/4, where t is the time step 198
146 mension: q,n); K a matrix of direct transmission (dimension: of observation) are achieving instantly their steady-state at 199
147 q,p) which translates the instantaneous actions of solicita- every moment, one can retain only the modes associated with 200
148 tions on outputs. the bigger time constants (given by τ i > t/4). As a result, 201
149 In this way, the dynamic behaviour of a thermal system the dynamic behaviour of the system is supposed principally 202
150 can be clearly described by the matrixes set: C, Λ, Π, J, due to these bigger time constants, the rest smaller ones 203
151 and K. being truncated. Consequently, the reduced model associated 204
152 On the other hand, in the case of multi-dimensional ther- to Eqs. (1) and (2) can be written as: 205
153 mal analysis of hollow blocks, the order of matrixes system

154 are very high because of its numerous differential equations. ẊM = AM XM + BM U
(3)
155 Moreover, the CPU time for dynamic simulation processes Y = HM XM + DM U 206
156 of one multi-dimensional thermal system will be often in-
157 tensive if we simply intend to apply the high-order matrix where AM , BM , HM , DM are reduced system model matrixes 207
158 model obtained usually for hollow blocks. For this reason, by Marshall method. 208

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159 it is necessary to find a simple, low-order model to replace 209
160 the complete model. This reduced model will facilitate also 2.2.1.2. Linear aggregation methods. Different from 210

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161 its integration within building simulation codes. Marshall’s method, the principle for model reduction asso- 211
ciated by linear aggregation [17] is based on the concept 212
162 2.2. Linear state-space model reduction of “energy contribution”. This “energy contribution” is 213
supposed to characterise the “inputs/outputs” relationship 214
163 The objective of model size reduction methods is to sub- through the state model. The importance of each system 215
164 stitute the original complete state model including n ordinary modal is evaluated by a energy contribution matrix E. The 216
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165 differential equations (n is commonly referred to as com- model reduction is implemented by keeping r system modals 217
plete model order) by a significantly smaller one (reduced whose contribution is sufficient to 
approximately assess
 the
166 218
167 model of order m  n) without sacrificing vital character- system by the following criteria: ni=r+1 Eii  ri=1 Eii . 219
168 istics of the physical system. Therefore, the reduced-order model is: 220
169 It is worthwhile to mention that model reduction has been

170 the subject of numerous research endeavours and a great ẊAL = AAL XAL + BAL U
(4)
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171 number of methods have already been represented over the Y = HAL XAL + DAL U 221
172 last 30 years [14]. The approaches widely used in the field
173 of building thermal analysis are based on spectral methods where AAL , BAL , HAL , DAL are reduced system model ma- 222
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174 [15]. These methods represent the solution of problems as a trixes given by aggregation method. 223
175 linear combination of eigenfunctions on a particular basis.
176 A low-order model is obtained by truncation of the equiva- 2.2.2. Balanced realisation method (inner symmetrisation) 224
177 lent high-order model coming from the previous state-space Despite the fact that are similar, in principle, to modal 225
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178 coordinates change. Many methods for models reduction truncation, balanced realization methods [20–22] have 226
179 are based on this principle: modal basis truncation methods changed the status of model reduction techniques. These 227
180 (Marshall’s method [16] and aggregation methods [17–19]) methods are based on the controllability and observability 228
181 or balanced transformation methods (Moore’s method [20]). concepts used in automatic control (detailed descriptions 229
182 We present the main features of the methods quoted of these notions are given in [20]). We can simply define 230
above in order to be able to better select the most appropri- the controllability as the possibility to acquire and vary
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183 231
184 ate method as model reduction technique for our full-order the model states by means of the system inputs, while the 232
185 model describing the dynamic thermal behaviour of hollow observability as the possibility to establish the model states 233
186 blocks. The interested reader can find thoroughly descrip- using the outputs [23]. As a result, the model size reduction 234
187 tions of these methods in [14,21]. can be fulfilled by eliminating the state variables character- 235
ized by either a powerless degree of controllability or a mi- 236
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188 2.2.1. Modal basis methods nor degree of observability. The controllable and observable 237
189 state elements are defined by their controllability gramian 238
190 2.2.1.1. Marshall method. One of the oldest and simplest WC and observability gramian WO . These matrixes (WC and 239
191 methods (issued from the field of automatic controls) was WO ) are solutions of the following Lyapunov equations: 240
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(C−1 Λ)WC + WC (C−1 Λ)T = −(C−1 Π)(C−1 Π)T 2.3. Application of model reduction 285
(5)
241 (C−1 Λ)T WO + WO (C−1 Λ) = −J T J
There is not a priori a method of model reduction better 286

242 Nevertheless, the controllability and the observability than the other ones in the field of models simulating the ther- 287

243 gramians strongly depend on the state-space coordinates mal phenomena of building envelopes. However, previous 288

244 chosen for system behaviour description. Therefore, they studies have evaluated the application of several model re- 289

245 are definitely not system invariant. In addition, it occurs that duction methods in order to attain simplified thermal models. 290

246 there are state variables with a weak degree of observability The authors’ conclusion has been rather encouraging con- 291

247 and at the same time with a dominate grade of controlla- cerning the results achieved by means of balanced method 292

248 bility, and vice versa. In order to prevent these difficulties, (internal symmetrisation). We cite here Déqué et al. studies 293

249 the initial system, corresponding to Eqs. (1) and (2), is put [23,24], using Moore’s method for two-dimensional ther- 294

250 through a particular similar transformation to “balance” mal bridges modeling or simplified building envelopes rep- 295

251 the degrees of controllability and observability. Hence, the resentation, which show that the reduced models faithfully 296

252 resulting equivalent system includes merely state variables reproduce the physical models in the stationary and tran- 297

253 with the same degree of controllability and observability. sient state. Moreover, these results are confirmed by Palomo 298

254 This means that the concept of “balancing technique” is et al. [15,25]. They have performed numerical experiences 299

255 to be able to carry out the model reduction using identical in order to compare several reduction techniques (modal ba- 300

256 controllability and observability matrixes and equal to a sis, aggregation, inner symmetrisation, . . . ) for thermal ap- 301

257 diagonal matrix: plications in buildings and their results show that Moore’s 302
balanced method leads to significantly better performances 303

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258 WC = WO =  = diag(ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn ) (6) (e.g. confrontation of maximum reduction error values). 304
Our results show also the merit of balancing realization 305
where ω1 ≥ ω2 ≥ , . . . , ≥ ωn > 0 are the so-called Hankel

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259 method. Therefore, we have decided on this methodology to 306
260 singular values [21]; they are the square roots of the product accomplish our low-order model for dynamic representation 307
261 WC WO eigenvalues. of hollow blocks thermal behaviour. 308
262 In a balancing model, the state components correspond-
263 ing to small Hankel singular values require much energy to
264 be reached, while at the same time producing little energy 3. Experimental set-up 309
on the output. Therefore, if there is a s ∈ {1, . . . , n − 1}
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265
266 for which ωs ωs+1 , the modal elements corresponding The apparatus used to carry out our measurements is a 310
267 to ωm , m = s + 1, . . . , n can be truncated from the sys- classical calibrated hot box (Fig. 1) of the Thermal Center 311
268 tem description, preserving only those features of the dy- Lyon (CETHIL). This experimental set-up is especially de- 312
269 namics that are most relevant to observable and controllable signed to supply the desired air temperature, air velocity, and 313
270 modals. According to this manner of system representation, radiation conditions on each side of the test specimen wall. 314
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271 the model reduction is performed by simple removal of the The two opposite chambers (box 1 and box 2—see Fig. 1) 315
272 model elements related to the state variables showing weak are usually distinguished as the metering chamber (“hot 316
273 controllability and observability grades [20]. box”) and the climatic chamber (“cold box”). In our case, 317
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274 The system representation in the “balanced” base (after we produced one “linear step” excitation of air tempera- 318
275 the calculation of controllability and observability matrixes) ture within the box 1, while the air temperature inside the 319

276 can be written as follows: box 2 was maintained at a constant level. The air tempera-

  
  

Ẋ1 Ω11 Ω12 X1 B1 X1
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= + U, Y = [ H1 H2 ] + DU (7)
277 Ẋ2 Ω21 Ω22 X2 B2 X2
320
278 The reduction model, taking into account the m modals the ture “excitations” were coordinated using thermocouple con- 321
279 most controllable and observable, is expressed by the fol- trollers and the excitation step was completed by means of a 322
280 lowing equation: condenser with a constant current. The step amplitude range
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323

could be adjustable from 10 to 30 ◦ C (in 5 ◦ C step size) 324
ẊMO = AMO XMO + BMO U
(8) and the duration time of the signal linear increase could be 325
281 Y = HMO XMO + DMO U shifted from 15 to 60 min (in 15 min step size). 326
Temperatures of the air on each side of hollow blocks 327
282 where AMO , BMO , HMO , DMO are reduced system modal sample were measured by thermocouples. Specimen 328
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283 matrixes given by the balanced method:

−1
AMO = Ω11 − Ω12 · Ω22 · Ω21 ; BMO = B1 − Ω12 · ΩB2 ;
−1 −1
(9)
284 HMO = H1 − H2 · Ω22 · Ω21 ; DMO = D − H2 · Ω22 B2 .
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Fig. 1. Schematic cross-section of the calibrated hot box: (1) sample wall; (2) heat flow meters; (3) thermocouples; (4) insulation; (5) thermocouples.

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Fig. 2. Plan view and cross-section of the hollow blocks taken into account.

329 surface temperatures were also acquired by thermocouples. reduction characteristics for numerical simulation of each 346
330 The number and the spacing of air temperatures and surface configuration are shown in Table 2. It is worthwhile to point 347
331 temperatures sensors (Fig. 1) were in accordance with the out that the surface conductances values on each side of 348
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332 standards [7]. In order to improve the thermal flow measure- wall sample (convective heat transfer coefficients h1 , h2 ) are 349
333 ments through sample wall made of holow blocks, two kinds calculated from measured data heat flow, wall surface and 350
334 of special small heat flow meters [26] were used: “Cresmat” air temperature in the two boxes. 351
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335 heat flux transducers (dimensions 25 cm × 25 cm; calibra-

336 tion constant: 49 W/m2 mV at 20 ◦ C) and “Crir” heat flux
337 transducers (dimensions 50 cm × 50 cm; calibration con- 4. Numerical simulation 352
338 stant: 10 W/m2 mV at 20 ◦ C). The thickness of heat flow
meters conducting materials (Cu–Co plates) is very slight
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339 The non-linearity due to the coupling between heat trans- 353
340 (about 0.5 mm). fers by conduction, natural convection (between air and sur- 354
341 The measurements were carried out on four usual types faces of cavities) and longwave radiation (among surfaces of 355
342 of walls made of small-size concrete hollow blocks. We cavities) within hollow blocks requires thorough studies of 356
343 take into account in this study two of them (one row and the heat transfer mechanisms. To deal in a practical manner 357
344 two rows cavity blocks—see Fig. 2), their characteristics with this combined heat transfer phenomena inside cavities
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358
345 being defined in Table 1. Experimental conditions and model of hollow blocks, most of the available studies are based on 359
the equivalent thermal resistance of the hollow blocks [5,6]. 360
Table 1 Consequently, this method is also taken into account within 361
Hollow blocks characteristics our study in order to simplify the heat transfer analysis in 362
Block dimensions (cm) Cavity dimensions (cm) blocks cavities. 363
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Length Width Height Length Width Height

As a result, the first step of our numerical model is the 364
prediction of the equivalent thermal conductivity of air- 365
Case 1 50 10 20 9 4 17 tight hollows (while the solid parts of hollow blocks—i.e. 366
Case 2 50 17.5 20 9 4 17
concrete, are defined via their “real” thermal conductivity: 367
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Table 2
Experimental and simulation data
Step amplitude of linear Duration time of linear h1 (W/m2 K) h2 (W/m2 K) Complete Reduced
temperature excitation (◦ C) temperature excitation (h) models models
Case 1 15.0 1 10.8 7.0 680 5
Case 2 30.1 1 5.5 7.7 973 5

368 1.5 W/mK). In a second step, these values are integrated in 1

hrad = 0.5 4σTm3
369 our complete state model predicting the thermal dynamic (1/ε1 ) + (1/ε2 ) − 1 411
 
370 behaviour of hollow blocks (Eqs. (1) and (2)). The matrixes e 2 e
371 set C, Λ, Π, J and K (Eqs. (1) and (2)) is automatically ob- × 1+ 1+ − (13)
372 tained using the “Archicube” software—developed within H H 412

373 our laboratory [27]. Finally, we perform the model reduc-

Eq. (13) is essentially based on the cavity aspect ratio (e/H) 413
374 tion by means of Moore’s balanced method as we already
and on the cavities walls emissivity (ε1 and ε2 ). According to 414
375 mentioned (Eq. (8)). The models obtained after reduction
Eq. (13) and taking into account our experimental conditions 415
376 for the two hollow blocs configurations taking into account
(Table 2), we obtain a value of 5.1 W/m2 K for the radiation 416
377 (Table 1) are five equations models (their complete models
heat transfer coefficient. 417
378 had 680 models and 973 models, respectively). It is worth-
Consequently, the air layer equivalent thermal conductiv- 418
379 while to mention that according to the study [25], Moore

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ity (λeq ) of hollow blocks, Eq. (10), is taken as 0.32 W/m2 K 419
380 technique is optimal from reduction order 5 and up.
within our numerical model. 420
381 Concerning the estimation of the equivalent thermal con-

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382 ductivity for the air voids (cavities of hollow blocks), the
383 value was calculating according to EN ISO 6946 [28]:
5. Results and discussion 421
384 λeq = e(hconv + hrad ) (10)
Since the main objective of our study is the capacity 422
385 The convective heat transfer coefficient (hconv ) from Eq. (10) and the precision of our reduced model to predict the ther- 423
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386 can be determined using dimensionless parameters which mal behaviour of concrete hollow blocks, we present be- 424
387 govern an enclosure natural convection phenomena (e.g. low two issues regarding the results. One is the full-order 425
388 Nusselt number, Rayleigh number, . . . ). These dimension- model/low-order model confrontations and the other one is 426
389 less numbers can usually be obtained by standard dimen- direct reduced model/experimental confrontations. 427
390 sional analysis. It is generally known that the Nusselt num- To evaluate the accuracy of each reduction, we present in 428
391 ber can be written for any enclosure flow problem as: Fig. 3 numerical data (heat flow outputs at the side of box 2) 429
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392 Nu = aRa r b c
(11) from the complete and the reduced model for each hollow 430
block configuration taken into account. The results show 431

where for the values of the coefficients a, b and c several that the reduced models (each defined by five modals) have 432
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393
394 useful correlations for buoyant enclosure flows can be taken high efficiency as the relative errors between the full-order 433

395 into account [5]. Many of these correlations proposed in models and low-order models are constantly less than 0.01%. 434

396 the literature deal with limiting conditions such as for high In addition, numerical results using Heat 3 code [30] reveal 435

397 and low Grash of numbers and/or high and low aspect ra- also good agreement in comparison with the reduced models 436
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398 tios. The one suitable for our conditions, and therefore taken data (Fig. 3). 437

399 into consideration within our study, was proposed by Mac- Experimental–umerical comparisons in term of heat rate 438

400 Gregor et al. [29], the values of the coefficients a, b and through the sample side of box 2 (Fig. 3) provide correct heat 439

401 c being 0.272, 0.25 and –0.25, respectively. According to transfer evaluations by means of reduced models. Neverthe- 440

402 these values and using Eqs. (11) and (12), we can calculate less, we note some slight discrepancies which can be ex- 441
plained by the experimental conditions: they do not provide
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403 the convective heat transfer coefficient within the cavities of 442

404 hollow blocks for several usual temperature differences be- perfect adiabatic conditions as there are some wall losses 443

405 tween the vertical walls of the cavities. Taking into account through insulated parts of the calibrated hot box. 444

406 the experimental conditions (Table 2), we determine a value To further assess the precision of the reduced models, we 445

407 of 2.9 W/m2 K for the convective heat transfer coefficient. analyse Bode’s diagrams according to the air temperature 446

λa on each side of the hollow block sample in Case 1 (Fig. 4). 447
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hconv = Nu (12) In fact, Bode’s plots enable us to analyse the behaviour of 448
408
e
our system in an established periodic rating which is sub- 449
409 The radiation heat transfer coefficient (hrad ) from Eq. (10) mitted to that kind of input functions. Consequently, one 450
410 is calculated according to [28]: is able to evaluate the relationship of magnitude and phase 451
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Fig. 3. Heat flow response: numerical vs. experimental results.

452 model outputs with the frequency of input functions within these excitations frequencies ranges. However, the thermal 465

453 the model. In our case (Fig. 4), the investigated model output low-order model obtained by means of Moore technique pro- 466
Y(1) was the heat flow through the sample wall side of box 2 vides satisfactory results for excitations periods decreasing

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454 467

455 while the model inputs were the air temperature within box down to 4 min (0.0042 Hz). As a result, we can consider the 468
1 U(1) and the air temperature within box 2 U(2). First of behaviour of our reduced model completely suitable for ap- 469

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456
457 all, we should remark that the U(2) frequency response of plications within building thermal simulation field since in 470

458 the reduced model behaves perfectly well on the large fre- this domain excitation periods lower than 4–5 min are use- 471

459 quencial field scrutinised (Fig. 4). On the contrary, we can less and illusive taking into account walls thermal inertia. 472

460 notice that for frequencies higher than 0.0042 Hz the U(1) It should be noted that similar results (i.e. same order of 473

461 response of the model characterised by only five models is magnitude concerning the limit of high frequencies range) 474
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462 totally different in comparison with the full-order model be- are obtained from other cases where reduction model tech- 475

463 haviour. This means that the reduced model proposed here niques are applied in the field of building envelope thermal 476

464 does not accurately restore the hollow blocks responses for behaviour [14,21]. 477
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Fig. 4. Bode’s diagrams of full-order model and low-order model (Case 1).
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478 In conclusion, despite these small deviations of the re- [3] A. Abdelbaki, Z. Zrikem, Numerical simulation of the coupled heat 529
479 duced model within higher frequencies range, its response transfer through building walls consisting of hollow tiles, Interna- 530
tional Journal of Thermal Science 38 (1999) 719–730. 531
480 is still valid to get realistic outputs for the thermal behaviour
[4] Y. Dingyi, S. Wei, L. Zhiyong, Z. Keren, Research on improving 532
481 of hollow blocks. Moreover, the model response for higher the heat insulation and preservation properties of small-size concrete 533
482 excitations frequencies ranges can be significantly improved hollow blocks, Cement and Concrete Research 33 (2003) 1357– 534
483 by increasing the number of equations within the reduced 1361. 535
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487 dimensional heat flow (by using hypothetical equivalent [7] EN ISO 8990, Thermal insulation: determination of steady-state 543
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488 thickness of materials) to predict heat loss through building [8] EN 1934, Thermal performance of building: determination of thermal 545
489 envelopes under dynamic conditions is not very precise in resistance by hot box method using heat flow meter, Masonry. 546
490 the case of hollow blocks walls. Consequently, complex [9] EN 1745, Masonry and products: methods for determining design 547
491 three-dimensional heat transfer computations are indispens- thermal values. 548
492 able to properly describe the thermal behaviour of hollow [10] Réglementation Thermique 2000, CSTB (Centre Scientifique et Tech- 549
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493 blocks. Unfortunately, this approach leads generally to lin-
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495 treatment of such complicated models is almost prohibitory USA, 1985. 553
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497 and important computation time. Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, 1994. 555
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