Exaltation of the Present: ➢ society.
The New Consciousness of Time
❖ Jürgen Habermas’s argument is that modernity
is a project which is not ended yet.
❖ Modernity is a break with tradition.
➢ Tradition has a normalizing function.
▪ The norms and values with which the
members of society are acquainted
with
➢ Modern revolts against normative. It
breaks the rules.
➢ The task of passing on a cultural tradition,
transmission and reproduction of values
breaks down.
❖ Change;
➢ Old/the past: Traditional
➢ New/the Present: Modern
➢ What are the key political transformations?
▪ Absolute monarchy
▪ Divine rights of kings
▪ Nationalism
➢ What are the key economic
transformations?
▪ Industrial revolution
▪ Rise of capitalism.
➢ The present is always changing, traditional
to modern.
❖ The effect of transformations on the society;
➢ Social relationships had to change as well.
Human beings had to adopt themselves to
the modern world.
▪ Individualism
▪ Liberty
▪ Natural rights
▪ Equality
▪ Democracy
❖ Rationalization of everyday life;
➢ Capitalist modernity economic and social
modernity; i.e there is a change in the
approach to work, consumption,
achievement and leisure.
➢ With the reformation, approach to work
changed.
➢ Modernism was in general associated with
ideal visions of human life in this world
and society and a belief in progress.
➢ Modernity: Exaltation of the present
❖ There is a change in relations to
➢ God
▪ Even God were redefined
➢ nature and
▪ Nature became a source of
knowledge.
▪ Before, the source of knowledge was
the Bible.
▪ There is a change in the institutions of
the social order. (feudalism, church).
➢ Now human beings focus on this life and
the present not the other life after death.
❖ Sant’ Apollinaire Nuovo, 504, Ravenna,
Mosaic of The Miracle of the Loaves.
➢ We see Christ as a holy figure.
➢ He depicted while he was creating a
miracle.
➢ There is halo behind the heads of holy
figures.
▪ It means they are belong to heavenly
sphere.
➢ There is also a golden background.
▪ It means they are not belong to this
world.
❖ Caravaggio 1571-1610, The Supper at
Emmaus, 1601
➢ Depiction of a religious scene shown in an
everyday life.
➢ There a stylistic and environmental change
▪ Christ was depicted as in this world in
everyday life, like an ordinary man.
▪ There is no halos or golden
backgrounds and miracles.
▪ There is an Ottoman carpet in
decoration.
• A sign of normal life.
❖ Changing notions of knowledge, the source is
changed.
➢ The bible was not questioned, however
with the transformations empirical
knowledge came in.
➢ The knowledge’s basis became
observation, scientific explanations and
based on reason.
➢ Outcome was scientific discoveries and
change in technology, change in man’s
approach to time and space.
➢ Reality is redefined.
Visual Cultural History
❖ Studies these changes through the visual
cultural material
➢ The visual documentation in addition to
the written documentation: the primary
sources.
❖ Our Lady of Vladimir (1131), Madonna Litta
(1490-92), Mother and Child (1922) ; in the
latter you do not distinguish “Madonna”. The
first and the latter are stylized, the middle is
life-like.
❖ Our lady of Vladimir, ca.1131, Theotokos
➢ The golden background depicts the godly
divinity.
 ➢ Virgin Mary and Christ depicted in the
Godly realms, endless time and space.
▪ The reference is the other world.
➢ The icon conducts people to God and to
God’s order.
➢ The aim of human beings in this period
was the hope for salvation.
❖ Leonardo da Vinci, Madonna Litta, 1490-92;
➢ Virgin Mary and Christ depicted in this
world.
➢ The reference is again the Bible, yet they
are depicted realistically and life-like, so
the reference is also this world.
➢ The Godly sphere and this world are
depicted, limited space and time.
➢ The aim became pleasure which was
forbidden in medieval Christianity.
❖ Pablo Picasso, Mother and Child, 1922
➢ A mother and a child depicted in this
world. We cannot identify them.
➢ The reference is this world only.
➢ The present, the now and the here,
contemporary experience are important.
➢ Religion replaced by science, art,
philosophy.
❖ Change;
➢ a turn from god and the godly sphere and
the spiritual life to this world.
❖ Tennis Court Oath;
➢ French Revolution
❖ Eiffel Tower;
➢ Industrial revolution,
➢ The function of it changed in the time.
➢ It became the celebration of the French
Revolution.
➢ The human beings loaded the new means.
❖ Modernism was in general associated with
ideal visions of human life and society and a
belief in progress.
❖ Machine was represented in word and image:
technology.
❖ The machine-based mass production was seen
as the means of achieving a better world
(Machine Turn Quickly). The rules have
changed.
❖ Railways; the idea is speed, it a new concept.
➢ Speed changed the human perception of
time and space.
❖ Photography becomes a means of visual
documentation.
❖ The conditions of class; they both have the
right to ride train. According to fiscal capacity,
you chose your compartment. The present
became the instant of consciousness.

❖ Enlightenment introduced new approaches to

God, reason, nature and humanity.
❖ According to Kant, most significant feature is
the ability to make choices to create a better
life in this world.
➢ So, we may talk of a new worldview in the
west that led to revolutionary
developments in art, philosophy and
politics.
➢ Humans understand the universe and
improve their own condition.
❖ The goals of rational humanity were considered
to be knowledge, freedom and happiness.
❖ The Fall of Man;
➢ It is an image from Medieval church.
➢ The original sin has made the earthly
kingdom an imperfect reflection of
heaven.
➢ This awareness of the Fall had a profound
effect on how people in the Middle Ages
looked at the world and themselves.
➢ The Christian message was to attain
spiritual life and to deny this world.
❖ Statue of Liberty;
➢ This was a present of France to USA.
➢ Liberty enlightening the world.
 The Growth of Mass Culture:
Modernity Values
❖ Capitalism
❖ Technology
❖ Urbanization
➢ Constant flux and movement
➢ City life: Spectacle
❖ Standardization of Time
➢ Time becomes an important element is
everyday life
➢ Bus times, train times
➢ Clock towers
▪ Big Ben 1859
❖ The Haussmann Plan Paris (1850s-1860s)
➢ It included the demolition of medieval
neighborhoods that were deemed
overcrowded and unhealthy by officials at
the time;
➢ the building of wide avenues;
➢ new parks and squares;
➢ the annexation of the suburbs surrounding
Paris;
➢ and the construction of new sewers,
fountains and aqueducts.
❖ Commodification of Spare Time/ Leisure
➢ The boulevards, cafes, arcades became the
natural habitat.
➢ There is a change in social encounters
➢ The city becomes a place of promenading,
a place of showing off.
➢ Surprising encounters. New,
unprecedented organization of social
relationships.
➢ Many social classes coexist but nearly
touch each other
▪ Class distinctions are kept.
➢ The Flaneur
▪ Idle stroller without a real job.
▪ Natural habitat: Boulevards, arcades
cafes
▪ Baudelaire:
• “For the perfect flaneur, a
charming stroller through modern
society, for the passionate
observer, it is an immense joy to
set up residence in the hearth of
the masses, in the flow and in the
movement, in the fugitive and the
infinite…”
 The observers: City as a
spectacle.
➢ Images of the emerging modern world,
where industrial developments opened up
more time for leisure, be in the country
side or rapidly expanding urban areas.
▪ Popular entertainment.
➢ Cancan, lively and risqué dance of French
or Algerian origin.
▪ Usually performed onstage by four
women.
▪ Known for its high kicks in unison
that exposed both the petticoat and the
leg.
▪ The cancan was popular in Parisan
dance halls in the 1830s and appeared
in variety shows.
❖ City as a sight of strangeness and otherness
➢ Alienation.
➢ Anonymity
➢ A sense of uprootedness, loneliness.
➢ On the other side there is a potential to
recreate and refashion yourself because
you are not known to anybody.
➢ There is a certain degree of freedom from
traditional social ties.
▪ The individual is emancipated.
❖ The artist becomes a witness and a critic of his
time
❖ The invention of photography in 1839 elevated
photographic images to the level of fine art.
❖ Naturalism
➢ In fine art painting, naturalism describes a
true-to-life style which involves the
representation or depiction of nature with
the least possible distortion or
interpretation.
▪ Life-like
❖ Aesthetic modernity
➢ The present, the now is important.
➢ The impressionists dissolved the solidity
of the picture plane. But one can still
recognize figures and objects in the
painting.
➢ Monet was a founder of French
impressionist painting.
▪ The term impressionism is derived
from the title of his painting
Impression, Sunrise.
➢ The aim is to depict the immediacy of the
world with complete fidelity.
 A New World Order:
Colonialism and Imperialism
❖ Colonialism is basically a system allows the
individuals to settle in an area and colonize it.
➢ To make it productive, through
exploitation, through agricultural means.
❖ Colonialism is a term that is associated with a
certain historical context.
➢ It has to do with the expansion of the west,
of Europe.
➢ It is triggered with the discovery of
America.
▪ Discovery is a very biased word
because it implies before the
discovery, America did not exist.
▪ Europe is the center of the world.
❖ Colonialism is about, the westerners
establishing themselves, settling in new
discovered areas and starting the culture of
their own by the destruction of whatever
culture preexisted in those lands.
❖ Imperialism has to do with basically rule.
➢ The fact of being in control, of reigning of
dominating an area.
➢ Therefore, Imperialism in the context is
some kind of a second faze or a final phase
in colonialism.
▪ where the initial settlement of
colonizers is gradually transform into
a permanent presence with a military
and political domination of the states
that are behind these colonizing
agents.
➢ This is something that happened in the last
quarter of the 19th century and it is
something that will mark to a large extend
the politics of the 20th century by
becoming in a sense a word to describe
any powerful rule of the western powers
over non-western powers.
▪ Therefore, even today we still use the
term imperialism in a political context
to talk for example the rule of the
USA maybe played in certain regions
of the middle east.
❖ Colonialism has very destructive elements.
➢ We know, for example that the firs landing
side of Spanish conquerors, Cuba literally
destroyed in terms of its local original
populations by the imposition of force
labor, by the depletion of the natural
resources, by the importation of diseases
from Europe, including the syphilis.
➢ Therefore, colonization in the 16th century
is already claimed with a very negative
impact over these lands.
➢ But we should also remember that
colonization in the 16th, 17th and even in
the 18th century is some kind of a
compromise between the preservation of
the local dynamics and the imposition of a
power from outside.
▪ In most of the cases, it is very
superficial.
▪ That is, it does not yet have the
means, technological or administrative
or logistical, to impose a total control
over the land that are conquered.
▪ Most typically, the colonized areas are
going to be harbors, are going to be
coastal regions that are included in
some kind of a greater network of
trade and organization.
▪ But that rarely lead to the colonization
the complete control of the hinterland.
▪ Until the end of the 19th century most
of the areas of the world that will fall
under imperialism are still let
untouched.
❖ Colonialism and imperialism eventually
brought an incredible movement of
populations.
➢ This is a novelty.
➢ The medieval or the ancient world is to a
large extend immobile.
➢ When you do have some mobility, it is so
striking, it leaves a trace in most of the
sources.
▪ Look at the Spanish conquest of the
South America.
▪ It is a handful of individuals mostly
noble, who lost their positions due to
the economic crises, who are pushed
by the crises to find a new life in these
overseas territories.
▪ This handful of individuals became
eventually enormous amounts of
people.
➢ It is not just white people.
▪ Most of the development of America
both south and north will be based on
the massive exportation of slaves from
Africa.
▪ Today’s African-American population
is a result of very violent abusive
destructive transfer of millions of
individuals through slave trade for
economic reasons.
 ➢ So, colonialism is something that
completely modifies the shape of the
world.
▪ Especially in the 19th century.
❖ If we look at the political context of
colonialism and imperialism, we can take as
one interesting starting point 1798.
➢ The occupation of Egypt by the French.
➢ The Ottomans did not have the means of
opposing this aggression by the French.
▪ Which is why they depend on the
British.
➢ How it is colonial?
▪ Symbolically, it is one of the first
instances of the use of military and
scientific power in order to analyze,
observe an exotic land in a systematic
way.
▪ The French will publish monumental
description of Egypt, which is
considered to be the starting point of
the modern orientalism.
• Where the orient the exotic lands
are objectified are turned into an
object of interest and all sorts of
clichés and stereotypes.
➢ This rivalry between the French and the
British is a telling sigh of the days to come
that is of the gradual expansion of
European powers and the rising tension
because of the race for colonies.
➢ The Ottoman Empire throughout the 19th
century will be constantly targeting by
European powers as a potential colonial
expansion.
▪ The French expedition to Algiers in
1830 ended with the conquest and the
colonization of Algiers, which was
under the Ottoman rule ever since the
16th century.
• Algiers was already very distant
very autonomous very
independent from the ottoman
rule.
• If you look at the Ottoman press
of the time, has practically
nothing about the integration of
Algiers’ into the French Empire.
 Meaning, the Ottomans do
not have the means anymore
to resist on the fringes of the
empire against European
powers.
❖ The British are to a large extent absent in the
Mediterranean, in this immediate backyard of
Europe.
➢ Because they have other plans. They have
the Indian subcontinent to deal with.
▪ The Indian subcontinent which until
then had been dominated by the
British trade and trading companies.
▪ In the 19th century it becomes a
British territory.
• That is an interesting and
important transition.
• From economic exploitation, to
military and administrative
control over the country, leaving
no possibility to local political
powers to survive.
• The famous 1858 mutiny of
Indians against the British rule is
one of the first example of how
powerful and destructive and
violent colonialism can become.
 Ex: Execution with cannon
balls.
❖ In the 1850s and 60s these powers are still
trying to negotiate their presence in certain
areas that hadn’t been conquered.
❖ In 1869, the opening of Suez Canal is a very
important step in the creation of the new world
order.
❖ Japan is an interesting addition to the
imperialist spectrum of the time.
➢ About to create a zone of influence in the
Chinese territory by political and
economic control.
❖ America is a late comer too.
➢ But it is present more and more in this new
world order.
❖ The most striking example of imperialist
domination is Africa.
➢ Because it is the most violent and rapid
form of integration.
➢ In 1880, the largest chunks of Africa are
still administratively, militarily untouched
by the Europeans.
➢ In 1913, the maps really changed. Most of
Africa is split by the Europeans.
➢ In 1884, we see a conference, the aim of
which partition of Africa.
▪ The European powers are conscious
that the colonial race is a risk of war.
▪ In order to avoid tensions between the
colonial powers they decided to hold a
conference, where at the table they are
going to partition Africa.
 ▪ By joining this conference, the only two actors who speak proper French
Ottoman empire tried to at least give in this image are the dogs.
the illusion that the Ottoman are a ❖ Colonialism and this rivalry between imperial
western power. powers is what partly will create the conditions
➢ So, from the 1880s on, Africa is going to for the enormous explosion of violence, which
be literally conquered very violently we know as the World War I.
swallowed by the powers of the time.
❖ This comes with a very strong cultural biased,
with a new claim that civilizing mission.
➢ The fact that Europe is conquering the rest
of the world in order to bring to it a form
of civilization, which was unknown to this
local barbarian populations.
➢ The name of this mission is the white
man’s burden.
▪ The understanding of civilizing these
populations is a burden for European
powers.
➢ This belief is something that shows the
level of racism, distinction, separation
segregation between the white and the
black, western and non-western.
❖ The level of racism comes to a point that they
start to have exhibitions, performances of
natives that are brought to the European
capitals and are placed in zoo-like situations
where they are exposed to the curious gaze of
the metropolitan inhabitant.
❖ The most violent, cruel and disgusting example
of imperialism will probably be that of Kongo
under Belgian rule, Leopold II.
➢ The king of Belgium, Leopold II, who
buys those territories in the 1870s, in the
time Belgium has not colonial policy.
➢ It means Kongo is a private property of
one individual, Leopold II, who turns it
into a profitable venture.
➢ Even in the 19th century, there was already
a reaction to the violence which Leopold
was using in Kongo.
▪ For example, the natives of Kongo
under the rule of Leopold II, are
punished for not producing enough by
amputating.
➢ The level of violence was so
unimaginable, the Belgian government is
forced to buy Kongo from Leopold to
restore a more decent rule.
❖ When we look at the popular culture of the
western countries in the early 20th century, we
can see all sorts of stereotypes that are linked
to the contrast between the white and the black.
➢ In a famous comic, depicted all sorts of
dialogues of people of Kongo and all of
them reproduce with an accent and the
 Old Empires: Struggle for Survival
(Romanovs-Qajars-Ottomans)
❖ Long-nineteenth century (before WWI)
What is an empire?
❖ Defined simply as a case where influence and
authority, which we shade into each other)
overlap ethnic, linguistic and religious
boundaries; where one ruler or polity seeks to
draw other regions and states into his
geopolitical, economic and cultural system
through a set of functional, spatial and
hierarchic arrangements.
House of Romanovs
❖ Paul I (1776-1801)
➢ Autocratic rule in the age of revolutions
➢ State as the center of political power
➢ Everything should be carried according to
rules.
➢ Russian army was modelled after Prussian
army.
➢ Power of dynasty
➢ Anti-Europeanism
❖ Alexander I (1801-1825)
➢ Reformist and westernization without
losing the power of the monarchy
➢ Establishment of ministries.
➢ Law school.
➢ Council of State
➢ Censorship relaxed
➢ End of reforms > The Post-Napoleonic
Period (1815)
➢ Police force
➢ Suppression of anti-monarchial
movements in Europe
❖ Nicolas I (1825-1855)
➢ Autocratic rule as the only way to stop
liberal and constitutional thought.
➢ Police force under his direct rule to follow
the opposition in the society (third office)
➢ Control of entire society
➢ Speranski Law:
▪ Codification of law which was
remained in place until 1917
➢ Ideology:
▪ Autocracy, Orthodoxy and nation
➢ !830s “salon culture”
➢ Liberalism, socialism and pan-Slavism.
❖ The Crimean War (1853-56)
➢ A new European order
➢ Napoleon III
➢ Russia’s weaknesses.
❖ Alexander II and Age of Reforms
➢ Defeat in the Crimean War
➢ Autocracy is not enough, reform is needed
➢ Transformation of the entire society.
➢ Serfdom abolished
▪ Feudal system > peasant “bound” to
the land of a noble
➢ Provincial administration (zemstvo)
➢ Judicial system
➢ Reform in the military
❖ New socio-political groups:
➢ Liberal thought as an alternative to
absolutism
➢ Chicherin > History of Political Theories
(1868)
➢ A new generation > Nihilists
➢ Chernyshevsky > “What is to be done?”
(1862)
➢ Narodnik (towards the people) (1870s)
➢ Going to villages
➢ Socialism without capitalism in the
villages
➢ 1881 Tsar Alexander was killed
➢ Pogroms of Jews.
❖ Alexander III and Nicholas II: Absolutism
vs. Dissidents:
➢ Monarchy strengthened against freedom of
speech
➢ Provincial authorities were given to
declare “state of emergency”
➢ Power of the notables were increased.
➢ Provincial assemblies under governors2
control
➢ Universities were controlled strictly
➢ Anti-Jewish laws > Pale of settlement
➢ Social groups underground:
▪ Marxists
• Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin)
• Bourgeois revolution
▪ Socialist Revolutionary Party (cont.
Narodnik)
• Terrorist tactics
▪ Liberals
• Middle and upper-middle classes
▪ Nationalism among the subjects
Economic Change:
❖ Early industrialization attempts
❖ 1860 railroad
➢ European credit also Russian investors
➢ For railroad construction > steel and iron
factories > industrialization
❖ Education for engineers for construction and
industries
➢ New schools for engineering.
❖ Agriculture Abolishment of the Serfdom:
➢ Serfs free but landless.
➢ Village commune remained intact ❖ Serf
➢ Payment of debts after serfdom ➢ “The bounded people so called because as
➢ Rich peasants could buy outside the a matter partly of old laws and partly of
village commune current customs they have been
➢ Half of the land remained in the hands of hereditarily bound to the authority of the
100.000 whereas the other half had 120 land lords.”
million. ▪ Seigniorid peasants
❖ Trans Siberia Railroad (1890s) ▪ State peasants
➢ A nationwide market > Connection to the ▪ Appanage peasants
western cities. ❖ The language of the text
➢ Migration from villages to cities. ➢ To Russian nobility.
➢ St. Petersburg doubled from 1 million to 2 ❖ Given rights to Serfs
million. ➢ Free peasants with obligations to
➢ Port and industrial town. government
❖ 1890s: ➢ 2 years transitional period for household
➢ New industries and towns serfs.
➢ Donets (mining) Baku (oil) ❖ Institutions to carry out the reforms
➢ A provincial office of peasant affairs
1905 Revolution: ➢ Mediators
➢ Local administrations and courts.
❖ Fire over the workers 9/22 January 1905
❖ Defeat at the Russo-Japanese War (May 1905)
➢ The entire country went to strikes
▪ Strikes turned into political demands
➢ Peasant unrest
➢ Ethnic clashes in the Baltic Region and
Caucasia
❖ Duma was called and a constitution.
❖ Political parties founded.
❖ Revolutionaries established themselves legally
❖ Ultra-nationalists and contra-revolution “black
faces”
❖ 1906 constitution
➢ Tsar maintained most of its power
➢ Legislation by the Duma discussed
➢ Peasant unions
❖ With the 1905 Revolution participation of the
people in the political debate.
 The Qajars of Iran (1796-1920)
❖ Iran as semi-colonial empire:
➢ States that in the late 19th and the early 20th
centuries were penetrated by imperial
capital, trade and political influence, but
which preserved their juridical
independence.
▪ Reforms > attempt to change this
status
❖ Legitimacy problems
➢ Having no military security, no
administrative stability and little
ideological legitimacy.
➢ Not powerful beyond Tehran
➢ Dependence of tribal forces
▪ Attach them through tax-farms >
detrimental to the population
➢ Provincial bureaucracy by the members of
the dynasty and tribes.
▪ No central authority and lack of
legitimacy.
❖ Shi’i Ulema as a political power in Iran
➢ Qajars hes no religious authority after the
end of the Safavids.
▪ Ulema as an important component of
political life.
➢ Shi’i ulema’s role and power as
interpreters of the message >
ijtihad/mujtahid
❖ !9th century developments
➢ Following of a mujtehid
➢ Living mujtehids over former ones.
➢ Hierarchy of mujtehids > marja al-
taqklid/ayetollahs
❖ Fat’h-Ali Shah (1797-1834)
➢ Precarious unification of Iran
➢ Between France, Britain and Russia
➢ Disastrous Russian Wars
▪ 1804-1813
• The Treaty of Gulistan
▪ 1826-1828
• The Treaty of Turkmencay
➢ Military Reform
▪ 1810s under Abbas Mirza in Tabriz.
▪ New units (Iranian Nizam-ı Cedid)
▪ A printing press to print military tactic
manuals.
▪ Success against Ottomans (1821-
1823)
❖ Nasreddin Shah (1848-1896)
➢ Early reforms under the grand-vizir Amir
Kabir.
▪ Missions abroad (including the
Ottoman Empire)
➢ Budget committee to increase revenues.
➢ Reduce salaries of officials
➢ Custom duties collected by the
government
➢ Control over the shah’s agricultural lands.
➢ Industries and sugar-cane and cotton
production.
➢ Daru’l-funun and newspaper (Vaqaye’-ye
Ettefaqiyeh)
➢ Courts >control over courts in Tehran and
divan-khane as an institution (secular high
court.)
➢ Rights to religious minorities.
➢ Strengthening of central authority/modern
state in Iran.
Social unrest in the 19th century Iran
❖ Babi revolt (1843-52)
➢ Shi’i messianism
➢ Anti-clerical
➢ Seyyid Ali Mohammed > the “Bab” (gate)
➢ Bayan
➢ Qurrat al-ayn
➢ Babi radicalism attempt to assassinate the
shah
➢ One branch of the Babi movement
Bahaullah > Bahais
➢ Liberal, pacifist and cosmopolitan
➢ Delegitimization of the Qajar dynasty
Russian and British Economic Influence in Iran
❖ Russian merchants’ privileges extended to
British ones in 1857.
❖ Iran’s economy’s slow transformation
becoming part of the global economy.
❖ Nasreddin Shah’s policy > to play one power
against the other
❖ Reuter concession 1872.
❖ Pressure and counter pressure.
The Tobacco Protest (1890-92)
❖ Tobacco concession and establishment of the
Tobacco Régie
❖ 200.000 peasants and shop keepers.
❖ In 1891 massive riots
❖ Alliance between the small merchants and the
ulema:
➢ Economic
➢ Political
❖ In 1892 the concession was canceled.
❖ Ordinary people against the shah.
❖ This showed the importance of alliance
between bazaris and ulema in Iranian politics.
Liberal Criticism 1907 Anglo-Russian Treaty

❖ Mizra Malkom Khan ❖ Agreement to resolve the differences on Tibet,

➢ Diplomat in Istanbul and London Afghanistan and Iran
➢ Qanun (London: 1890-96) ❖ North and Central Iran including Tehran and
➢ A rule of codified law Esfahan became Russian zone of influence and
➢ Royal power to be subjected to mashruta. S.East became British zone of influence.
➢ Circulation of revolutionary/social critics
of the regime in novels and newspapers
abroad.
➢ Zayn ol-abedin Maraghe’l’s Travel Diary
of Ebrahim Beg.

Popular and Radical Unrest against the Dynasty Treatise of Mohammed Hossain Na’ini

❖ Jamal al-Din Afghani (1839-1897) ❖ 1906 Iranian constitutional revolution.

➢ “Just rule” in Iran
❖ 1896 Assassination of Nasreddin Shah
Constitutional Revolution 1906
❖ Constitution of concessions given to foreign
powers.
❖ D’Arcy concession in 1905 > oil in Iran (1908
discovery)
❖ Loans from Britain, France, Russia
➢ To pay depts
➢ 3 trips to Europe (1900-1905)
❖ Coalition of different groups (bazaris, ulema
and radicals)
❖ Protests December 1905-August 1906
❖ Theological support for constitutionalism
➢ Absolutism as an apostasy
❖ Duties of government regarding the nation
❖ Two different forms of government
➢ Possessive form
➢ Preservative form
❖ Why there is a need for constitution and
assembly?
➢ The nations of imamate in twelwer Shiite
belief innocence and infallibility.

Fundamental Law

❖ Reduced the powers of the monarch by giving

the elected legislature (majlis) final authority
❖ The rights of Iranian citizens were defined, and
the legislature granted additional powers.
❖ A supreme committee of mujtahids.

Counter Revolution

❖ The Majlis was unable to solve the problems of

the society, particularly economic ones.
❖ Qajar restoration
❖ 1907 Anglo-Russian Agreement
❖ Closure of the majlis, execution and exiles.
❖ 1.5 years of civil war > government had no
power outside Tehran; forces from Azerbaijan
and Bakhtiari tribes from south reestablished
the Constitution
❖ Instability continued throughout the 1910s
➢ Britain invasion of the south to protect its
interests
➢ Russian invaded the north
➢ Majlis suspended.
 The Ottoman Empire in the 19th Century
❖ Mahmud II (1808-1839)
➢ Growing power of the sultan in politics
➢ Janissary rebellion against the reform
▪ Slaughter of Janissaries in 1826 > the
Auspicious Event (vaka-yi hayriye)
➢ Cadre of reformers, loyal to the sultan
➢ Muallem-i Asakir-i Mansure-i
Muhammadiye Bab-i Seraskeri in Bayezid
▪ Also, reform in older units such as
timar holders.
▪ 1833 Redif system > reverse militia.
➢ Modern Bureaucratic Departments
▪ Ministry of Interior
▪ Ministry of Foreign Affairs
▪ Council for agriculture and trade
▪ Council of minister.
▪ Evkaf Nezareti (Ministry of Pious
foundations)
▪ Tercume odasi/translation office
➢ Census for the empire 1831-38 for military
and tax purposes.
➢ Postal services reorganized and travel-
permit system for domestic travel.
Ottoman Foreign Policy
❖ Balance of powers <> alliance with one Great
Power
❖ 2 crises
➢ Greek Revolt (1822-1828)
➢ Middle Eastern Crisis (M.Ali Pasha’s
revolt) (1831-32; 1839-41)
❖ Balance of powers > alliance with one Great
Power.
Ottoman Age of Reforms
❖ From one-man rule (Mahmud II) to systematic
one
➢ Led by the bureaucracy (sublime Porte-
Bab-i Ali)
❖ Destruction of the Janissaries.
❖ Destruction of the ayans
❖ Execution of the top-ranking bureaucracy
➢ Absolutist rule <> Arbitrary rule
❖ Tanzimat Edict of 1839
➢ Equality of subjects, taxation, conscription
➢ Council was created to carry out reform
➢ Not a constitution but limits on the sultan
by law.
➢ Shari must be elevated > the welfare of the
dominions is a duty of the caliph
❖ New ministries
❖ Judicial Reforms
➢ Şura-yi Devlet (council of the State)
legislative
➢ Divan-i Ahkam-i Adliye (High Court of
Judicial Affairs) judicial.
❖ Municipal Reforms
❖ Provincial Administration
➢ Provincial assemblies > central authority
▪ Incorporating the power holders in the
provinces
▪ Non-Muslim members
❖ Education
➢ 1869 Regulation of Public Education >
basis of developments in the Age of
Abdulhamid II
The Ideology of the Tanzimat
❖ Ottomanism:
➢ Equality of subjects of different ethnic and
religious background
▪ To reach all of the members of the
society > a new society
▪ Also against foreign encroachments.
❖ 1856 Reform Edict
➢ Highlights equality
➢ Reorganization of each ethnic group’s
internal affairs
▪ Reform in their organization.
❖ Peak at the Constitution of 1876
➢ Part of the constitution
❖ Limits
➢ Practical limits in everyday life
➢ Later in the century, in tension with
Abdulhamid II’s policies which
highlighted the Islamic character of the
empire.
Financing the Reform
❖ Temettuat (income tax) was introduced (1840)
❖ Banque imperial ottoman 1862
❖ Domestic money lenders (sarrafs) > foreign
debt after 1854
❖ Bankruptcy in 1875
❖ 1881 Muharram Decree > Ottoman Public
Dept Administration > easy credit.
Constitution of 1876 and the Parliament
❖ International context > the approaching crisis.
❖ Young Ottomans > “Consultation”
❖ Tradition of elections (provincial councils)
❖ Western style parliament in an Ottoman
context, to assist the Council of the State in
legislation and counter balance the power of
the bureaucracy.
❖ Powerful sultan (right to suspend the
parliament)
❖ No real ministerial responsibility to the
parliament, appointed by the sultan
❖ Territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire is
indivisible (constitutional article)
❖ Ottoman empire attempted to show that they
don’t need Europeans to supervise the reforms.
Balkan Crisis and the Russo-Ottoman War of
1877-78
❖ 1876 Suppression of a mass rebellion in
Bulgaria by irregulars > “the Bulgarian
Horrors”
❖ Serbia, Montenegro, then Russia
❖ St. Stephanos Treaty (1878) > Berlin Treaty.
❖ Consequences of the war
➢ Demographic and economic changes
▪ 2/5 of its territory, 1/5 of its
population (5.5 million, half of which
was Muslim huge refugee problem.)
▪ Loss of substantial revenues.
Abdulhamid II’s Autocratic-Modernization
❖ Building of his autocratic power
➢ Expansion of the bureaucracy at the yıldız
palace
➢ Control over the bureaucracy at the
Sublime Port
➢ Palace: Gazi Osman Pasha his chief
advisor,
▪ Secret police (jurnalci)
➢ Police force from Ministry of Interior to a
separate ministry- Zabtiye Nezareti (1880)
➢ Stricter censorship over the press. (no
mention of liberty, freedom, parliament,
Murad)
➢ A method of consultation (usul-i meşveret)
is needed.
➢ Legislation and executive branches to be
separated to establish checks and balances.
➢ Autocracy is against material development
➢ Concepts equivalent to society (heyet-i
ictimaiye)
➢ New literary forms to spread their ideas
Criticism towards the Abdulhamid II’s Reign
and the Revolution of 1908
❖ Autocratic rule of the sultan, suppression of
opponents < Revolutionary activity in the
schools.
❖ Bureaucrats’ and army officials’ discontent.
❖ A broad coalition of army officers, intellectuals
including some Islamists, ethnic groups.
❖ Liberty, equality, fraternity, “justice”
❖ Democracy in politics, meritocracy in
bureaucracy
❖ A common Ottoman identity, united against
European intervention.
❖ Image of “Saviors of the Empire” not
revolutionaries.
❖ Restoration of 1876 Constitution not
destruction.

Infrastructure and Economy

❖ First industrial attempts in 1830s and 40s, then

free trade and production in small workshops.
❖ 1888 Berlin-Baghdad railway, against the
dominance of Britain, France and Austria.
❖ Early 1900s Hijaz railway from Damascus to
Medina
❖ Investment in Agriculture and agricultural
school.
❖ Expansion of the schooling system
❖ Cultural production and literary space
➢ Ahmed Mithat Efendi

Criticism of the Ottoman Age of Reforms and

the Hamidian Era

❖ Liberal criticism of the Tanzimat > young

Ottomans
➢ Coalition of the bureaucrats and
intellectuals (Namık Kemal, Ali Suavi,
Cevdet Pasha)
❖ Most important critique of the Tanzimat
 Nations and Nationalism boundaries within a given state… should
not separate the power-holders from the
❖ Modernity: rest.”
➢ Enlightenment ➢ Industrial society, the relationship of
➢ Democracy culture and polity changes radically:
➢ Science ▪ “a high culture pervades the whole of
➢ Public education society, defines it, and needs to be
➢ Improved healthcare and living conditions sustained by the polity. That is the
➢ Rationality secret of nationalism.”
➢ Objectivity ➢ Criticism:
➢ Compartmentalization ▪ What about nationalism in non-
➢ Efficiency industrial societies, e.g. Balkans of
➢ Bureaucratization even Germany?
❖ Examples: ❖ Kedurie
➢ Representative democracy ➢ Emphasis on ideas of the enlightenment.
➢ Industrial/capitalism ➢ “nationalism is a doctrine… [which] holds
➢ French revolution that humanity is naturally divided into
❖ Opposite of Modernity nations, that nations are known by certain
➢ Traditional societies characteristics which can be ascertained,
➢ Imperial Rule and that the only legitimate type of
➢ Aristocracies based on blood/family government is national self-government.”
lineage ❖ Hobsbawm
➢ Multi-lingual, multi-ethnic empires ➢ Invention of Tradition:
(Hapsburg, Ottoman, Russian Empires) ▪ Rituals, public ceremonies, symbolic
➢ Decentralized rule and standardized collective practices.
➢ Irrational ▪ “Nothing appears more ancient, and
➢ Ineffective linked to an immemorial past, that the
❖ Modernization Theory pageantry which surrounds British
➢ Transition from a traditional society to a monarchy in its public ceremonial
modern one manifestations. Yet, as a chapter in
❖ Teleological/Inevitability of nation-state this book establishes, in its modern
❖ Stuart Wolf: form it is the product of the late 19th
➢ Historians who consider their national and 20th centuries. ‘Traditions’ which
identity as having an ancient and appear or claim to be old are often
primordial character “interpreted the quite recent in origin and sometimes
history of their country in a teleological invented.”
manner, as culminating inevitably in the ▪ The nation is a social entity only
nation state.” insofar it relates to a certain kind of
❖ Ernest Renan modern territorial state, the “nation-
➢ “Forgetting, I would even go so far as to state” and it is pointless to discuss
say historical error, is a crucial factor in nation and nationality except insofar
the creation of a nation, which is why as both relate to it.
progress in historical studies often ▪ Nations do not make states and
constitutes a danger for (the principle of) nationalisms but the other way
nationality.” around.
Theories of Nationalism ❖ Anderson
➢ Nation: an imagined political community –
❖ Gellner and imagined as both inherently limited
➢ Industrialization is the key process and sovereign.
➢ “Nationalism is primarily a political ➢ It is imagined because the members of
principle, which holds that the political even the smallest nation will never know
and the national unit should be congruent.” most of their fellow-members, meet them,
➢ “Nationalism is a theory of political or even hear of them,
legitimacy, which requires that ethnic ➢ Yet in the minds of each lives the image of
boundaries should not cut across political their communion… limited because even
ones, and, in particular that ethnic the largest of them has finite, if elastic,
 boundaries, beyond which lie other Meiji Restoration 1868
nations. and
➢ No nation imagines itself coterminous with the Chinese Nationalist Revolution 1911
mankind… It is imagined as sovereign
because the concept was born in an age in Qing Dynasty Upholds Chinese Civilizational
which Enlightenment and Revolution were Identity as well as the identity of the Steppes:
destroying the legitimacy of the divinely-
❖ 1644 Manchu Conquest
ordained, hierarchical dynastic realm.
➢ Wealthiest economy in the world.
➢ It is imagined as community because it is
❖ Manchu military power based on Manchu
conceived as a deep, horizontal
Banner Military Organization
comradeship.
➢ Manchu, Chinese Mongol Banners
❖ Smith
500.000 soldiers
➢ Reforming the primordial nation principle:
❖ Stops Romanov Russian Empire’s expansion to
The Ethnic Origins of Nations
the far east.
➢ The idea that thousands of men and
❖ Former nomads, Manchu clans from forest
women have let themselves be slaughtered
lands north of China specialized in breeding
for a construct of their own or other’s
horses-farming too.
imaginations, is impossible
❖ Tradition of Northern nomad non-Chinese
➢ What gives nationalism its power are the
dynasties in Chinese history.
myths, memories, traditions, and symbols
❖ Qing Emperors keep Manchus as a separate
of ethnic heritages and the ways in which a
aristocratic elite, adhere to the Buddhist sect of
popular living past has been rediscovered
Mongols and Tibetans, special relations with
and reinterpreted by modern nationalist
Uigur nobles.
intelligentsias.
Qianlong Emperor (1735-96)

❖ Rise of British free traders that desire to break

Mercantilism-Global
➢ Free market economy developments
❖ Qing government declined British "Free Trade"
Proposal in 1793 of the Lord MacCartney
Mission with the explanation that China
produces all it needs and that English wares are
Not high quality.
❖ Crisis of Kowtow Ceremony of Lord
MacCartney Mission reflects rising self-
confidence of the British empire and strong
lobby of
❖ New Free Traders-industrial manufacturing
firms of Laocaster andManchester want to
break the mercantilist monopoly of the British
East India Company that monopolized Asian
trade since 1600 in India and China.
❖ Lord MacCartney Mission 1793 refuses
KowTow and demands ceremony according to
English royal traditions of kneeling on one
knee and saluting the Emperor.
❖ Dutch Mission in 1795 of Isaac Titsigh did not
mind the KowTow to get a trade agreement.

China's 19th Century

❖ The Opium Wars, also known as the Anglo-

Chinese Wars, comprise
➢ the First Opium War 1839 to 1842,
➢ Second Opium War 1856-1860.
❖ Dispute over opium trade and diplomatic
relations. Result in Treaty of Nanjing 1842
➢ the first "unequal treaty in Asia" and
ceding of Hong Kong.
❖ Began China's entry into the global 19th century
❖ Crisis domestic and international
❖ Beginnings of modernization and reforms
❖ In the midst of crisis
Great Rebellions
❖ Taiping 1850-1864
❖ Hong Xiuquan
➢ Combines Christianity with Confucianism
and Taoism
Millenarian Utopias
❖ Taiping cannons against Qing forces
❖ Utopian vision of equality and justice
❖ Heavenly Kingdom in Nanjing
Dutch Reports on China's Defeat in the Opium
War of 1838-1842
❖ Bakufu officials supplemented the reports they
received from China with a questionnaire
addressed to the Dutch at Nagasaki.
❖ From them they learned the size of the English
force in China, and the capabilities of ships
powered by steam.
❖ "Why have the Tartars [Manchus] lost," one
question read, "since they are said to be brave
enough?"
❖ The answer was direct: "Bravery alone is not
sufficient, the art of war demands something
more. No outlandish power can compete with a
European one, as can be seen by the great
realm of China which has been conquered by
only four thousand men."
King William II of Netherland sends letter to
Shogun in 1844
❖ Vast increase in manufacture and trade since
the Napoleonic Wars had ended; all
governments were now at pains to further
their trade.
❖ England's eagerness to do so had led to war
with China, a war that had led to the death of
thousands of Chinese, the devastation of many
cities, and the expenditure of millions in
indemnity payments to the victors.
❖ William went on warn that similar dangers now
threatened Japan; there were many more ships
in Japanese waters than there used to be; the
world, in fact, was being knit together by the
new technology.
❖ This process is irresistible, and it draws all
people together.
❖ Distance is being overcome by the invention of
the steamship.
❖ A nation that tries to hold itself aloof from this
process risks the enmity of others.
❖ We are aware that the laws laid down by Your
Majesty's enlightened predecessors limit
exchange with foreign people severely.
❖ But, as Lao Tzu says, "'where wisdom is
enthroned, its product is the maintenance of
peace." When ancient laws, by strict
construction, threaten the peace, wisdom
directs that they be softened.
British prefer the Americans push the Japanese
to open
❖ Under the pattern of most-favored nation
privileges, all powers inherited the gains won
by any one.
❖ The British, conscious of a certain amount of
unpleasantness attached to forcing China open
for Western-carried opium, were quite content
to be second in Japan.
❖ Britain already had a substantial stake in China.
❖ Trade prospects with Japan seemed modest,
and the London foreign secretary informed the
commander of England's Pacific forces that his
government "would think it better to leave it to
the Government of the United States to make
the experiment; and if that experiment is
successful, Her Majesty's Government can take
advantage of its success.
Commodore Matthew Perry arrives, uses
Gunboat Diplomacy
❖ July 2, 1853. 4 ships, 61 guns, 967 armed men.
Met by 1000s samurai armed with 17th century
rifles.
❖ Dutch used in negotiations.
❖ Returns back in February 1854 3 streamers and
3 sailing ships. 23 days of tough negotiations.
❖ Gets agreement from Shogun to open up
Shimoda, Hakodate, Naha for supplies, coal,
help for shipwreck. No trade yet.
❖ Convention of Amity and Friendship March
31, 1854 ended Isolationism.
American Consul Towsend Harris gets Treaty of
Trade in 1858
❖ Harris scares Japanese with example of British
and French violence in Arrow War 1854
Second Opium War.
❖ Shimoda Consulate opened.
❖ Extraterritoriality articles. Unequal Treaty but
better than the Treaty of Nanking signed in
1842.
❖ 5 ports to 'be opened to trade and residency by
1863.
❖ Nariaki wants to die in America that will be
excuse for War to the last.
❖ Emperor (anti-foreign Court Nobles Prince
Iwakura Tomomi) no response for 4 months,
finally sends letter instructing the Shogun to
consult with Daimyo again.
❖ Grand Councilor li Naosuke, frustrated and in
fear of war, signs Treaty on his own.
Immediate cause of samurai outrage that he
sold the country to barbarians betraying his
duty as Shogun.
❖ Emperor Komei (Meiji's father) furious
❖ 1860 li Naosuke assassinated by angry
samurai.
❖ Violence starts
Li Naosuke Assassination
❖ On a snowy day in March 1860, li’s entourage
was on its way to the shogun’s Chiyoda Castle.
❖ The guards’ swords were covered to protect
them against the sticky snow
❖ Suddenly the little group was attacked by Mito
samurai.
❖ While some took on the guards another
managed to pull li out of his palanquin and take
the tairo’s head and then dashed off with it to
the gate of another roju’s mansion, where he
disemboweled himself.
❖ This daring act inaugurated a decade of
violence.
Bakufu cooperate with France
❖ Leon Roches, a diplomat who had won his
spurs in Algeria, arrived in Japan in the spring
of 1864;
❖ Before long he had become the senior member
of the foreign representatives.
❖ Roches saw opportunities for his country in the
Tokugawa eagerness to obtain technology,
training, and equipment.
❖ A bakufu military mission was dispatched to
France.
❖ Sweeping reforms envisioned a commoner
conscript army.
❖ At Yokosuka French technicians were
beginning work on an iron foundry and armory.
Meiji Restoration
❖ On January 3, 1868, the court proclaimed the
Restoration of Imperial Rule o Old
❖ That same day a little group had met at the
residence of Iwakura Tomomi to set in motion
plans for their units to seize control of the
palace gates.
❖ Keiki was ordered to surrender his lands as
well as his powers.
❖ Unsure of his course, he retreated to the Osaka
Castle to attend a meeting previously arranged
with representatives of the foreign powers.
❖ By then Kyoto was securely within the control
of coalition headed by Satsuma.
Charter Oath, 7 April 1868: The First
Constitution
❖ The Charter Oath was promulgated at the
enthronement of Emperor Meiji on 7 April
1868.
❖ The Oath outlined the main aims and the
course of action to be followed during Emperor
Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's
modernization.
❖ This also set up a process of urbanization as
people of all classes were free to move jobs, so
people went to the city for better work.
❖ It remained influential, if less for governing
than inspiring, throughout the Meiji era and
into the twentieth century, and can be
considered the first constitution of modern
Japan.
❖ By this oath, we set up as our aim the
establishment of the national wealth on a broad
basis and the framing of a constitution and
laws.
❖ Deliberative assemblies shall be widely
established, and all matters decided by open
discussion.
❖ All classes; high and low, shall be united 'in
vigorously carrying out the administration of
affairs of state.
❖ The common people, no less than the civil and
military officials, shall all be allowed to pursue
their own calling so that there may be no
discontent.
❖ Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and
everything based upon the just laws of Nature.
❖ knowledge shall be sought rule throughout the
world so as to strengthen the foundation of
imperial rule.
Meiji Constitution
❖ Emperor Sovereign head of State
❖ Limited Sovereignty and suffrage of diet.
❖ Diet drafts laws and approves the Budget.
❖ Power to pass the previous year’s budget.
❖ Basic text reformed in 1946 as democratic
constitution of Japan with American role in
draft.
19th century Asia
❖ China-Earliest Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)
Hanyang Iron Plant founded in 1891 by
Governor Zhang Zhidong, Enlarged and
relocated to Chongqing in 1938. Post 1949
Chongqing Iron and Steel Co., 45million tons
in 2010 today.
Meiji-Today Economic Growth Summary
❖ GNP 2.5% annual rate of growth 1870-1913
high in the world.
❖ Economic ups and downs: Inflation early
Meiji, currency crisis, trade surplus decline
with return of China to manufacturing export
products porcelain, tea, silk that Japan had
taken over during the 1860s Taiping Rebellion
in South China that caused a reduction in
exports.
❖ Matsukata Masayoshi Finance Minister
austerity measures to reduce bubble in 1880s,
upward swing in 1890s, economic downturn in
1909, boom in post-WWI years 1920s,
downturn with 1929 Great Depression, relative
recovery 1935 on, WWII high industrial
production, destruction of war, post-war
reconstruction until 1963 to 1930 level, start
double income policy and fast economic
growth in 1965 that continues until the Oil
Crisis 1974, 1970s transformation of economy
to high-tech, quality 'industrial products, boom
into 1980s, Crash in 1991, two lost decades
until today, Abenomics trying to boost the
economy by a 2% inflation.
State Investment in Iron and Steel
❖ State investment in second largest Iron and
Steel Industry in Kita Kyushu starts in 1896 in
competition with the Chinese factory
compound established in Hanyang
❖ Use of Chinese indemnity 20 million dollars
from the 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki to
enlarge Yawata iron and steel with up to date
German technology.
Textile Industry and Entrepreneurs
➢ Shibusawa Eiichi, farmer, extraordinary
entrepreneur, founded more than 500 joint
stock companies, some still in operation.
➢ First National Bank
➢ Hitotsubashi University
➢ First Women's University
➢ Osaka Cotton Spinning Company
By 1920s, "old-style” Capitalism Mature in
Japan
❖ Like Carnegie, Rockefeller, Morgan and
Stanley, Japan also had its great capitalists:
➢ there were the big zaibatsu conglomerates
of Mitsui,
❖ Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, and yasuda and the
second-tier zaibatsu of Furukawa, Okura,
Asano, Fujita and Shibusawa.
❖ There were also numbers of 'well-funded
entrepreneurs of varying degrees of wealth.
Tokugawa and Meiji Restoration Roots to
Japanese Capitalism
❖ Mitsui had been a major commercial concern
since the latter part of the 1600s.
❖ Mitsubishi belonged to the Iwasaki family,
originally country samurai from Tosa in
Shikoku, who had built a vast fortune through
their connections with the Meiji government,
Sumitomo, like Mitsui, had been a merchant
house in the Edo period and was primarily
involved in copper production at its Besshi
Copper Mine in Ehime Prefecture.
❖ Yasuda come to the capital from Toyama
Prefecture, on the Sea of Japan begun a money
changing operation, and eventually lender.
❖ These four zaibatsu all had head office holding
companies, the shareholders of which were
restricted to family members.
Mature Industrial Phase
❖ 1920s and 1930s.
❖ Meiji era light industry textile (silk, cotton) for
exports takes lead. Mature phase production
shift to light machinery to heavy machinery by
1930s.
❖ Still, Agriculture continues to be important.
❖ Primary Sector Agrarian economy 43.6020 of
GNP, only Secondary Sector
❖ 36% in Industry In 1912. S
❖ By '1940, intensive us to 40% with 58.2%
service sector,
Imperial China: Qing Reforms Regional not
Central
❖ Manchu dynasty does not accept reforms
remains conservative.
❖ Only Prince Gong reformist, establishes the
Tsungli Yamen, translation bureau that became
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1860.
❖ Reforms are regional and led by governors not
central government.
❖ Japanese style comprehensive reforms and
westernism attempted only very briefly in 1898
after China's defeat to China in the 1895 Sino-
Japanese War.
19th century Asia
❖ China-Earliest Qing Dynasty (1644-191?)
Hppyang Iron Plant founded in 1891 by
Governor Zhang Zhidong. Er!arged and
relocated to Chongqing in 1938. Post 1949
Chongqin Il on and Steel Co., 45million tons in
2010 today.
Emergence of Asian Industrial Economy roots in
the 19th Century
❖ Japan use reparations of Sino-Japanese War
victory in 1895 1896 to upgrade State Bureau
of Steel and Iron making.
❖ 1901 Yawata Iron and Steel Works 'in Kita-
Kyushu south west of Japan.
❖ 1934 Yawata and 6 other private steel makers
incorporated.
❖ 1970 Nippon Steel Co., 47mill•on tons biggest
production in the world.
❖ 2011 Japan 33 million tons, industry
diversification.

Hanyang Arsenal

❖ Originally known as the Hubei Arsenal, it was

founded in 1891 by Qing official Zhang
Zhidong, who diverted funds from the
Nanvang Fleet in Guangdong to build the
arsenal.
❖ It cost about 250,000 pounds sterling and was
built in 4 years.
❖ On 23 April 1894, construction was completed
and the arsenal, occupying some 40 acres
(160,000 m 2), could start production of small-
calibre cannons.
❖ It built magazine-fed rifles, Gruson quick fire
guns, and cartridges.

The Hundred Days Reform 11 June to 21

September 1898

❖ The Hundred Days Reform (the Hundred days'

Reform movement) was a failed 103-day
national cultural, political, and educational
reform movement from 11 June to 21
September 1898 in late Qing China.
❖ It was undertaken by the young Guangxu
Emperor and his reform-minded supporters.
The movement proved to be short-lived, ending
in a ("The coup of 1898", wuxu coup) by
powerful conservative opponents led by
Empress Dowager Cixi.

Sun Yat Sen (1866-1925) Father of China

❖ Ideas inspiration for the 10 October 1911

Xinhai Chinese Revolution.
❖ Three Principles: San Min Jui:
❖ Nationalism, Democracy, People's Livelihood
 The Origins of World War I Chain of Events:

❖ World War I as a global, total war. ❖ July 31, 1914

❖ 65 million men from 30 countries fought in ➢ Russian and German mobilization.
WWI. ❖ Aug. 1, 1914
❖ 17 million dead, 20 million wounded. ➢ German declaration of war against Russia.
❖ Start/End of WWI ❖ Aug. 3, 1914
➢ July 1914 (Balkans/ “July-Crisis”) ➢ German declaration of war against France.
➢ November 1918 ❖ Aug. 4, 1914
❖ Causes: ➢ German invasion of Belgium
➢ Political
Research
➢ Territorial
➢ Economic conflicts ❖ No consensus on key factors and developments
➢ Domestic socio-political developments. ❖ Main conflicts in research
➢ Militarism ➢ Are Germany and Austria-Hungary and
➢ Imperialism their policies mainly responsible for the
➢ Nationalism outbreak as a key actor? (Fritz Fischer)
➢ Web of alliances and alignments ➢ Are the other Great Powers also
➢ Race of arms. responsible for the outbreak?
➢ Did Germany deliberately plan a European
Short-term, momentous occasion or trigger of
War?
WWI:
➢ If the war was unplanned, was it expected-
❖ Phase of acute political and diplomatic tensions desired by Germany and Austria-Hungary?
immediately to the outbreak of the war 1914. ➢ Was a European war desired also by other
❖ Related to the July Crisis 1914. or even by all European Powers?
❖ Characterized by acute tensions and an
Long-term or real causes of the war.
inevitability of war.
❖ June 28, 1914 ❖ Where enmities were created
➢ Assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz ❖ Increase of international antagonism.
Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo by ❖ Polarization of the European alliance system
Gavrilo Princip. into two antagonistic blocs.
❖ July 23, 1914 ➢ Triple Alliance
➢ Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia ▪ Germany
▪ Austrian Ultimatum to Serbian ▪ Austria-Hungary
suggested immediate solutions to ▪ Italy
threatening attitudes of Serbian ➢ Triple Entente
nationalism. ▪ Great Britain
▪ This conflict engendered severe ▪ France
conflicts because of the inclusion of ▪ Russia
other countries such as Russia and ❖ Imperialism and colonial rivalry
Great Britain. ➢ Imperial, territorial expansion
❖ July 24, 1914 ➢ Imperial security of colonial possessions
➢ Rejection of the Austrian Ultimatum by ➢ Since Bismarck was against the
Serbia. colonialism, Germany was a late-comer.
❖ Escalation in to a Diplomatic Crisis between Germany searched colonial areas.
the Great Powers. ❖ Pre-war crises
➢ Number of misunderstandings. ➢ 1904
➢ Misperceptions. ▪ First Moroccan Crisis
➢ Delays in communication. • Since Germany challenged
➢ Speed of crisis. France’s power in Morocco, the
❖ July 28, 1914 crises emerged.
➢ Declaration of war by Austria-Hungary to ➢ 1907/8
Serbia. ▪ Bosnian Crisis
• Enabled the relation between
Russia, therefore, Russia gained
much more power in Balkans.
 ➢ 1911
▪ Second Moroccan Crisis
➢ 1911
▪ Italian-Turkish War
• Italy conquered Ottoman
territories
• There was no other power to
support Ottomans which triggered
following attack to Ottoman
territories.
➢ 1912/13
▪ Balkan Wars.
• It represents growing nationalism.
• Weakened the Ottoman Empire
but it strengthened the Serbia
 This was against Austrian
interest.
❖ Nationalism
➢ Serbian Nationalism + Panslavism
➢ Claim for political representation and more
political rights within the empires
➢ Fight for independent political entities.
➢ Irredentist ideas with the goal of liberating
unredeemed territories and co-nationals.
❖ Militarism and social Darwinism
➢ Maintain a strong military capability.
➢ Use it aggressively to expand national
interests and/or values.
➢ Glorification of the military.
➢ Ideals of a professional military class.
➢ Predominance of the armed forces in the
administration or policy of the state.
➢ Militarization of education
▪ Normalized war as an instrument of
policy and justified its use as a
political means.
➢ Social Darwinism;
▪ The idea of survival of fittest in the
world mixed with militarism,
• Very dangerous way of thinking.
▪ General Unrest; the war was
considered as cleaning of a society.
❖ Arms Race
❖ Conscription/Mobilization
➢ Increase of weapon industries.
❖ Misperceptions in terms of military and
technical factors.
➢ Expectation of a short war
➢ Dominating military strategy “Cult of the
offensive”
➢ Military planning based not on long-term
supplies.
➢ Idea of a traditional war with traditional
warfare.
➢ No awareness of an industrialized war
with new forms of weaponry and its
consequences.
Outcomes of the WWI:
❖ Some outcomes of it was also reasons for
WWII.
❖ The old empires (Russian, Austrian, Ottoman)
collapsed and new states emerged.
❖ Nationalism rose in Colonial Possessions.
❖ Treaties signed with defeated countries
➢ Treaty of Versailles,
▪ It was very humiliating for Germany
and Germany forced to pay high war
costs),
❖ Trench War
➢ Lack of sleep, fear of death caused long-
term illnesses among soldiers.
❖ Death of millions
➢ Mass executions, epidemics etc.
➢ We see the use of new technologies
❖ Woman labor
➢ after 1920s, the women movements.
❖ Use of censorship to control the flow of
information
➢ During the war, Germans thought that they
were winning the war,
➢ Use of propaganda for mobilizing masses.
Barkley’s Letters
❖ The letters of soldiers provided information
about WWI.
❖ USA soldiers came France to battle with
Germans.
➢ Their victory made the USA international
power.
❖ They represent what soldiers thought during
the war.
➢ Trench Experience.
❖ Censor’s effects on the letters (more
optimistic).
❖ Perception of others
➢ Positive perception about other European
powers.
▪ They share goods like tobaccos.
Tommy vs. Boche
➢ Perception of enemy.
▪ There is also a sense of superiority.
Benito Mussolini: The doctrine of Fascism World War II
❖ Benito was supporter of Socialist Party in his ❖ WWII was a global conflict which consists of
young ages, but he was kicked off from it. total warfare and turned out to be the largest,
❖ He established his own party. bloodiest and the most destructive war in the
❖ At the end of the war, he was killed by his own world history.
people. ❖ It included
❖ Fascism, according to him, is a spiritual ➢ Wide-scale massacres,
attitude in which we see the promotion of state, ➢ genocide,
nation and country and totalitarian. ➢ ethnic cleansing
❖ The logo of Fascist party was old one also used ➢ slave work
in declaration of rights. ➢ strategic bombing
❖ Individualism and Liberalism is rejected by it. ➢ starvation
➢ Liberalism promotes individual rights. ➢ disease
❖ Since it defined itself as spiritual one, it is ➢ the first use of nuclear weapons in history.
against Positivism. ❖ Over 60 million deaths including military and
❖ It is against Socialist idea of class struggle. civilians
❖ Democracy is rejected because Mussolini says ➢ USSR: 27.000.000
democracy represents the majority of the ➢ China: 15-20.000.000
society, but Fascism represents the whole ➢ Poland: 9.000.000
society (elitism). ➢ Germany: 6-7.000.000
❖ As an ideology it is in favor of the religion and ➢ Japan: 3.000.000
the state.
❖ It emphasizes the cooperative system, what we Outcome:
see he was entirely against the class struggle. ❖ Extension of Soviet Union’s power to nations
❖ Education and tradition are important because of eastern Europe,
it is a tool for creation of fascist society. ❖ Communist movement to eventually achieve
power in China.
❖ The decisive shift of political power
➢ Western Europe > USA/USSR
❖ Struggle among Nazism, Democracy,
Communism.
➢ Led to Cold war.

❖ Axis Powers
➢ Nazi Germany
➢ Fascist Italy
➢ Empire of Japan
❖ vs. Allied Powers
➢ Great Britain
➢ USA
➢ USSR
➢ China

Periodization:

❖ Europe:
➢ War in Europe started with the German
invasion of Poland, Sept. 1st 19939.
➢ Immediate declaration of war by Great
Britain and France against Germany
➢ Surrender of Germany, May 7, 1945
❖ From a global perspective
➢ Japan invaded China in 1937
 ➢ Surrender of Japan Sept. 2, 1945 after
atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The origins and causes
❖ Continuation of the disputes left unsettled by
WWI
➢ Paris Peace Treaties
❖ Period of political and economic instability
➢ Great Depression
❖ Aggressive German policy to strive for
continental hegemony in Europe
➢ The growing nation would more space to
live - Lebensraum,
❖ Italy’s fascist regime of Mussolini
➢ Desire to establish third Rome,
❖ Expansionist policies of Japan in the Pacific
region
❖ Competing political ideologies
➢ Bolshevik revolution etc.
The course of WW II
❖ 1939 Sep. Invasion of Poland by German
troops
➢ Trigger event
❖ 1939 Aug. Soviet-German Nonaggression pact
(Molotow-Ribbentrop Pact)
➢ 1 month before the invasion, USSR and
Germany signed treaty that is why they did
not face with any resistance in Poland.
❖ 1939-1942 German advance and occupation
➢ N. Europe
➢ W. Europe
➢ S. East Europe
➢ German involvement in N. Africa (Italy)
➢ Blitzkrieg Tactic was the characteristic of
the first German advances and
occupations.
➢ It became clear that only severe opponent
of Germany was United Kingdom.
❖ By the beginning of 1942 Axis gained much
more influence in the Europe.
❖ Operation Barbarossa
➢ In June Hitler decided to invade Russia.
➢ Invasion of Ukraine and the Baltic region
in June 1941.
➢ However, this advance stopped because of
alliance between U.K and USSR in July
1941.
➢ Battle of Moscow, Stalingrad and
Leningrad.
➢ The Battle of Stalingrad;
▪ Germany’s goal was the oil fields near
the Caspian Sea.
▪ German army underestimated the
geography and climate of Russia.
▪ This was followed by USSR victory.
▪ Thereafter, as the German military
and material resources dwindled, the
Russians advanced westward
❖ Japan decided to attack on Pearl Harbor in Dec.
1941.
➢ Goal was to reach oil.
➢ Until that point, US did not military
interfere the war.
❖ Europe 1943, Stop of the German advance.
➢ May 1943, Defeat of the Axis troops in N.
Africa.
➢ June 1943, Allied counter-offensive in
Sicily.
➢ Sept. 1943, Italian armistice to the Allies
➢ Halt of Japan victories.
➢ 1944 Allied advance in W. Europe.
➢ On June 6, 1944 allied troops landed on
the coast of Normandy.
▪ By the beginning of September France
had been liberated.
▪ Germans launched counter attack
called the Battle of Bulge, they failed.
➢ In the east, the Russians were within reach
of Berlin by March 1945.
▪ Hitler committed suicide on May 1.
❖ End of WW II
➢ Germany surrounded in May 7/8 1945.
➢ The official war was over while Japan
surrounded in September 2 as result of
atomic bombs.
The characteristics of the war
❖ Extreme violence and brutality,
❖ Racist ideologies,
➢ anti-Semitic approach
➢ Consciousness policy; certain category of
people was forced deliberately to perform
labor until their death.
➢ Homosexuals, Slavic population, Jews,
gypsy population, disabled people
▪ considered as unhealthy element of
Germany and they were sent to labor
camps and forced to perform unpaid
labor under the brutal conditions
➢ Extreme Soviet aggression towards Polish
and Ukrainian population
➢
❖ Genocide of European Jews,
➢ Anti-Jewish policy started very earlier than
the war like boycotts against Jew markets.
➢ The policy evolved itself into the removal
of all Jews from Europe.
▪ Nazis established ghettos.
➢ To give Lebensraum to the Germans at the
expense of people he deemed inferior,
 Hitler established colonies of Germans in
Poland, driving the Poles from their land
and using them as cheap labor.
❖ Civilians as specific targets
➢ The cities, for example, were bombed
➢ No distinction between combaters and
non-combaters.
❖ The Gestapo and SS became the responsible of
large scale of massacres.
❖ 1945 and after;
➢ 60 million deaths,
➢ millions of refugees caused by military
conflicts, mass evacuation, forced
displacement, expulsion and deportation.
➢ Europe in ruins
➢ Division into separate occupational zones
and spheres of influences,
▪ USA and USSR as global
superpowers,
➢ Cold War
Russian Revolution
❖ During the WW I, two revolutions in Russia;
➢ February Revolution of 1917
➢ October Revolution of 1917
Political Opposition in Russia
❖ Forces of industrialization
❖ Conditions of working class
❖ Popularity of Socialist ideas
❖ Agrarian nature of Russia
❖ Russo-Japanese War (1903-1905)
The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party
❖ Founded in 1898
❖ Theories of Marx and Engels
❖ Split into two
➢ Bolsheviks
➢ Mensheviks
1905 Revolution
❖ Bloody Sunday 1905
❖ The establishment of Duma
➢ The National Assembly
❖ Constitutional monarchy
Russian Revolution of 1917
❖ February Revolution of 1917
➢ The establishment of Provisional
government
➢ Duma assumed the control of the country.
❖ October Revolution of 1917
➢ The end of Provisional government.
▪ Soviets were opposed to provisional
government.
❖ 1918-1922 Russian Civil War
➢ Red Army vs. White Army (liberals,
bourgeoisie, etc., they were supported by
foreign powers)
❖ Outcomes
➢ The Tsarist Russia collapsed, and Soviet
Union was established.
➢ Bolsheviks redistributed the lands to
peasantry.
➢ Banks were nationalized.
➢ Gulags were camps where enemies of the
regime put.
➢ Communist party was established
❖ Internationally speaking,
➢ Communism spread
➢ Anti-colonial movements.
➢ Influence of Marxism on Art and Social
Sciences (Marx Weber, Bertolt Brecht)
Our Party Programme;
❖ Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Lenin)
❖ Social Democratic Labor Party
❖ Organization of a socialist party and society.
❖ As a text, it rejects the reformist tendencies.
❖ The division of class struggle into two;
➢ economic and
➢ political fight.
▪ The economic one means is to
improve the position of working class.
▪ Political one is to expand the rights of
working class.
❖ Political power within Russian context was
more important.
➢ That is why political fight should be the
first aim.
❖ What he thinks on Marxist theory;
➢ it was the first to transform socialism from
a Utopian into a science.
Cold War
❖ The Cold War is identified as a conflict
between superpowers (US vs. USSR). They did
not fight with each other.
❖ The Cold War started in the very end of WWII.
➢ The question arose what is the next step?
❖ The leaders of the major countries (Churchill,
Roosevelt and Stalin) came together in Yalta
Conference,1945.
➢ They decided to establish UN,
➢ divide Germany into 4 zones and
➢ they agreed on free elections in these
zones.
➢ Although the war in Germany was
finished, Japan war was continuing
▪ Russia promised to join war in Japan.
➢ The capital city of Germany which is
Berlin was also divided amongst different
houses.
❖ As Germany declined as a threat, both
Churchill and Roosevelt began to look at what
they saw as a new enemy, USSR.
➢ The USSR perceived as a country which
desired to expand.
❖ The USSR believed that western powers want
to expand their territories (Kennan’s Long
Telegram).
➢ The Russian fear arose because of danger
of invasion.
❖ Containment Policy of U.S;
➢ Truman Doctrine said that US need act to
stop communist expansion.
➢ At the time, Truman was very concerned
about Greece and Turkey.
▪ Americans aided to Turkey and
Greece.
❖ US attempts to stop communism consisted of
more than militarism.
➢ US decided to apply a supporting program
which is Marshal Plan.
➢ The plan was for founding western
countries to prevent them from being
communism.
➢ US needed to sell their production. The
Marshall Plan helped restore prosperity to
Western Europe and set the stage for
Europe’s unprecedented post-economic
growth.
➢ It also led to the waning of communist
strength in the West and to the
establishment of solid democratic regimes.
❖ Department of Defense, CIA, National Security
Council were established for the production.
➢ The USSR were spying on US.
❖ The tension increased throughout the time.
❖ Berlin Blockade;
➢ The Soviets sealed off the city by closing
all railroads and highways to the West.
➢ The Western allies responded with an
airlift of supplies to the city that lasted
almost a year.
➢ The incident greatly increased tensions and
suspicions between the opponents. It
hastened the separation of Germany into
two states.
❖ NATO vs. Warsaw Pact;
➢ NATO was a part of containment policy.
➢ There were several organizations like that,
such as Baghdad Pact.
❖ USSR’s nuclear weapon increased the rivalry.
❖ Chinese Communist Party’s victory helped the
expansion of communism.
❖ The Korean War;
➢ Korea used to be control by Japan.
➢ In 1950, the North decided to attack the
South which upset the US.
➢ US attained to form an army against
“illegal invasion”.
➢ China participated in it also.
➢ This was another area in which cold war
occurred physically.
❖ In 1953, Stalin died.
➢ He replaced by Khrushchev and he started
the destalinization program.
❖ Proliferation of nuclear weapons terrified the
people all around the world.
❖ In US, the fear of communism led to the witch
hunt (McCharthyism).
➢ For example, Robin Hood was banned.
❖ The world which used to be under the control
of France, UK, Belgium etc. started to become
independent.
➢ USSR and US had great interest in
supporting the newly emerged regimes.
➢ Both countries wanted influence the
regimes.
❖ Hungarian Revolution;
➢ Hungary under the sphere of USSR
decided to revolt.
➢ USSR crushed this revolt.
❖ Cuba Revolution;
➢ Cuba was not far away from US.
➢ They had had very strong relations with
Cuba. However, Batista was over-throned.
Bay of Pigs,
➢ The American invasion into Cuba made
Cubans unrest.
▪ Cubans accepted the support of
USSR.
➢ USSR sent nuclear weapons to Cuba. US
did not like that, weapons in Cuba means
that important areas in the US are under
threat.
➢ This led to Cuban Missile Crisis.
▪ It was the closest period to nuclear
war.
➢ US decided to blockade Cuba.
➢ Instead of nuclear war, they reached
compromise.
▪ Khrushchev demanded the
demolishment of weapons and
Turkey.
❖ Another crisis was happening in Berlin. The
East was under the influence of USSR.
➢ Berlin was a city where people in east
wanted to flee the West.
➢ This was damaging the economy and
system of the East.
▪ Berlin Wall was constructed.
❖ Brezhnev Doctrine;
➢ Brezhnev claimed that USSR have the
right to intervene anywhere under the
threat of capitalism.
❖ Prague Spring
❖ US continued to intervene other areas. Vietnam
was one of them.
➢ US lost it. Vietnam war was about
stopping the spread of communism.
➢ Vietnam were dived into two parts.
▪ US supported the southern regime.
▪ The US accused the North with an
invented story.
❖ At the same time there was a diplomatic
success for US.
➢ Nixon made Chinese regime a friend.
❖ SALT 1 and Detente; limitations on nuclear
weapons.
❖ However, USSR intervened Afghanistan to
support the communist regime.
➢ That regime was opposed by Islamic Unity
of Afghanistan which later became
Taliban.
➢ US supported Taliban.
❖ Regan and Gorbachev;
➢ Gorbachev faced with economic instability
in USSR, they were spending so much
money.
➢ Gorbachev wanted to reform the system in
order to fix it (Glasnost and Perestroika).
 Orientalism ❖ Hamam and Harem were the centre of
attention. The sexist dimension of orientalism
❖ The study of Near and Far Eastern societies by is important. Inside of the hamam and harem
western scholars was very important for the West. Men are lazy,
❖ Narratives on the East: unemployed
➢ Crusaders and Travelers; ❖ Pierre Lotti
➢ During crusaders, the era of heroism and ❖ Fanon
fear. ❖ Edward W. Said
➢ Travelers traveled from west to east. ❖ East also was interested in the depiction of the
❖ Lots of book and manuscripts published on West.
Turks.
❖ Meanwhile, curiosity covered different
domains, like costumes.
❖ And also, there was a curiosity about portraits
of rulers.
❖ 17th- 18th century there was a Turquerie
Movement.
➢ By looking of the other, you construct
yourself;
➢ this movement influenced the way French
construct their identity.
❖ One of the cultural form of Orientalism
emerged in the domain of painting.
➢ We see a lot in maps.
➢ Early maps of Constantinople, for
example.
➢ They came up with imaginary figures, like
heroism, dogs and elephants or Turkish
images with mustaches.
➢ People did not need to visit Ottoman
Empire to paint.
❖ Mantagu came to Ottoman Empire as a wife of
a diplomat.
➢ She was very much interested in Ottoman
culture.
➢ Mantagu had the access to reach woman
sphere of Ottomans unlike other visitors.
➢ The Turkish embassy Letters;
▪ Letters from Mary to Mary, she was
very much interested in harem and
performances of the harem.
▪ The codes of hospitality of the mother
queen or lady of house was reported
by her in a romantic way.
▪ In many ways, her narrative seemed to
be performance of her own.
❖ Jean-Baptiste Vanmour;
➢ the Dutch diplomat service, he was French
himself.
➢ His job was document to everything in the
diplomatic circle.
➢ He came up with imagery of sultans, daily
life and so on. Vanmour was the
contemporary figure of Levni.
❖ Levni vs. Vanmour; The coloring (Vanmour is
dark), Vanmour’s depictions are more realistic.
 Emergence of Social Science Disciplines
❖ 19th Century
❖ New technologies were coming up.
➢ Especially train and telegram changed the
way people live.
❖ Social science:
➢ a category within the academic filed which
concerned about society.
❖ All of these disciplines such as economics,
psychology, sociology evolved as response to
modernity and process of rationalization.
❖ With industrialization people obtained more
goods to consume and urbanization changed
how people live.
➢ Skepticism was brought by these changes.
➢ The fact that steam could engine big iron
machines from long distance and so on
promoted positivistic way of thinking.
❖ Many intellectual thought a positive search that
could be implemented into social science
(observation, math etc.).
➢ To understand the society with scientific
method was the whole idea.
❖ In the inception, certain disciplines were
reinvented because these disciplines existed
even in the antique world.
➢ For example, geography was in the human
agenda (Chinese map makers, Islamic
travelers ).
➢ Opening of new geography societies in
Europe started changes in geography as a
science.
❖ Universal humanness entered the literature
with the new methods like experimentation.
❖ Wundt showed how positive research improve
the psychology.
❖ In the field of economics,
➢ Adam Smith wrote wealth of nations.
▪ He discovered the structural basis of
markets.
➢ Karl Marx followed him.
▪ Marx looked at the class struggle with
a perspective of working class.
➢ Keane’s approach was developed during
the economic crisis between world wars.
▪ He advocated the impact of
government intervention into the
market.
❖ In Sociology the whole idea of social science
developed.
➢ Durkheim tried to show how we analyze a
social unit methodologically
▪ data analysis, benefitting from math,
etc.
➢ Different school of sociology like Chicago
or Frankfurt defended the inability of
positive
❖ Anthropology in the 19th century became a
kind of positive way of how to study other who
culturally you do not share anything.
➢ Going somewhere totally remote and
looking how their minds work
(Malinowski) were very superior
approach.
➢ Anthropology started to criticize itself and
developed the whole idea of reflexivity
(one research and other affected by each
other and researcher).
➢ Awareness of researcher’s position
❖ Linguistics and philology;
➢ philology interested in the families of
languages, how they impact each other.
➢ It employed a comparative way.
➢ Historical and Geographical school of
language looked for the processes like the
travel of Ural languages from there to
Finland.
❖ Linguistics looked for the performance of the
language.
➢ Ferdinand blank was a Swiss linguistic
who made a very important distinction.
➢ Ferdinand made a distinction between
language and speech.
▪ By language he meant the whole
world of the language system as a
kind of potential source of language.
▪ By speech Ferdinand meant the
practice of that linguistic level.
▪ This has been applied to many levels
of domains and we performed these
cultures.
❖ Nationalism heavily impacted the fields like
folklore, ethnography etc.
➢ During the 19th century, movement of
romanticism discovered that if the life
changes so fast, we should go back to the
rural areas to collect their material
cultures, way of dressing.
➢ Later on, these were used for
nationalization of states. The same
superior position prevailed in folklore also.
❖ Ethnology studied the local research.
➢ Mostly oral genres and these kinds of
things were collected
➢ How agricultural tools are functioning,
costumes etc.
➢ Now, we use ethnography as different
thing.
Sir James Frazer, Preface in Bronislaw
Malinowski
❖ He studied comparative religion and was
considered as the founder of modern
Anthropology.
❖ Malinowski was a Polish who studied the
natives of Trobriand Island.
❖ Methodology;
➢ Living in the country that you study,
➢ learning the language of the native
population,
➢ holistic approach,
➢ reflexivity,
➢ interdisciplinary approach
❖ Self-confidence which derived from
colonization is visible.
❖ The relationship between natives and
researcher is hierarchal.
Women’s Movement
❖ Feminism coined in France
➢ By feminism we understand that a
collective action by women to improve
women’s positions and conditions
(original thought)
❖ Feminist thought is all about power (Primordial
power).
➢ The basic idea of feminism is questioning
the power between the men and women
within the social context, institutions,
societies, communities.
❖ There are different historical movements;
➢ First-wave feminism which started in mid-
19th century,
➢ Second wave started in 1968 came to
Turkey 1980
❖ Advocacy of equal rights for women. There is
an activism in feminism.
➢ Women had to get organized to sustain
their ideas.
➢ Some of which are education, marriage
laws, right to work, to use public spaces
and to vote.
❖ Two directions;
➢ 1- Economic and Social change
▪ where a concept of middle age
emerged, mercantile capitalism,
industrial capitalism.
▪ Manufacturing brought new
developments.
▪ There emerged working-class and
bourgeoisie.
▪ Local bourgeoisie was the part of the
manufacturing mechanism.
▪ They built new urban areas where new
types of lives were built.
▪ They imitated the aristocracy. They
wanted to be in decision making
mechanism of ruling class.
▪ First of all, bourgeois men claimed
right for decision making. Working
class also claimed rights.
▪ Those classes would be visible.
▪ This was alarming for women because
women were not given the rights.
▪ They lacked the access to new rich
world.
▪ In terms of rights, they did not have
the rights of worker men or middle-
class men.
▪ Middle class women questioned this
situation.
 ▪ Therefore, they claimed rights in
terms of participation to decision-
making process of new society.
▪ Voting was a very important request.
▪ Another was access to work.
▪ This economic and social changes and
growth of middle class where middle
class women claimed right to be
visible, to vote and to access the work
and education.
➢ 2-Intellectual and ideological change;
▪ The idea that human beings have
natural rights was in the agenda post
French Revolution era.
▪ Women were being affected by this
general thought and they were also
against the idea of distinction between
men and women.
▪ Women should have same rights as
men. This emerged in the Europe and
Americas.
▪ 8 of March was accepted in USA. It
started from the West and rapidly
spread around the world.
❖ Once it started, it spread very fast.
➢ In ottoman Empire, many communities
were affected
▪ for example, Greek, Armenian and
Turkish movements.
➢ Muhadderat was published in 1860s.
➢ Education was very important aspect of
this idea and also working rights of
women.
➢ Plus, in the emancipation period, freedom
within in the household was very much
underlined.
➢ We owned the discovery of women’s
magazine to Serpil Çakır.
▪ This discovery was very late
phenomenon.
➢ Neziye Muhittin established Türk Kadınlar
Birliği and political party for women
(Kadınlar Fırkası, even before CHP).
▪ The party was not accepted.
➢ Thanks to this push by the late women
intellectuals, Turkish State amended the
right to vote for women (before that there
was activism).
➢ Organization of international women
coalition in Istanbul 1935 called
Uluslararası Kadınlar Kongresi.
➢ Turkey hosted representer of first-wave
feminism.
➢ These activism met with a new regime.
➢ Halkevleri was established in 1932.
▪ It was a powerful network.
▪ Local research in their own place was
conducted under Halkevleri.
▪ Once the state decided Halkevleri is
the central network, independent
associates were closed by the promise
to cover all of them in Halkeveleri.
❖ Emancipation was at first sight was a good
progress (suffrage, inheritance right, right to
divorce).
❖ During this period until 1980, the idea of
women within the household was not changed.
➢ For instance, there was a statement like
ailenin reisi erkektir.
➢ These kinds of codes gave more power to
men in the domestic area.
➢ Women were more aggressively
questioning domestic rights.
❖ After 1960 revolutions, the second wave began
to be discussed again.
➢ During 1960s, with rise of communism
and so there was a rising Marxism.
➢ Within in this discussion, they started
awareness rising meetings in Turkey.
➢ The discussion of womanhood experience
initiated the second-wave in Turkey which
closely looked at family (Incest, domestic
violence etc.).
❖ Nurdan Gülbilek makes an important
observation in her book Vitrinlerde Yaşamak.
❖ Popular feminism movement which led by
Duygu Asena; Kadının Adı Yok was banned.
➢ Şirin Tekeli calls this book as a Turkish
feminist manifesto.
➢ Asena reviews the relationship between
girls and other men (father etc.).
➢ She was also editor of Kadınca.
➢ Kadınca was widely read in Turkey.
➢ Academic feminism in 1980 was parallel
with this popular feminism.
The declaration of the Rights of Woman and the
Female Citizen

❖ First-wave feminism
❖ The middle-class men managed to get some of
their rights, but women left behind.
➢ Women reacted it.
➢ They demanded the rights that already
were given to working-class men.
▪ Suffrage, abortion, pregnancy etc.
❖ Olympe de Gouges engaged in politics in
French Revolution.
➢ She was supporter of the improving the
conditions.
➢ She was executed by revolution
government during the reign of terror.
▪ Gender Equality
▪ Natural and imprescriptible Rights
▪ The principle of Sovereignty
▪ Property rights
▪ Freedom of speech