Universiti Kuala Lumpur

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

AAB21203

–Lecture Notes –
Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics

Mulia Minhat
July 4, 2017
© All rights reserved
Foreword
Table of Contents

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Unit 1

Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and

Force Vectors

Unit Objectives

The objectives of this unit are:

1. To introduce the fundamentals, basic concepts and principles involved in
the study of engineering mechanics;
2. To introduce scalar and vector quantities; and
3. To show the methods of conversion of forces given in scalar form to
vector form and vice versa.

1.1 Introduction

For many centuries, philosophers, mathematicians and scientists have always been
interested with the state of bodies subjected to the action of various forces. Just to
name a few, Archimedes (287-212 BC), Galileo (1564-1642), Isaac Newton (1642-
1727), Einstein (1878-1955) and Schrodinger (1887-1961) are some of the great
people who have made major contributions to this area of study known as mechanics.
In many literatures, mechanics is defined as a branch of physics that deals with the
state of a body under the action of forces. In other words, it is a science that studies
the effect of forces (energies) on a body. Today, the mechanics can be grouped into
three major areas of study:
i) Classical or Newtonian mechanics: A mechanics study that deals with the
rest or motion condition of a body or bodies, which is governed by the
three Newton’s laws of motion, law of gravitation and some energy
principles.
ii) Relativistic mechanics: A mechanics study that deals with high-speed
(speed of light) bodies.
iii) Quantum mechanics: A mechanics study that deals with motions of
particles when their atomic distances are matter of importance.
Engineers are fond to use the laws of mechanics to actual field problems.
Application of laws of mechanics to field problems is termed as engineering
mechanics and it is based on classical mechanics study where its laws have stood
firm against test of time. Thus, this course in general is about applications of classical
mechanics for the analysis of various engineering problems at a fundamental level.
Bear in mind that although the engineering analysis taught in this may seem
fundamental, the subject has grown to the analyses and designs of robotics system as

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

well as advanced aircraft and spacecraft operating under the various dynamics effects,
atmospheric, gravitational and temperature forces. In conclusion, this course is
designed to equip the students with all the fundamental knowledge, skills and tools
necessary for upper-level or advanced courses offered in their program of study and
more importantly, to train their engineering minds and to give them the ‘feel’ of being
an engineer.

1.2 Classifications and Branches of Engineering Mechanics Study

The classification of engineering mechanics study depends on the body to which

mechanics study is applied. Thus, in general we have
1) Solid mechanics
2) Fluid mechanics
The solid mechanics is further divided into mechanics of rigid bodies and
mechanics of deformable bodies (materials). Rigid body mechanics is designated for
analysis of a body, in which the deformation is assumed to be zero or so small that it
can be neglected. On the other hand, mechanics of deformable bodies deals with the
deformation of a body due to the stresses acting within a body. These stresses are
developed due to the action of forces acting on a body. Such study is also known as
material resistance, strength of materials or mechanics of materials and can be
classified further into theory of elasticity and theory of plasticity.
Fluid mechanics is a mechanics study that deals with fluids and gaseous, which
are easily and continuously deformed under the action of small shear forces. This area
of study can be further grouped into several classifications depending on the ideal or
real representation of fluids as well as on the flow characteristics of fluids.
In general, engineering mechanics has two branches of study known as statics and
dynamics. Statics deals with the bodies in rest condition while dynamics deals with
the bodies in motion. The classification of mechanics study is summarized in Fig. 1.1
below. In our course, we deal with mechanics of rigid bodies only, which includes
statics and dynamics.

Fig. 1.1: Classification and branches of engineering mechanics study.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

1.3 Fundamentals in Engineering Mechanics Study

Several basic terminologies, fundamental concepts, law of mechanics and units are
given here. It is imperative for the students to understand them clearly.

1.3.1 Basic Terminologies & Basic Concepts

Mass – A quantity of the matter possessed by a body and is a measure of the

heaviness of a body. The mass of a body will not change unless the body is fractured
or part of it is removed. On the other hand, weight is a quantity of the matter
possessed by a body due to the action of gravitational force. The weight of a body can
change when there is a change in gravitational force acting on a body. If gravitational
force is completely removed, the mass remains the same while the weight equals zero.

Time – The measure of succession of events. In our world, the successive event is
chosen based on the rotation of planet earth about its own axis and this is called a day.
Of course, to have more convenient units for successive events in a day, a day is
divided into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds.

Space – a geometric region occupied by objects or bodies. A point or collection of

points in space may be referred from specific reference point by a set of linear
(distance) and/or angular measurements, (distance or radius). The reference point is
called the origin and the sets of measurements as the coordinates. If straight lines,
which are mutually perpendicular to each other, are used to define the coordinates,
they are known as Cartesian coordinates. If it involves angle and distances, it is
known as polar coordinates. A space, from engineering analysis point of view, can
either be described by three-dimensional (3-D) or two-dimensional (2-D) coordinate
system. In 3-D Cartesian coordinate system, three lines mutually perpendicular to
each other are used as a reference coordinate system and the lines are usually labeled
as x-, y- and z-axis (see Fig.1.2.a). In 2-D system, the x- and y-axis system is
normally used (see Fig.1.2.b). Note that the arrowhead or the position of the axis label
defines the positive direction of an axis. Having the coordinate system, important
measurements such as defining the position and state of a body are now possible.

Fig. 1.2: a) Three and b) two dimensional coordinate system.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Length – It is a concept for measuring linear distances. It can also be used to specify
the position of a body in space at specific point of time based on specific coordinate
system. For example, the position of point A when specified from point of origin O
(0,0,0) in the three-dimensional system (see Fig.1-2.a) can be described as

A = (x A , y A , z A ) = (2,3,4)

where xA, yA and zA describes the distances (length) from point O to A with respect to
the x-, y- and z-axis accordingly. Here, we do not yet specify the unit of the length to
describe the position of a point from the origin. Of course, length measurement can
also be used to measure the shape or size (length, area and volume) of a body. For
example, the length of the bar BC, which is shown in Fig.1-2.b, is equal to 2 units, i.e.

Length BC = OCx − OBx = 1− (−1) = 2 .

Depending on the time traveled by a body under the action of net force, the
displacement (position), velocity and acceleration of a body can be obtained from this
basic measurement of length.

Displacement – the distance moved by a body in specific direction. In the context of

engineering mechanics, it describes the distance or how far the body moves in
specific direction from initial to final point, e.g.

u = Δx = dx = x f − x i . (1.1)

Velocity – the rate of change of displacement with respect to time. The average
velocity can be defined as

d Δx x f − x i
v(t) = x(t) = = . (1.2)
dt Δt Δt

Acceleration - the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Thus, we have

d
a(t) = v(t). (1.3)
dt

Continuum – An assumption for a body where it is assumed to consist of a

continuous distribution of matters (particles). It is a well-known fact that each particle
can be subdivided into molecules, atoms and so forth. However, it is not possible to
solve any engineering problem by treating a body as a conglomeration of such
discrete particles. Thus, a continuum body may be assumed, which

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

has a mass, volume, shape and surface area enclosing the volume (see Fig.1.3).

Fig. 1.3: A continuum body, which has mass, volume and surface, in 3-D space.

Rigid Body – Rigid body is an assumption used in the engineering mechanics

analysis for a body when its size cannot be ignored or is relevant to the study. In its
formal definition, a rigid body is defined when the relative positions of any two points
(particles/matters) in a body do not change under the action of forces (see Fig.1.4), i.e.
AB=A’B’.

Particles – A body, which is represented by a point but still possesses mass and
volume. Such a body cannot exist theoretically; however, when dealing with problems
involving distances considerably larger compared to the size of the body, such body
might be treated as particle. Examples of such situations are as follows: 1) A bomber
aircraft is a particle from the point of view of a gunner operating at the ground, and 2)
in the study of satellite motion in its orbit, the satellite is treated as a particle (see Fig.
1.5.a).
There exists other situation where a body may be treated as particle. For example,
whenever a body is subjected to multiple forces and they meet at a single point, then
the body can be treated as a particle (see Fig. 1.5.b).

Fig.1.4: The relative of AB within a rigid body before and after force is applied.

Fig.1.5: Particle analysis for a) satellite motion in its orbit and b) a hook subjected
to forces, which meet at one point.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Force – In general, a force is considered as an action of one body onto another body.
In its basic terminology, a ‘pull’ or ‘push’ exerted by one body on another. Basically,
a force is a result of interaction between two bodies when there is direct contact
between them. For example, flipping the pages of this paper exerts a force from your
fingers (body) on the paper (body). More relevant examples are as follows: a moving
airfoil (body) creates airflow with two different speed (air as a body) over and under
an airfoil (body) and thus, resulting a drag (force) due to friction generated from the
interaction between airflow and skins of an airfoil, and also lift (force) due to pressure
differential created by the interaction of airflow (body) with the top and bottom part
of an airfoil (body). A force may also be created even when there is a physical
distance or separation between the two bodies, e.g. gravitational, electrical and
magnetic forces.
In any case, a force is completely specified by its magnitude, direction and point
of application. These three characteristics are necessary if we want to describe
meaningful force acting on a body. Based on Fig. 1.6, when a man with a weight of
500-N standing on a bar at point C, we can say that a force with a magnitude of 500-
N force is exerted at point C vertically, i.e. 900 counter-clockwise from the positive
horizontal x-axis, with downward direction. Note that although the 2-D coordinate
system is not shown in the diagram, the definition of direction of the force is based on
the standard sign convention of a coordinate system where for x-axis, pointing to the
right shows the positive direction and for y-axis, pointing up is the positive direction.
Notice that a concentrated force or point force is used to represent the weight of
a man standing on the beam AB shown in Fig. 1.6. A concentrated or point force is
actually an idealization of the effect of a loading assumed to act at a point on a body.
Usually, it is customary in engineering analysis to represent a loading as point force
when the area over which the load is applied is very small compared to the size of a
body.
When several forces act simultaneously on a body, they as a whole constitute a
system of forces. If all forces, which act on a body, do not lie on a single plane, such
system is called system of forces in space. If they lie on a single plane, it is termed as
coplanar force system. Furthermore, if all of these forces converge at a single point,
they constitute a system of concurrent forces. When all forces are parallel to each
other, they are known as a system of parallel forces. Finally, in a system of collinear
forces, all forces lie on a single line.

Fig. 1.6: Characteristics of force exerted by a man standing on the beam AB

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Scalar – A quantity that is completely specified by its magnitude only. Examples of

scalar quantity are mass, area, volume, density, time, speed, work, energy and
temperature. Note that some of scalar quantity may have negative value, e.g.
temperatures while others are not possible, e.g. mass and volume.

Vector – A quantity that is completely defined by its magnitude and direction. Force
as shown in Fig. 1.6 is a vector quantity. Notice that the direction of a vector is
completely defined when the direction angle and sense are specified. As shown in
Fig. 1.6, the direction of a force is described by the 900-angle counter-clockwise from
the positive x-axis (which basically is a direction angle that shows the force is a
vertical force), and also by the downward direction (which shows the sense of a
vector). Other examples of vector are velocity, acceleration, momentum and etc. A
vector is normally written as bold letter or letter with an arrowhead. The later is
usually employed in handwriting.

1.3.2 Laws of Mechanics

Here, several laws of mechanics, which are very important in the engineering
mechanics analyses, will be introduced.

Newton’s First Law – It states that a body will remain in its rest condition or its
uniform motion condition (same speed in the same direction) unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. This law is also known as Law of Inertia. It is interesting to note
that from this law, a force can also be defined as an external agent that changes or
tends to change the state of a body. Of course, in a worst-case scenario, a force may
damage or destroy a body.

Newton’s Second Law – The law is stated as follows: The acceleration of a body
produced by the net force (unbalanced force) acting on it is directly proportional to
the magnitude of the net force and inversely proportional to the mass of a body. This
definition is based on the famous formula, F = ma where F is the net (unbalanced)
force, m designates the mass of a body and a represents the acceleration of a body
caused by the net force. In more precise definition, the law states that the rate of
change of linear momentum of a body is directly proportional to the net force, i.e.

d dv
F=
dt
( mv ) = m = ma.
dt
(1.4)

If the body is in state of rest or in uniform motion condition (constant velocity) where
acceleration equals zero, then we have a condition called ‘equilibrium’, i.e. F = 0.
This time, the net force is a balanced force.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Newton’s Third Law – The third law specifies that for every action, there exists an
equal but opposite reaction. Let us consider a ball that has a weight W, is resting on
the floor (see figure 1.7). The weight of the ball is due to the gravitational effect
acting on the body and is pointing downward. As a result, there is an action by the
ball onto the floor. Since the ball remains in equilibrium, i.e. the net force equals zero,
there must be an equal and opposite force countering the weight of the ball. This
equal and opposite force is termed as reaction.

Newton’s Gravitational Law and Weight – The gravitational force or force of

attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to their masses, m1 and m2
and inversely proportional to the squared distance, d2 between the two bodies, i.e.

m1m2
F =G (1.5)
d2

where G is gravitational constant or constant of proportionality (see Fig. 1.8). In the

case of a body located near or at the surface of the earth, the gravitational force shown
in Eq. (1.5) is termed as weight and the formula is simplified into the following form

W = F = ma = mg (1.6)

where g is equal to 9.81 m/s2 (to be exact is 9.80665 m/s2), W and m is the weight and
mass of a body respectively.

Law of Transmissibility of Force – This law specifies that the state of a body is
unaltered if a force acting on a body is replaced by the same magnitude and direction
of force as long as the that force is acting anywhere on a body along the line of action
of the original or replaced force. Line of action is a fictitious imaginary line of
infinite length and is collinear with the original applied force (see Fig. 1.9.)

Fig. 1.7: Third Newton’s law.

Fig. 1.8: Schematics of Newton’s gravitational law

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Fig. 1.9: The law of transmissibility of force (dotted line is the line of action of the
force)

1.3.3 Units & Conversions, Engineering Prefixes and Numerical Calculations

Units – Presently, there are two systems of units used internationally. These are the SI
Units and US Customary Units. The units for the basic quantities such as length, time,
mass and forces are shown in Table 1 below. Conversion of Units – Table 1.2
provide the sets of direct conversion factors between the SI and US Customary units.
Recall that 1 m = 1000 mm, 1 kg = 1000 g, 1000 kg = 1 metric ton, 1 ft. = 12 in.,
1000 lb. = 1 kip (kilo-pound) and 2000 lb. = 1 ton.

Engineering Prefixes and Exponential Form – When a numerical quantity is either

too large or too small, engineering prefixes or exponential forms are useful to be used.
For example, 1,125,000 N = 1.125 MN = 1.124 x 106 N. Another example for small
value, 0.00045 mm = 0.45 µm = 450 nm = 0.45 x 10-3 mm. Some of the prefixes used
in the SI units are shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.1: System of units for basic quantities

Standard Length Time Mass Force
(L) (t) (M) (F)
SI Meter Second Kilogram Newton
(m) (s) (kg) (N) or
(kg.m/s2)
US Foot Second Slug Pound
Customary (ft) (s) (lb.s2/ft (lb)

Table 1.2: Unit Conversions for basic quantities

Quantity US Customary SI
Length 1 ft. 0.3048 m
Mass 1 slug 14.59 kg
Force 1 lb. 4.448 N

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Numerical Calculations – There are several important things that we must be aware
and remember when performing our numerical calculations in solving engineering
problem. These are dimensional homogeneity and significant figures in rounding
off numbers.
The dimensional homogeneity requires the same and consistent units are used in
each term appeared in the equation. In other words, meter and millimeter cannot be
mixed and the SI unit should not be interchanged with the US customary units.
As for rounding off numbers, it is usually performed after final answers are
obtained and should have at least three significant figures, e.g. 73560 N becomes 73.5
kN or 0.0735 MN, 0.254797 m becomes 0.255 m or 255(10-3) m. Thus, it is
imperative that whenever a calculation is made in every step or procedure towards to
obtaining the final answer, the value must either be stored in a calculator for future
retrieval or written down up to 4 or 6 significant figures for decimal number. Hence, it
is imperative for you to understand on how to use your calculator appropriately.
Being said that, a calculator is an engineer’s best friend! In any case, failure to do so
will result to rounding-off error and the errors accumulates and becomes significant in
each time a new calculation is made in every step of numerical procedures. This error
will affect your final answer. Let us put into a perspective, we do not want aircraft to
go down because of our laziness or incompetency in storing numbers in a calculator
and inappropriate rounding off numbers, do we?

Table 1.3 Prefixes and its symbol and exponential form.

Exponential form Prefix SI Symbol
Multiple
1,000,000,000 109 Giga G
6
1,000,000 10 Mega M
3
1,000 10 Kilo k
Sub-multiple
0.001 10-3 Milli mm
µ
-6
0.000 001 10 Micro
-9
0.000 000 001 10 Nano n

1.4 Force Vectors – Scalar to Vector and Vice Versa

In our course, we are most likely to encounter a problem, in which there is a need to
convert a quantity from its scalar to vector form. In other words, we must be able to
derive the components of a vector quantity with respect to x-, y- and/or z-axis system
when scalar quantity (just magnitude) is initially given. Interestingly, once the final
answer is obtained, which usually is in the form of vector quantity, we somehow are
required to give the answer back into its original form, the scalar quantity. Thus, in
this section, we will be introduced to the methods or approaches that convert scalar

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

quantities into vector quantities, and vice versa. Herein, we will use force as the basic
quantity for the study because this course specifically deals a lot with forces acting on
a body. Bear in mind that the methods shown here are not limited to force only and
are applicable to all other vector quantities.
Prior to the exercises, some concepts of vector quantity must be reviewed. A
vector can be represented graphically, which is indicated as an arrow. In a graphical
format, the length of an arrow represents the magnitude of a vector quantity (see Fig.
1.10.a). Thus, if the magnitude of one force is larger than other, by right its length
should be longer in proportion than the other. The head of an arrow, which has
pointing tip, shows the sense of direction where it is pointing and/or acting. Notice
that a tail of an arrow is used to show the point where the force is acting while in Fig.
1.6, the head of an arrow is used. Furthermore, the position or orientation of an
arrow’s body (meaning the whole length from tail to head) also defines the direction
of a vector quantity when referred to specific coordinate axis, i.e. a direction angle
formed between the arrow’s body and specific axis system. Two vectors may have the
same magnitude and direction angle (same orientation) but different opposite sense
(see Fig. 1.10.b).

Fig. 1.10: Graphical representation of force vectors, (a) Forces with different
magnitudes, direction angles and senses, and (b) forces with the same magnitude
and direction angle but opposite sense.

The graphical approach is one way of dealing with vector quantity in engineering
mechanics analysis. Another way, which is more effective especially in dealing with a
system of forces, is to define vector quantity in terms of its vector components, which
are parallel with the axes of Cartesian coordinate system (see Fig. 1.11.a and b). In
this case, a vector quantity is a result of the summation of its vector components
(vector law of addition is applied), i.e.

F = Fx + Fy (2-D),
F = Fx + Fy + Fz (3-D)

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Fig. 1.11: Vector quantity F and its component vectors of Fx, Fy and Fz in (a) 2-D
and (b) 3-D coordinate system.

where F is vector quantity and Fx, Fx and Fx are its vector components with respect to
x-, y- and z-axis accordingly. However, this form of vector quantity is not really
useful or helpful to us. The more desirable form is when the component vectors are
shown in terms of the product of its scalar components with the respective unit
vectors (see Fig. 1.12.a and b). Such vector form is given as

F = Fx i + Fy j (2-D),
(1.7)
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k (3-D)

where Fx = Fxi, Fy = Fyj and Fz = Fzk have been used to get Eq. (1.7) from Eq. (1.6).
Here, Fx, Fy and Fz are the scalars (magnitudes) of the vector components in x-, y- and
z-axis respectively while i, j and k are the unit vectors with respect to x- and y- and z-
axis system accordingly. A unit vector is a vector where its length is equal to one.
Expressions given in Eq. (1.7) are the exact vector form we wish to define when
the magnitude of a vector quantity is initially given. Specifically, we want to
determine the scalar components of a vector quantity shown in Eq. (1.7). We shall
now introduce the methods and approaches to define the scalar components in two-
and three-dimensional space system.

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Fig. 1.12: Vector quantity F with its component vectors, which are represented by
the product of its scalar components with the respective unit vectors in (a) 2-D and
(b) 3-D coordinate system.

Table 1.4 helps us to understand the definition, symbol and meaning of the
terminologies associated to vector and scalar quantity and the transformation
operation, which will be discussed in the foregoing.

Table 1.4: Symbol and definition associated to force vector and its scalar quantity
Symbol Meaning Other meaning
F force as scalar quantity represents magnitude of a
force, e.g. F = 50 N
F, force as vector quantity
F = Fx + Fy, vector form of a force in
terms of vector components
Fx ‘x-vector component’ of force Fx = Fxi = Fx (Fx is the
vector that is parallel with x- magnitude of x-vector
axis component)
Fy ‘y-vector component’ of a Fy = Fyi = Fy (Fy is the
force vector that is parallel magnitude of x-vector
with y-axis component)
F = Fxi + Fyi, vector form of a force in
= Fx + Fy terms of scalar components
Fx ‘x-scalar component’ of force also simply known as ‘x-or i-
vector component’ of force vector
Fy ‘y-scalar component’ of force also referred to as ‘y- or j-
vector component’

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1.4.1 Conversion of scalar to vector form and vice versa in 2-D system

There are three approaches to define the vector form (vector quantity) when the
magnitude and some geometrical information of the quantity being measured is given.
These are 1) angle, 2) ratio and 3) position method.

a) Angle Method

An angle method is used when direction angle of a force is given such as shown in
Fig. 1.13. As we can see, the direction angle is 300 from horizontal x-axis and will be
used to define the scalar components (x- and y-scalar component) of the force vector.
Again, the main idea of this problem is to convert the force, which originally given as
a scalar quantity F (magnitude only) into a force vector F. As mentioned earlier, the
force vector F is completely defined by its vector components (Fx and Fy) and our task
is to determine the x- and y- scalar components (Fx and Fy) of these vector
components so that the final force vector can be represented in its general vector form
as F = Fxi + Fyj.

Fig. 1.13: A rod subjected to a tensile force

Example 1.1: A rod is subjected to tension force of 100 N directed 1500 from positive
x-axis as shown in Fig. 1.13. Determine the vector form of that force.
Procedures to solution:
1) Read the question carefully and understand what is required:
- The question asks for a vector form of the tension force.
2) Evaluate what information is given or can be derived:
- The magnitude of the (scalar) force is 100 N.
- Its direction angle is 300 from the horizontal (negative) x-axis.
- It is pointing towards to upper left corner.
3) Draw the force and its scalar components, which should form the right-angle
triangle (see Fig. 1.14) and label the sides and other information as necessary:
4) Apply trigonometric identities to solve for the unknown scalar components of
Fx and Fy:
- The trigonometric identities relevant to our problem are given as follows:

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Fig. 1.14: The right-angle triangle formed by the magnitude of a force and its
scalar components

adjacent opposite
cosθ = , sin θ = . (1.8)
hypothenuse hypothenuse

- Thus,

F100 x F100 y
⇒ = cosθ = cos300 , ⇒ = sin θ = sin300 ,
F100 F100
⇒ F100 x = F100 cos300 = (100 N )(0.866), ⇒ F100 y = F100 sin300 = (100 N )(0.5),
⇒ F100 x = 86.6 N. ⇒ F100 y = 50 N.

- It must be noted that 86.6 N represents the value of x-scalar component F100x,
which actually defines the magnitude of the x-vector component F100x of a
force vector F100 (refer Table 1.4).
- On the other hand, 50.0 N is the value of y-scalar component F100y that really
specifies the magnitude of y-vector component F100x of a force vector F100.
5) Write down the final answer of force vector while noting the direction of its
vector components:

F100 = −F100 x + F100 y = − F100 x i + F100 y j

!!!!!!" !!!!" " "
= − F100 x + F100 y = − F100 x i + F100 y j =
= ( −86.6i + 50 j) N ∅

- Notice that the x-scalar component of the force vector has minus sign precedes
it. The negative sign appears in the equation because the direction of x-vector
component is pointing to left in the negative direction of x-axis. Thus, the
negative sign is due to direction and not the magnitude of x-vector component
since force cannot have negative value or magnitude (it is illogical). Again,
the negative or positive value of a scalar component of the force vector
depends on the direction of its vector component whether it is pointing in the
negative or positive direction of the axis system.

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6) Finally, check your answer using your engineering or engineer’s intuitive. In

any case, you may want to double-check your numerical calculations, as this is
one of the engineer’s highly effective habits:
- So how do we use our intuition in this kind of problem? If you remember, a
vector quantity can be represented as an arrow and the length of an arrow
represents the magnitude of the vector quantity. In this case, notice in Fig.
1.14 where the lengths of arrows representing both scalar components of a
vector are shorter than the length of an arrow representing the main force
vector. Thus, the values of the answers found in step 4 should be smaller than
100 N, which tallies to our found solutions.
- In addition, Fig. 1.14 shows the length of an arrow representing the x-scalar
component of a force vector is longer than the length of an arrow that
represents the y-scalar component. This means that the magnitude of x-scalar
component should be larger than the magnitude of y-scalar component, which
is the case of our solutions.
- Finally, if you are still not sure, we can always revert back the force vector
into its scalar form (meaning the magnitude and direction angle of the force
vector can be determined from the solution found in step 5) and see whether
the reverted scalar value has the same magnitude of the force given initially.
For example, if a vector is written as F = Fxi + Fyj, then the magnitude of that
vector quantity as well as it direction angle can be determined from the
following formula:

F = F = Fx2 + Fy2 (1.9)

Fy
tan θ = (1.10)
Fx

- Eq. (1.9) and (1.10) are valid for 2-D space system only and they include the
direction (positive or negative) of the Fx and Fy components.
- Eq. (1.9) is the equation that is used to convert the vector quantity into its
scalar quantity, i.e. to determine the magnitude of vector quantity. The
equation is actually based on the Theorem Pythagoras. It is imperative that if
negative sign appears in the scalar components, that negative value must be
squared together with the scalar components.
- Eq. (1.10) is quadrant-sensitive. Therefore, it is important to include the sign
(e.g. negative sign) of the scalar component in the tan inverse computation.
Otherwise, we may get the correct angle value but it is located in the wrong
quadrant. Based on Fig. 1.15, quadrants I and III give positive angle due to the
counter-clockwise rotation from the horizontal x-axis to the force while
quadrants II and IV give negative angle due to clockwise rotation.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Fig. 1.15: Quadrant for tan θ.

- Let us return back to our concern earlier. We want to determine the magnitude
and direction angle of the force vector, which have been obtained earlier, and
check those values against the initial values given in the problem. Thus,

F100 = F100
2
x
+ F100
2
y
= (−86.6)2 + 502 = 99.997 ! 100 N ∅

F100 y 50
θ = tan −1 = tan −1 = −300 ∅
F100 x −86.6

- As can be seen, the magnitude of the force vector is identical to the initial
value given in the problem. In addition, the value of direction angles found in
the above calculation further confirms that our solution found in step 5 is
correct.

b) Ratio Method

In this method, a small right-angle triangle attached to the body of an arrow

representing the force is denoted (see Fig. 1.16). This small triangle is used to
designate the ratio between the hypotenuse, opposite and adjacent sides of a right-
angle triangle. As shall be seen later, the x- and y-scalar components of the force
vector are found through some equivalency with the ratio given by the small right-
angle triangle.

Fig. 1.16: A rod under compressive force

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Example 1.2: A rod is experiencing compressive force of 100-N shown in figure 1.16.
Convert the force into its appropriate vector form and determine its direction angle
measured from horizontal x-axis.
Procedures to solution:
1) Read the question carefully and seek what solution is needed:
- As before, the question asks for a vector form of the compressive force.
- Direction angle of the force vector is required. The requirement of horizontal
x-axis is automatically satisfied by the tan inverse formula given in Eq. (1.10)
2) Evaluate what information is given or can be derived:
- The magnitude of the (scalar) force is 100 N.
- A ratio of 3, 4 and 5 through small right angle triangle representation is given.
- The force is pointing toward bottom right corner.
3) Draw the force and its scalar components, which should form the right-angle
triangle (see Fig. 1.17) and label the sides and other information as necessary.
Furthermore, draw the equivalent right-angle triangle next to the triangle
drawn earlier and label its sides using the given ratio:

Fig. 1.17: Equivalency between the two right-angle triangles

4) Apply the equivalency of ratio between the two triangles to obtain the x- and
y-scalar component of the force vector:
- The x-scalar component or simply x-component can be found by having the
following equivalency

F100 x 4
⇒ = ,
F100 5
(1.11)
4
⇒ F100 x = F100 = (0.8)(100 N ) = 80 N
5

- On the other hand, its y-scalar component is obtained by

F100 y 3
⇒ = ,
F100 5
(1.12)
3
⇒ F100 y = F100 = (0.6)(100 N ) = 60 N
5

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

5) Once its scalar components are obtained, we can now write down the final
answer for the force vector. Again, attention is required to see the direction
(sense) of the components with respect to x- and y-axis system:

F100 = F100 x i − F100 y j

= (80i − 60 j) N ∅

- Note again that the negative sign appears in the above vector form is due to
the direction of y-vector component, which is pointing in the negative y-axis.
6) To determine the direction angle of the force vector, Eq. (1.10) is employed:
- First, we require the information on the scalar components (F100x and F100y) of
the force vector and these have been obtained earlier in step 5.
- Using these values in Eq. (1.10) gives us the direction angle of the force
vector, which is found to be

⎛F ⎞ ⎛ −60 ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ 100 y ⎟ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = −37 0 ∅
⎝ F100 x ⎠ ⎝ 80 ⎠
- Notice that the direction angle is in the fourth quadrant due to the fact that y-
component has negative value and x-component is positive.
7) Finally, use your engineer’s intuition to have a feel whether the obtained
solution is valid and logic. Again, we can verify the correctness of our answer
by determining the magnitude from the vector found earlier:
- Employing theorem Pythagoras formula, we have

F100 = F100
2
x
+ F100
2
y
= 802 + (−60)2 = 100 N .

- As we can see, our solution is correct.

c) Position Method

A position method is used when some geometrical dimensions specifying the distance
between or the positions of the two points are given. These points are usually located
on the line of action of the force (see Fig. 1.18.a). In this case, the vector form of a
vector is obtained by the following formula

! !
F = F u or F = Fu (1.13)

where F is the force vector, F is the magnitude of the force, and u is defined as the
unit vector of the position vector r and is given by

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

! !
r r ! r r
u= = or u= ! = . (1.14)
r r r r

The position vector r, has the usual vector form as r = rxi + ryj. Its scalar components,
i.e. rx and ry, are defined by two points, which as mentioned earlier are usually located
on the line of action of the force. Furthermore, its direction is identical with the
direction of the force applied (see Fig. 1.18.b). The symbol r designates the
magnitude or length of the position vector r (see Fig. 1.18.b), which is defined as

!
r = r = r = rx2 + ry2 (1.15)

where rx and ry is the scalar components of the position vector r.

Fig. 1.18 (a) A rod under compressive force and (b) position vector and its
associated unit vector and length.

Example 1.3: A rod is under compressive force with a magnitude of 100 N acting at
point A such as shown in Fig. 1.18.a. Determine its vector form and direction angle
measured counter-clockwise from the positive x-axis.
Procedures to solution:
1) Always start a problem by reading the question carefully and understand what
the question really wants:
- Similar as before, the question wants us to convert the force given in
magnitude and some geometrical information into its vector form.
- Direction angle is required; however, additional requirement needs to be
fulfilled, which the angle must be defined counter-clockwise from the positive
x-axis.
2) Evaluate what information is given or can be derived:
- The force has a magnitude of 100 N and is pointing to the bottom-right corner.
- No angle or ratio is given except some dimensions describing the positions of
point A and point B. Thus, we may have to use position approach.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

- Notice that the dimensions given in the problem allows us to find the solution
using either ratio or angle method. However, that is not the intention of this
example problem. We now proceed with the procedures in the position
method.
3) Use formula given in Eq. (1.13), (1.14) and (1.15) to obtain the required
solution:
- Based on the formula shown in Eq. (1.13), (1.14) and (1.15), it is obvious that
we need to first define the position vector r acting along the line of action of
the force. Once defined, the magnitude of position vector, r can be found
through Eq. (1.15). Having this information of r and r, we can use Eq. (1.14)
to determine the unit vector u acting along the line of action of the force or
more specifically, the unit vector of position vector r. Once the unit vector is
defined, the vector form of the force can be defined by using Eq. (1.13). Thus,
as mentioned earlier the position vector must be defined first.
- The position vector must be evaluated along the line of action of the force. By
looking at Fig. 1.18.a, there are two points that can be used to define the
position vector, which are point A and point B. In addition, the direction of the
position vector must be in the same direction of force applied to a body. In this
case, the position vector runs from point A to point B (see Fig. 1.18.b) and not
the other way around. Thus, we can define the position vector as rAB = rABxi +
rAByj where rABx and rABy are the respective x- and y- component of the position
vector. We now need to evaluate these scalar components so that the position
vector is completely defined. To determine these scalar components, we
evaluate the horizontal and vertical components of the position vector such as
shown in Fig. 1.19. Basically, we are trying to determine the horizontal
distance from point A to point B as to define the x- component (rABx) of
position vector and also the vertical distance from point A to point for y-
component (rABy). We see that the horizontal is equal to 4 m and the vertical
distance is 3 m. Hence, we have the position vector as

rAB = rABx i + (−rABy )j

= ( 4i − 3j) m

- Note that the y-component has negative direction since the y-vector
component of the position vector is pointing downward in the negative
direction of y-axis system or we can say, the distance from point A to B is
going into the negative y-direction.
- Next, we use Eq. (1.15) to determine the magnitude of the position vector (see
Fig. 1.18.b), which is given as

rAB = rABx
2
+ rABy
2
= 42 + (−3)2 = 5m

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

- Once we have both information on position vector rAB and its magnitude rAB,
we can employ Eq. (1.14) to get the unit vector of the position vector, which is
given as

rAB 1
u AB = =
rAB 5 m
( 4i − 3j) m
= 0.8i − 0.6 j

Fig. 1.19: Evaluation of scalar components of position vector rAB.

- Finally, we can utilize Eq. (1.13) to get the vector form of the compressive
force acting on the rod at point A, which can be found as

F100 = F u AB = (100 N )(0.8i − 0.6 j) = (80i − 60 j) N ∅.

4) To solve for the required direction angle of the force vector, the followings are
taken:
- First, we need to employ Eq. (1.10) first to get the direction angle measured
from horizontal x-axis and this gives us

⎛ −60 ⎞
θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = −37 0
⎝ 80 ⎠

- Then, we use that value to obtain the required direction angle measured
counter-clockwise from the positive axis, which can be found as

φ = 3600 − 37 0 = 3230 ∅

5) Finally, evaluate your answer whether it is logical or not. Double check your
calculation and as before, we can employ Theorem Pythagoras to determine
the magnitude of the obtained force vector and check it against the magnitude
of the force initially given in the problem.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

1.4.2 Conversion of scalar to vector form and vice versa in 3-D system

As in the 2-D system, there are three methods that can be used to transform the force
given by its magnitude into its vector form. The three methods are 1) rectangular
component method, 2) angle method and 3) position method. The main difference
here is that we have extra vector or scalar component of the force vector, which is
parallel to the z-axis. The expression (vector form) of 3-D vector quantity is already
shown in the second expression of Eq. (1.7). In relation to this, the formula defining
the magnitude of a vector quantity also has one extra term, which the formula can be
written as

F = F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2 . (1.16)

where F is the magnitude of vector quantity, which in this case, the magnitude of the
force and Fx, Fy and Fz are the three scalar components of vector quantity with respect
to x-, y- and z-axis accordingly. Apart from that, the direction angle of 3-D vector
quantity is defined by its cosine angles such as shown in Fig. 1.20. In other words, its
direction is specified by three angles. The cosine angles are given as follows:

⎛F ⎞ ⎛F ⎞ ⎛F⎞
α = cos −1 ⎜ x ⎟ , β = cos −1 ⎜ y ⎟ , γ = cos −1 ⎜ z ⎟ . (1.17)
⎝ F⎠ ⎝ F⎠ ⎝ F⎠

where α – an angle defined from the positive x-axis to the force or to body of an
arrow, β – an angle from the positive y-axis to the force and γ – an angle from the
positive z-axis to the force. Further property of these cosine angles is given by the
following formula:

cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1 (1.18)

Fig. 1.20: Cosine angles of 3-D vector.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

a) Rectangular component method

This method is used when a force shown in 3-D system is described by two right-
angle triangles, which are adjacent and perpendicular to each other. In addition, these
two triangles share one same side. In other words, one side of the right-angle triangle
is connected to one of the sides of the other right-angle triangle (see Fig. 1.21).
Furthermore, these two triangles are normally given with some information in terms
of angle and/or ratio.

Example 1.4: Convert the 5 kN shown in Fig. 1.21.a into vector form and determine
its cosine angles.

Fig. 1.21: 3-D vector described by two right-angle triangles.

Procedures to Solution:
1) Read the question and understand what is required. Evaluate given
information. Derive extra information if necessary:
- It is obvious that we need to define the vector form of the 5-kN force, i.e. F1 =
F1x i + F1y j + F1z k. As such, its scalar components must be defined. These
scalar components, which consist of F1x, F1y and F1z, can be determined from
the sides of the two right-angle triangles shown in Fig. 1.21.b. As we can see,
these sides are shown with green arrows representing the vector components
of the 5-kN force vector. Notice that the vertical side of the gray triangle
represents z-component, i.e. F1z because that side is parallel with z-axis. The
same can be said with the sides of the pink triangle. For example, the side that
is designated with F1x since it is parallel with the x-axis. The question is now,
how do evaluate these sides so that the scalar components of the force vector
can be defined.
2) First, evaluate the triangle, to which the force vector is originally associated in
2-D plane.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

- Here, the gray right-angle triangle must be evaluated first because its
hypotenuse represents the magnitude of the force vector. The 2-D view of the
gray triangle is labeled as necessary and shown in Fig. 1.22 below.

Fig. 1.22: The 2-D view of triangle with information on ratio

- As we can see that one of the sides is labeled with F1* since that side is not
parallel with any of the axes of coordinate system.
- To get the magnitude of these scalar components, we use ratio method because
a ratio is used to define the triangle. Thus, the magnitudes of the components
are given as

6
F1z = F = 0.6(5kN ) = 3kN ,
10
8
F1* = F = 0.8(5kN ) = 4 kN.
10

3) Next, we evaluate the second triangle in a 2-D plane:

- The 2-D plane of the pink triangle is shown in Fig. 1.23 and the sides are
labeled as necessary.

Fig. 1.23: The 2-D view of triangle with information on angle

- Here, we use 2-D angle method to get the x- and y-component of the force
vector, which we have

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

F1x = F1* cos300 = 4 kN (0.866) = 3.464 kN ,

F1y = F1* sin300 = 4 kN (0.5) = 2 kN.

4) Write the final vector form taking into account the direction of its components.

F1 = F1x i − F1y j + F1z k

= ( 3.464i − 2 j + 3k ) kN ∅

- Looking at the directions of these two components based on Fig. 1.21, 1.22
and 1.23, the x-component of the force vector (F1x) has positive sign, the y-
component (F1y) is negative and the z-component is positive.
- If we want verify our answer above, we should calculate the magnitude of F1
vector given above and the result should be equal to 5 kN. Otherwise, we may
have gotten the wrong answer for the vector form.
5) The cosine angles of the force vector are determined by Eq. (1.17):

⎛ 3.464 ⎞ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
α = cos −1 ⎜ , β = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ , γ = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠
= 46.10 = 113.60 = 53.10 ∅

- Notice that β exceeds 900 and this is logical since the scalar component
associated to this angle has negative sign or direction. Cosine always gives
negative value when the angle is more than 900.

b) Angle method

Whenever a 3-D force is described by three angles such as shown in Fig. 1.24, its
vector form can be obtained directly with the aid of Eq. (1.17). However, the angle
has to be read properly. We have to ensure that α is an angle that relates to x-axis, β
and γ with y-axis and z-axis respectively. Furthermore, all angles must always be
defined from the positive side of the axes to the line of action of the forces. In fact,
these three angles actually define the direction angles of the force.

Example 1.5: Determine the vector form of the 5 kN shown in Fig. 1.24.
Procedures to Solution
1) Read the question and understand what is required. Evaluate given
information. Derive extra information if necessary:
- Here, we found that α = 1800 – 1200 = 600, β = 1200 and γ = 450. Notice that
angle for is not read directly from the figure since the angle given is from the
negative x-axis and not from positive x-axis. The reason why the angle is

26
 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

being subtracted from 1800 is due to the fact that the angle for a straight line is
1800.
2) Employ Eq. (1.17) to determine the scalar components of the force vector to
get the vector form:
- Rewrite Eq. (1.17) gives us

F2 x = F2 cos α , F2 y = F2 cos β , F2 z = F2 cos γ

- Substitute the given magnitude and all angles in the above equations, we have

(
F2 x = (5kN ) cos600 ,) (
F2 y = (5kN ) cos1200 , ) (
F2 y = (5kN ) cos 450 )
= 2.5kN = −2.5kN = 3.54 kN

- Thus, the final vector form is found as

F2 = F2 x i + F2 y j + F2 z k
= ( 2.5i − 2.5j + 3.54k ) kN ∅

- Notice that the directional sign (whether positive or negative) depends on the
value of the angle. If the angle is more than 900, then that particular scalar
component will have negative sign due to cosine property. This is the
characteristics of 3-D angle method.

Fig. 1.24: 3-D force vector that is defined by three angles.

c) Position method

This method is basically the same method as used to convert force given scalar
quantity into its vector quantity. The formula given in Eq. (1.13), (1.14) and (1.15)
can still be used for the 3-D space system.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

Example 1.6: As shown in Fig. 1.25, a pole is being pulled from point P to point Q
with a force of 5 kN in magnitude. Represent this force in a vector form. Determine its
direction angles.

Fig. 1.25: Pole under the action of force PQ.

Procedures to Solution:
1) Read the question and understand what is required. Evaluate given
information. Derive extra information if necessary:
- We need to convert F3 into its vector form using the position method since
geometrical dimensions are given. Thus, we need to use Eq. (1.13), (1.14) and
(1.15).
- The direction angles of the 3-D force vector will be obtained with the help of
Eq. (1.17).
2) Determine the position vector:
- The position vector will be derived from the points P and Q since they both
are located on the line of action of the force. Since the force is directed from
point P to point Q, the position vector will be read as follow

rPQ = −rPQx i + rPQy j − rPQz k

= ( −2i + 4 j − 5k ) m

- Notice that rPQx is found by measuring the distance from P to Q, which is

parallel with x-axis and the negative sign is denoted because that distance or
length is directed into the negative direction of x-axis system. Thus, the
distance from P to Q that is parallel with y-axis represents rPQy and it has
positive direction. The same can be said about rPQz, which represents the
distance PQ that is parallel with z-axis. However, it has negative direction
since it is going downward in the negative direction of z-axis.
3) Determine the magnitude or length of the position vector using Eq. (1.15):

r = r = rPQx
2
+ rPQy
2
+ rPQz
2
= (−2)2 + 42 + (−5)2 = 6.71m

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 Unit 1: Introduction to Engineering Mechanics and Force Vectors

4) Next, determine the unit vector of the position vector using Eq. (1.14):

r ( −2i + 4 j + −5k ) m
u PQ = =
r 6.71 m
= −0.2981i + 0.5963j − 0.7454k

5) Finally, employ Eq. (1.13) to get the final vector of F3:

F3 = F3u PQ
= (5kN ) ( −0.2981i + 0.5963j − 0.7454k )
= ( −1.45i + 2.98 j − 3.73k ) N ∅

6) As for direction angles, Eq. (1.17) is utilized:

⎛ −1.45 ⎞ ⎛ 2.98 ⎞ ⎛ −3.73 ⎞

α = cos −1 ⎜ , β = cos −1 ⎜ , γ = cos −1 ⎜
⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎟⎠
= 106.90 = 53.40 = 138.20 ∅

29