Physics Workbook - FVV101 - Part B - Mechanics

Faculty of Science
F101 / FVV101
MECHANICS AND THERMODYNAMICS
Physics Workbook: Part B

Mechanics
Lecturer: Prof Jaco Olivier
Last updated: 2023

FVV101 Physics Workbook: Part B
6. Motion in One Dimension
6.1.Teaching and Learning Framework
References:
Textbook: Chapter 2: Motion in One Dimension
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 2: Motion in One Dimension
Section 6: Motion in One Dimension
Specific learning outcomes Tutorial assignment

Define average and instantaneous velocity and acceleration. 6.2
Have insight into differentiation, and to know the physical meaning thereof. 6.2 and 6.3
Derive the equations of motion for an object moving in one direction with constant
6.4
acceleration from the basic definitions of acceleration, velocity and displacement.
Derive equations of motion for free falling objects and to apply these equations. 6.5
Solve problems on the above. All
Cheat Sheet
Mechanics Page 1 of 7
6.2.Definitions
6.2.1. Position, Displacement and Distance
1. See lecture slides for the following definitions:

1.1. Position
1.2. Displacement
1.3. Distance
2. What is the SI unit for position, displacement and distance? ______
3. A cyclist rides 10 km west and then turns around and rides 5 km east. She then turns around again
and rides a further 10 km west.
3.1. What is the cyclist’s position vector at the end of each stage of her ride?
3.2. What is the cyclist’s final displacement?
3.3. What is the total distance travelled by the cyclist?
4. What is the only case in which magnitude of displacement and distance travelled are exactly the
same?
6.2.2. Average and Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

5.1. Average velocity
5.2. Average speed
In everyday language, most people use the terms “speed” and “velocity” interchangeably.
In physics, however, these are distinct concepts. Average speed is not simply the
magnitude of average velocity. Just as distance is not simply the magnitude of
displacement.
6. A commuter train travels from Station 1 to Station 2 and back in 1 hour and 45 minutes. The
distance between the two stations is approximately 64 km. What is …
6.1. the average velocity of the train, and
6.2. the average speed of the train in m/s?
7. If you divide the total distance travelled on a car trip (as determined by the odometer) by the
elapsed time of the trip, are you calculating average speed or magnitude of average velocity?
Under what circumstances are these two quantities the same?

8.1. Instantaneous velocity
8.2. Instantaneous speed
9. What is the SI unit for average velocity, average speed, instantaneous velocity and instantaneous
speed? _____
10. How are instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed related to one another? How do they
differ?
11. A position-time graph for a particle moving along the x axis is shown below:
11.1. Find the average velocity in the time interval t = 1.50 s to t = 4.00 s. Ans. - 2.4 m/s
11.2. Determine the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.00 s by measuring the slope of the tangent
line shown in the graph. Ans. -3.8 m/s
11.3. At what value of t is the velocity zero?
6.2.3. Average and Instantaneous Acceleration

12.1. Average acceleration
12.2. Instantaneous acceleration
13. What is the SI unit for average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration? ______
14. A commuter backs her car out of her garage with an acceleration of 1.40 m/s2. (a) How long does
it take her to reach a speed of 2.00 m/s? (b) If she then brakes to a stop in 0.800 s, what is her
acceleration? Ans. (a) 1.43 s (b) -2.50 m/s2
15. Plus and minus signs are used in one-dimensional motion to indicate direction. What is the sign of
an acceleration that reduces the magnitude of a negative velocity? Of a positive velocity?
16. The figure below shows a graph of vx versus t for the motion of a motorcyclist as he starts from
rest and moves along the road in a straight line.
16.1. Find the average acceleration for the time interval t = 0 to t = 6.00 s. Ans. 1.3 m/s2
16.2. Estimate the time at which the acceleration has its greatest positive value and the value of
the acceleration at that instant. Ans. t = 3s; a = 2 m/s2
16.3. When is the acceleration zero? Ans. t = 6 s; t > 10 s
16.4. Estimate the maximum negative value of the acceleration and the time at which it occurs.
Ans. a = -1.5 m/s2; t = 8 s
When working with constant acceleration, velocity increases linearly with time, and
TAKE 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑣𝑖
NOTE 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2
6.3.Differentiation Problems
1. Explain the physical meaning of differentiation.
2. An object moves along the x axis according to the equation x = 3.20t2 – 2.00t + 3.00, where x is in
meters and t is in seconds.
2.1. Determine the instantaneous speed at t = 2.70 s. Ans. 15.3 m/s
2.2. Determine the instantaneous speed at t = 3.80 s. Ans. 22.3 m/s
2.3. Determine the average acceleration between t = 2.70 s and t = 3.80 s. Ans. 6.4 m/s2
2.4. Determine the instantaneous acceleration at t = 2.70 s. Ans. 6.4 m/s2
2.5. Determine the average speed between t = 2.70 s and t = 3.80 s. Ans. 18.8 m/s
2.6. At what time is the object at rest? Ans. 0.313 s
6.4.Equations of Motion
1. Study File: Derivation - Kinematic equations. You may be asked to derive the equations of motion
for an object moving in one direction with constant acceleration from the basic definitions of
acceleration, velocity and displacement.
2. Freight trains can produce only relatively small accelerations. (a) What is the final velocity of a
freight train that accelerates at a rate of 0.0500 m/s2 for 8.00 min, starting with an initial velocity
of 4.00 m/s? (b) If the train can slow down at a rate of 0.550 m/s2 how long will it take to come to
a stop from this velocity? (c) How far will it travel in each case? Ans. (a) 28.0 m/s (b) 50.90 s (c) For
part a, 7680.0 m. For part b, 712.73 m
3. An unwary football player collides with a padded goalpost while running at a velocity of 7.50 m/s
and comes to a full stop after compressing the padding and his body 0.350 m. (a) What is his
acceleration? (b) How long does the collision last? Ans. (a) -80.36 m/s2 (b) 0.093 s
6.5.Freely Falling Objects
A nonintuitive fact about falling objects is that, if air resistance is negligible, then at a given location,
all objects fall toward the centre of Earth with the same constant acceleration, independent of their
mass. This fact is unexpected, because we are so accustomed to the effects of air resistance that we
expect light objects to fall slower than heavy ones. An object falling without air resistance is defined
to be in free-fall.
Since it is the force of gravity that causes objects to fall towards the Earth, the acceleration of free-
falling objects is called the acceleration due to gravity (g). While the value of g varies slightly
depending on latitude, altitude, underlying geological formations, and local topography, it is constant
at any given location on Earth and has an average value of g = 9.81 m/s2.
Don’t believe that a heavy object and a feather will reach the ground at the same time
FUN
when dropped from a tall building? See for yourself: Video: Brian Cox visits the world's
FACT
biggest vacuum.
The value of g = 9.81 m/s2 will be used in this course. The direction of the acceleration
TAKE
due to gravity is downward (towards the center of Earth).
NOTE
1. Skydiving takes about 6 minutes from jump to landing. If a skydiver is in free-fall, what would her
velocity be after 6 minutes, and how far would she have fallen? Complete the table below. What
is the final velocity in km/h? Do your answers seem plausible?
t (s) a (m.s-2) v (m.s-1) d (m)

0 0 0
1 9.8 4.9
2 19.6 19.6
3 29.4 44.1
4 39.2 78.4
5 49 122.5
6 58.8 176.4
7 68.6 240.1
8 78.4 313.6
9 88.2 396.9
10 98 490
… … … …
… … … …
357 3498.6 624500.1
358
359
360
Fortunately for the skydiver, she is not in free-fall! She experiences drag and consequently
FUN reaches terminal velocity long before reaching the high speeds calculated above (around
FACT 190 km/h). She also uses a parachute to further lower her terminal velocity to around 28
km/h. Find out more: Video: Physics of Sky Diving.
6.5.1. Appling the equations of motion to free falling objects
2. What assumption do we make when applying the equations of motion to falling objects?
3. Calculate the displacement and velocity at time t = 1.00 s for a ball thrown straight up with an
initial velocity of 15.0 m/s. Take the point of release to be y0 = 0. Ans. v = 5.19 m/s, y = 10.1 m
4. (a) Calculate the height of a cliff if it takes 2.35 s for a rock to hit the ground when it is thrown
straight up from the cliff with an initial velocity of 8.00 m/s. (b) How long a time would it take to
reach the ground if it is thrown straight down with the same speed? Ans. (a) y = 8.29m (b) t = 0.72s
5. A kangaroo can jump over an object 2.50 m high. (a) Considering just its vertical motion, calculate
its vertical speed when it leaves the ground. (b) How long a time is it in the air? Ans. (a) 7.0 m/s
(b) 1.43 s
In general, when describing horizontal motion, motion to the right is usually considered
positive, and motion to the left is considered negative. With vertical motion, motion up is
usually positive and motion down is negative. In some cases, however, it can be more
TAKE convenient to switch the positive and negative directions. For example, if you are
NOTE analysing the motion of falling objects, it can be useful to define downwards as the
positive direction. If people in a race are running to the left, it is useful to define left as
the positive direction. It does not matter as long as the system is clear and consistent.
Once you assign a positive direction and start solving a problem, you cannot change it.
7. Motion in Two Dimensions
7.1. Teaching and Learning Framework
References:
Textbook: Chapter 4: Motion in Two Dimensions
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 4: Motion in Two Dimensions
Section 7: Motion in Two Dimensions

Realise that motion with constant acceleration in a plane is similar to two
7.2 and 7.3
independent motions in the x and y directions.
Obtain equations of motion for movement in a plane from the equations of motion Lecture slides
applicable to motion in a straight line.
Obtain expressions for the components of velocity and for the position coordinates
7.4
of a projectile.
Derive an expression for uniform circular (centripetal) acceleration of an object. 7.5
Cheat Sheet
7.2. Definitions
1. See lecture slides for the following definitions as they relate to motion in two dimensions:
1.1. Position
1.2. Displacement
1.3. Average and Instantaneous Velocity
1.4. Average and Instantaneous Acceleration
7.3. Speed Bus Jump
Motion in two dimensions can be modelled as two independent motions along each of the two
perpendicular x and y axes.
1. See: Video: Speed Movie Bus Scene. In the 1994 action film “Speed”, a bomb is set to detonate on
a city bus if the bus ever reduces its speed below 50 mph. At one point, the bus is traveling on a
freeway with a large portion of the road missing. In an attempt to save the lives of all on board,
the brave bus driver (Sandra Bullock) decides to speed the bus up in the hopes that it will be able
to jump the 50 foot (15.24 m) hole and land safely on the other side. Assuming that the freeway
was on a slight incline (5 degrees above the horizontal) and that the bus was traveling at a speed
of 70 mph (31.3 m/s):
1.1. What is the y-component of the bus’s initial velocity?
1.2. What is the x-component of the bus’s initial velocity?
1.3. How many seconds would the bus need to be airborne to clear the 50 foot gap?
1.4. Determine the vertical distance the bus would have fallen during this time.
1.5. Based on your calculations, would the bus have landed safely on the other side of the gap?
7.4. Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected into the air, subject only to
acceleration as a result of gravity. Such objects are called projectiles and their path is called a
trajectory. The motion of falling objects as discussed in Motion in 1D is a simple one-dimensional type
of projectile motion in which there is no horizontal movement. In this section, we consider two-
dimensional projectile motion, and our treatment neglects the effects of air resistance.
Problem-solving strategy for projectile motion

1. Resolve the motion into horizontal and vertical components along the x- and y-axes:
1.1. The magnitudes of the components of position along these axes are x and y.
1.2. The magnitudes of the components of velocity are vx = vcosθ and vy = vsinθ, where v is the
magnitude of the velocity and θ is its direction relative to the horizontal.
2. Treat the motion as two independent one-dimensional motions: one horizontal and the other
vertical. Use the kinematic equations for horizontal and vertical motion presented earlier.
3. Solve for the unknowns in the two separate motions: one horizontal and one vertical. Note that
the only common variable between the motions is time t.
4. Recombine quantities in the horizontal and vertical directions to find the total position and
velocity vectors. Remember, final vectors can be presented in terms of components (using unit
vector notation), or in terms of a magnitude and a direction. You will recall that the skills
necessary to switch between these two vector representations were developed in Section 5:
Vectors. For example:
4.1. Position 𝑟⃑ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂, or
4.2. Position can be given as a magnitude r and an angle .
NOTE: The extent to which you complete steps 3 and 4 will depend on the requirements of the
problem in question.
1. A bullet is shot horizontally from shoulder height (1.5 m) with an initial speed 200 m/s. (a) How
much time elapses before the bullet hits the ground? (b) How far does the bullet travel
horizontally? Ans. (a) 0.55 s (b) 110 m
2. A marble rolls off a tabletop 1.0 m high and hits the floor at a point 3.0 m away from the table’s
edge in the horizontal direction. (a) How long is the marble in the air? (b) What is the speed of the
marble when it leaves the table’s edge? (c) What is its speed when it hits the floor?
Ans. (a) 0.45 s (b) vx = 6.64 m/s (c) v = 8 m/s (Hint: you need to find vy in order to find the total v)
3. An airplane flying horizontally with a speed of 500 km/h at a height of 800 m drops a crate of
supplies (see the following figure). If the parachute fails to open, how far in front of the release
point does the crate hit the ground? Ans. x = 1779.0 m
4. A rock is thrown off a cliff at an angle of 53 with respect to the horizontal. The cliff is 100 m high.
The initial speed of the rock is 30 m/s. (a) How high above the edge of the cliff does the rock rise?
(b) How far has it moved horizontally when it is at maximum altitude? (c) How long after the
release does it hit the ground? (d) What is the range of the rock? (e) What are the horizontal and
vertical positions of the rock relative to the edge of the cliff at t = 2.0 s?
Ans. (a) h = 29.3 m (b) x = 43.2 m (c) t = 7.58 s (d) x = 136.44 m (e) y = 28.4 m, x = 36 m
7.4.1. Special case: projectile launched on a flat horizontal surface
1. Consider the special case of a projectile launched on a flat horizontal surface and impacting on the
same surface (as shown below). In terms of vi and i, derive expressions for the time of flight (tB),
the maximum height (h) and the horizontal range (R) of the projectile.
tB :
h:
R:
2. Using the derived expression for R, what angle i will result in the maximum range?
3. A projectile is launched at an angle of 30 and lands 20 s later at the same height as it was
launched. (a) What is the initial speed of the projectile? (b) What is the maximum altitude? (c)
What is the range? (d) Calculate the displacement from the point of launch to the position on its
trajectory at 15 s. Ans. (a) vi = 196.0 m/s (b) h = 490 m (c) R = 3394.0 m (d) 𝑟⃑ = 2550 𝑚 𝑖̂ + 368 𝑚 𝑗̂
7.5. Uniform Circular Motion
1. Briefly explain the meaning of uniform circular motion.
2. See: File: Derivation - Uniform Circular Motion. You may be asked to derive an expression for the
𝒗𝟐
magnitude of centripetal acceleration i.e. 𝒂𝒄 = 𝒓
.
3. What is the direction of the centripetal acceleration vector, 𝑎⃗𝑐 ?
4. A particle travels in a circle of radius 10 m at a constant speed of 20 m/s. What is the magnitude
of the acceleration? Ans. 40 m/s2
5. A runner taking part in the 200-m dash must run around the end of a track that has a circular arc
with a radius of curvature of 30.0 m. The runner starts the race at a constant speed. If she
completes the 200-m dash in 23.2 s and runs at constant speed throughout the race, what is her
centripetal acceleration as she runs the curved portion of the track? Ans. 2.5 m/s2
6. A fan is rotating at a constant 360.0 rev/min. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of a point
on one of its blades 10.0 cm from the axis of rotation? Ans. 144 m/s2
7. A point located on the second hand of a large clock has a radial acceleration of 0.1 cm/s2. How far
is the point from the axis of rotation of the second hand? Ans. 9.1 cm
8. The Laws of Motion
You have learnt about the properties of motion: displacement,

velocity, and acceleration. But what causes a change in the motion
of an object? Where does acceleration come from? When forces
are included in the discussion of motion, it is called dynamics.
References:
Textbook: Chapter 5: The Laws of Motion
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 5: The Laws of Motion
Section 8: The Laws of Motion
Cheat Sheet

Know Newton’s laws of motion. 8.3
Distinguish between mass and weight. 8.4
Define the inertia of an object. 8.3
Draw force diagrams for objects upon which several forces are acting. 8.5
Define the coefficients of static and kinetic friction. 8.4
Know that forces of friction are proportional to the normal force on an object. 8.4
Define the normal force. 8.4
Apply Newton’s laws to any mechanical system by:
− being able to identify external forces
− drawing force diagrams 8.4, 8.5 and 8.6
− applying Newton’s 2nd law
− Solve problems on the above.
8.2.The concept of force
In simple terms, a force is a push or a pull exerted on an object, resulting from the interaction between
two objects. From experience, we know that a push or pull has both magnitude and direction. Force
is therefore a vector quantity. Since force is a vector, it adds just like other vectors as practiced in
Section 5 on vectors.
8.3.Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion: A body at rest remains at rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at a
constant velocity unless acted on by a net external force.
Newton’s first law of motion states that there must be a cause (which is a net external force) for there
to be any change in velocity (either a change in magnitude or direction) i.e. there must be a cause for
acceleration.
1. Define inertia:
2. True or False: A stationary object must have no forces acting on it?
3. True or False: For an object to move at constant velocity, it must have a net force acting on it. If
no net force was applied to the object, it would come to rest because of its inertia.
4. True or False: A spaceship floating passively through space has no forces acting on it.
5. True or False: A car riding at constant velocity has no forces acting on it.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: The acceleration of a system is directly proportional to and in the
same direction as the net external force acting on the system, and inversely proportional to its mass.
In equation form, Newton’s second law of motion is:
𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑎⃗ =
𝑚
This is often rewritten as: 𝐹⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎⃗
Newton’s second law quantifies the relationship between cause (net external force) and effect
(acceleration). A net external force gives an object an acceleration and the acceleration produced is
proportional to the net force applied. Furthermore, the induced acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass of the system. The larger the mass, the smaller the acceleration produced
by a given force. As we know from experience, some objects have more inertia than others (you
defined inertia above in case you need a reminder of its meaning). It is more difficult to change the
motion of a large boulder than that of a basketball, for example. The inertia of an object is measured
by its mass. Unlike weight, mass does not vary with location. The mass of an object is the same on
Earth, in orbit, or on the surface of the Moon. Likewise, the inertia of an object is independent of its
location.
6. The SI unit for force is the newton (symbol N). Express one newton in terms of fundamental SI
units: 1 N = _________
7. Which has more inertia: a kilogram of cotton balls or a kilogram of gold?
Newton’s Third Law of Motion: Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the first body
experiences a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that it exerts.
8. Forces always occur in pairs, and one body cannot exert a force on another without experiencing
a force itself. We are referring to this concept when we talk about action-reaction pairs of forces.
Identify three examples of action-reaction pairs.
9. True or False: During a collision between a truck and a pedestrian, the truck exerts a larger force
on the pedestrian than the pedestrian exerts on the truck.
8.4.Common Forces
8.4.1. Weight (W) and the Gravitational Force
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that there exists an attractive force between two objects
that is directly proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them:
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹12 = 𝐹21 = 𝐺
𝑟2
where the universal gravitational constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2.
Any object dropped near the surface of the Earth, therefore, falls because Earth exerts a gravitational
pull on the object. This is referred to as the gravitational force (𝐹𝑔 ) or gravity. For an object on earth
with mass m,
M𝐸 𝑚
F𝑔 = G = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑅𝐸 2
M𝐸
 g=G = 9.81 m.s-2
𝑅𝐸 2
where ME and RE are the mass and the radius of the earth, respectively. g represents acceleration due
to gravity. Note that g is independent of mass.
The gravitational force of Earth on any object is commonly called the object’s weight (W):
M𝐸 𝑚
F𝑔 = W = 𝐺 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑅𝐸 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑚𝑔⃗ = 𝑚𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠.
i.e. 𝑊
The weight of an object is a force, not a mass. Mass and weight are often used
interchangeably in everyday language. However, in science, these terms are distinctly
different from one another. Mass is measured in kg and is a measure of how much matter
is in an object. Weight is measured in newtons and is a measure of the force of gravity
acting on an object.
The mass of an object remains constant, regardless of its location. However, because
weight depends on g, the weight of an object can change. For example, the acceleration
due to gravity on the Moon is only 1.67 m/s2. If you measured your weight on Earth and
then measured your weight on the Moon, you would find that you “weigh” much less on
the Moon. When we step on our bathroom scales and are told our mass in kilograms, we
are effectively being given our weight in newtons divided by 9.80m/s2. The scale measures
weight but is calibrated to provide information about mass.
1. The weight of an astronaut plus his space suit on the Moon is only 250 N. How much do they weigh
on Earth? (Ans. 1469 N) What is the mass on the Moon? On Earth?
8.4.2. Normal Force (N)
Any surface supporting a load must supply an opposing force equal to the load. Consider a solid block
sitting on an inclined surface:
Figure 1: Weight force and contact force acting on a block Figure 2: Surface contact force resolved into components
on an inclined plane. perpendicular and parallel to the surface.
Source: Introduction to Biological Physics for the Health and Life Sciences (Muir et al, 2010, Wiley)
The block and the surface are stationary, so Newton’s second law tells us that the weight of the block
is balanced by an upward force produced by the surface (see Figure 1). We can also use Newton’s
Third Law to support our argument. The component of the reaction force perpendicular to the surface
is called the normal force, N (the word ‘normal’ means perpendicular). The component of the reaction
force parallel to the surface is called the friction force, f (see Figure 2). Here, the symbol N is not the
unit for force N.
8.4.3. Tension
A tension is a force carried by a flexible medium such as a rope or cable. The word “tension” comes
from a Latin word meaning “to stretch.” Any flexible connector, such as a string, rope, chain, wire, or
cable, can only exert pulls (“You can’t push a rope”), and only parallel to its length. Thus, the direction
of a tension force is always parallel to a connector, and the tension always acts by pulling on the
objects at either end of a connector.
8.4.4. Friction (f)
Friction: is a force that opposes relative motion between surfaces in contact. Friction is always parallel
to the contact surface between surfaces and always in a direction that opposes motion or attempted
motion of the systems relative to each other. The friction experienced is also proportional to the
normal force that the contact surface exerts on an object. If you were to consider a box on a table, for
example, then a heavier box will experience a greater frictional force than a lighter one.
If two surfaces are in contact and moving relative to one another, then the friction between them is
called kinetic friction. The magnitude of kinetic friction fk is given by
fk=μkN
where μk is the coefficient of kinetic friction and N is the magnitude of the normal force.
If two surfaces are in contact and stationary relative to one another, then the friction between them
is called static friction. The magnitude of static friction fs is given by
fs ≤ μsN
where μs is the coefficient of static friction and N is the magnitude of the normal force.
Unlike kinetic friction, static friction is a responsive force that increases to be equal and opposite to
whatever force is exerted, up to its maximum limit. Once the applied force exceeds fs,max, the object
will move. Thus
fs,max = μsN
The coefficients of kinetic friction are less than their static counterparts. Consequently, the frictional
force drops slightly once an object starts moving. This will be illustrated later in this tutorial.
Why do we need friction to move? Why is it so difficult to walk on ice, for example?
8.5.Practice S.A.F.E. Physics
A free-body diagram is an essential tool for finding the net force exerted on an object. In a free-body
diagram we separate an object from its surroundings and sketch all the forces acting on the object.
Listed below are some tips for drawing effective free-body diagrams and finding the net force acting
on an object:
1. Represent an object as a dot at the origin of a coordinate system.

• For a system of more than one objects, draw a free-body diagram for each object
separately.
• It is essential that you indicate the orientation of the coordinate system on your diagram.
As mentioned previously, you can use your own discretion when deciding the orientation
of your axis. You must, however, remain consistent to the indicated orientation when
carrying out calculations. You can use a different orientation for each object in a multi-
object system if necessary.
2. Draw each force (contact or non-contact) acting on the object as a vector arrow starting from the
object and pointing in the direction that the force is applied. Only forces exerted on the object
(external forces) are included in a free-body diagram, not internal forces, or forces that the object
exerts on other objects.
3. Find the net force acting on the object by adding the x- and y-components of the identified forces
to obtain the components of the resultant force vector i.e. ∑ 𝐹𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 . The entire purpose of
Section 5: Vectors was to develop this skill which we will now apply.
Once you have found expressions for the components of the resultant vector, you will be able to use
Newton’s Laws of Motion to solve various dynamics problems.
1. If the object is stationary or moving at a constant velocity with respect to a particular axis (i.e. the
object is not accelerating in that direction), then, depending on the axis,
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 or ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
This is not the same as saying that there are no forces acting on the object in that direction. What
it is saying, is that any forces along that direction cancel out.
2. If the object is accelerating with respect to a particular axis, then, depending on the axis,
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 or ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
Here, the forces along the axis do not cancel out, and we use Newton’s Second Law to relate the
net force to the acceleration experienced in that direction.
Independence of motion: The horizontal and vertical components of two-dimensional

TAKE motion are independent of each other. Any motion in the horizontal direction does not
NOTE affect motion in the vertical direction, and vice versa. For this reason, we can consider
forces along different axes in isolation.
Choosing the system of interest: When dealing with a multi-object scenario, it’s not
always clear which object needs to be represented as a point in your free-body diagram
TAKE i.e. it’s not always clear how to select the system of interest. Sometimes objects in a
NOTE scenario are treated as separate systems, and sometimes combining them to represent a
single system is more convenient. Identifying the system of interest is a skill developed
through practice!
In summary, in this course, we practice S.A.F.E. Physics:
S: Sketch – Draw your object as a dot at the origin of a coordinate system
A: Axes – Indicate the orientation of the coordinate system on your diagram
F: Forces – Draw each force acting on the object
E: Equations – Find expressions for ∑ 𝐹𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 and equate them to zero or 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (or 𝑚𝑎𝑦 )
8.6.Problems
1. Practice the following types of dynamics problems (see lecture slides):

1.1. Adding force vectors
1.2. Equilibrium problems
1.3. Slope problems
1.4. Two objects
1.5. Two objects connected by a cord
1.6. Friction
2. If the rocket sled shown in Figure 4.31 starts with only one rocket burning, what is the magnitude
of its acceleration? Assume that the mass of the system is 2100 kg, the thrust T is 2.4×104 N, and
the force of friction opposing the motion is known to be 650 N. (Ans. a = 11.12 m.s-2)
Figure 4.31
3. The rocket sled shown in Figure 4.32 accelerates at a rate of 49.0 m/s2. Its passenger has a mass
of 75.0 kg. (a) Calculate the horizontal component of the force the seat exerts against his body.
(Ans. 3.68x103 N) (b) Calculate the direction and magnitude of the total force the seat exerts
against his body. (Ans. 3750 N 11.3 from horizontal)
Figure 4.32
4. The bathroom scale is an excellent example of a normal force acting on a body. It provides a
quantitative reading of how much it must push upward to support the weight of an object. What
would you see on the dial of a bathroom scale if you stood on it during an elevator ride? For each
of the following scenarios, indicate if you will see a value greater than, equal to, or less than your
weight at rest:
4.1. The elevator accelerates upwards:
4.2. The elevator accelerates while moving downward:
Bonus: What would the scale read if the elevator accelerates at g m.s-2 while moving
downward?
4.3. The elevator moves upward at a constant speed:
4.4. The elevator moves downward at a constant speed:
4.5. The elevator decelerates while moving downward:
4.6. The elevator decelerates while moving upward:
5. Access the PhET simulation: Ramp: Forces and Motion (the link is available on Moodle). Navigate
to the Force Graphs tab as circled in red below.
5.1. Observe the forces on the crate as you move the crate from wall to wall by pulling on it.
Complete the table below by drawing a free-body diagram for each scenario:
Flat region Slope

Force applied,
moving right
Force applied,
moving left
No force applied,
moving right
No force applied,
moving left
5.2. Does the weight of the object ever change direction? If so, when?
5.3. Consider the graph of friction versus time obtained below:

5.3.1.Explain the observed trend. Why does the friction first increase linearly then flatline?
5.3.2.Circle on the diagram when the box started moving. Explain your reasoning.
6. A contestant in a winter sporting event pushes a 45.0 kg block of ice across a frozen lake as shown
in Figure 5.21(a). (a) Calculate the minimum force F he must exert to get the block moving. (Ans.
51 N) (b) What is the magnitude of its acceleration once it starts to move, if that force is
maintained? (Ans. a = 0.72 m/s2)
7. Repeat the previous problem with the contestant pulling the block of ice with a rope over his
shoulder at the same angle above the horizontal as shown in Figure 5.21(b). (a) Ans. 46.5 N (b)
Ans. a = 0.655 m/s2
Figure 5.21 Which method of sliding a block of ice requires less force—(a) pushing or
(b) pulling at the same angle above the horizontal?
8. Will a metal cabinet lying on the wooden bed of a truck slip if the truck accelerates at 4.90 m/s2?
9. For the three situations described below, use <, >, or = symbols to complete the statements.
𝑁̅
𝑓̅
̅ ||
𝑊
̅⊥
𝑊
θ
̅
𝑊
Object at rest Object moves at const. speed Object accelerated down incline
𝑊 || 𝑓 𝑊 || 𝑓 𝑊 || 𝑓
𝑊⊥ 𝑁 𝑊⊥ 𝑁 𝑊⊥ 𝑁
Which type of friction (static or kinetic) is acting in each scenario?
10. A 40 kg box slides down an inclined plane (inclined at 30 degrees) at a constant speed of 2.1m/s.
Fill in the blanks:
𝑁 = ___ N
𝑓 = ___ N
𝑊 || = ___ N
𝑊 ⊥ = ___ N
θ
𝑊 = ___ 𝑁
𝐹̅ net = ___ N down the hill
𝑎̅ = ___ m.s-2 down the hill
11. A force of 300 N is applied as shown to a 65 kg object originally at rest on an inclined plane (inclined
at 28 degrees). Assume a constant friction and fill in the blanks:
𝑁 = ___ N
𝑓= ___ N
𝟑𝟎𝟎 N
𝑊 || = ___ N
𝑊 ⊥ = ___ N
θ
𝑊 = ___ 𝑁
𝐹̅ net = ___ N down the hill
𝑎̅ = ___ m.s-2 down the hill
12. (a) Calculate the tension in a vertical strand of spider web if a spider of mass 8.00×10−5 kg hangs
motionless on it. (Ans. 7.84 x 10-4 N) (b) Calculate the tension in a horizontal strand of spider web
if the same spider sits motionless in the middle of it and the strand sags at an angle of 12 below
the horizontal. (Ans. 1.89 x 10-3 N)
9. Circular Motion
References:
Textbook: Chapter 6: Circular Motion and Other Applications of

Newton's Laws
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 6: Circular Motion
Section 9: Circular Motion

Analyse motion in a circular path by employing Newton’s laws. 9.2
Solve problems on the above. 9.2
Cheat Sheet
9.2.Circular Motion
1. Use Newton’s Second Law to obtain an equation for the net centripetal force acting on an object
undergoing uniform circular motion.
2. Apply your knowledge of Newton’s Laws to solve Example 6.1-6.5 in the textbook (see lecture
slides).
3. Derive an expression for the minimum speed needed for water in a vertically revolving bucket not
to fall out of the bucket (see resources available on Moodle).
10. Energy of a System
References:
Textbook: Chapter 7: Energy of a System
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 7: Energy of a System
Section 10: Energy of a System
Cheat Sheet

Define the work done by an external force on an object. 10.3.1
Have gained knowledge of the scalar product of vectors, and be able to apply the 10.3.2
knowledge.
Derive an expression for the work done by a varying force. 10.3.3
Know Hooke’s law. 10.3.4
Determine the work done to extend a spring. 10.3.4
Define kinetic energy. 10.5.1
Derive the work-energy theorem. 10.4
Define potential energy. 10.5.2
Derive the potential energy associated with gravity. 10.5.2
Derive the potential energy stored in spring. 10.5.3
Define conservative forces. 10.6
Discuss (5 sentences) or define the conservation of mechanical energy. 10.5 and 10.6
10.2. Energy
Unlike the concepts we have introduced thus far (e.g. mass, velocity and acceleration), there is no
simple direct scientific definition for energy. If we attempt to understand the universe in terms of
energy, then we see that energy is all around us, present in different forms (see File: Forms of Energy).
Energy is neither created nor destroyed but is simply transformed from one form to another (see File:
Energy Transformation). The law of conservation of energy states that: The total energy is constant
in any process. It may change in form or be transferred from one system to another, but the total
remains the same.
We can loosely define energy as the ability to do work. Doing work is the process of transferring
energy from one object or form to another by means of a force. Our rather circular definition of
energy, therefore, states that the energy of a system is its ability to transfer energy.
1. What is the SI unit for energy? ________________
In File: Forms of Energy you noted different forms of energy including mechanical, sound (wave),
chemical, electrical, radiant, thermal and nuclear energy. The different forms of energy can be further
classified as either kinetic (energy in motion) or potential (stored) energy. In this chapter we will
explore the concepts of mechanical energy.
10.3. Work
10.3.1. Definition of work
As already stated, doing work is the process of transferring energy from one object or form to another
by means of a force. For work to be done, a force must be exerted and there must be displacement in
the direction of the force. Work is not a form of energy. Instead, work describes the amount of energy
being transferred between objects, or changed from one form into another, by a force.
1. Consider the figure to the left. For each

scenario, indicate whether the work done on
the object (lawnmower or briefcase) is +ve, -ve
or zero. Who is gaining energy and who is losing
energy in each scenario?
a) Man pushing the lawn mower:
b) Man holding the briefcase:
c) Man carrying the briefcase horizontally at a

constant speed:
d) Briefcase carried upstairs at constant speed:
e) Briefcase lowered by an electric generator:
2. How much work does a supermarket checkout attendant do on a can of soup he pushes 0.600 m
horizontally with a force of 5.00 N? Ans: 3 J
3. How much work is done by the boy pulling his sister 30.0 m in a wagon as shown in Figure 7.35?
Assume no friction acts on the wagon. Ans: 1300 J
Figure 7.35
4. (a) Calculate the work done on a 1500 kg elevator car by its cable to lift it 40.0 m at constant speed,
assuming friction averages 100 N. (b) What is the work done on the lift by the gravitational force
in this process? (c) What is the total work done on the lift? Ans:(a) 5.92x105 J (b) -5.88x105 J
5. A shopper pushes a grocery cart 20.0 m at constant speed on level ground, against a
35.0 N frictional force. He pushes in a direction 25.0° below the horizontal. (a) What is the work
done on the cart by friction? (b) What is the work done on the cart by the gravitational force? (c)
What is the work done on the cart by the shopper? (d) Find the force the shopper exerts, using
energy considerations. (e) What is the total work done on the cart? Ans: (a) -700J (b) 0 J (c) 700 J
(d) 38.6 N (e) 0 J
6. P&E 8. Suppose the ski patrol lowers a rescue sled and victim, having a total mass of 90.0 kg, down
a 60.0° slope at constant speed, as shown in Figure 7.36. The coefficient of friction between the
sled and the snow is 0.100. (a) How much work is done by friction as the sled moves 30.0 m along
the hill? (b) How much work is done by the rope on the sled in this distance? (c) What is the work
done by the gravitational force on the sled? (d) What is the total work done? Ans: (a) -1320 J
(b) -2.16x104 J (c) 2.29x104 J (d) 0 J
Figure 7.36
10.3.2. Work as a scalar product of two vectors
7. Work through Examples 7.2 and 7.3 in your textbook.
10.3.3. Work done by a varying force
8. Work through Example 7.4 in your textbook.
10.3.4. Example of a varying force: Work done by a spring
Hooke’s Law
Work done by a spring
Work done on a spring to extend or compress it
9. Complete the table below for the spring-block system discussed above:
xi xf Ws Wext
0 -xmax Compression
-xmax 0 Return to neutral
0 xmax Elongation
xmax 0 Return to neutral
10.4. The Work-Energy Theorem
The work-energy theorem states that the work done on an object by a net force is equal to the change
in its kinetic energy:
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑲𝒇 − 𝑲𝒊 = 𝜟𝑲
Derivation:
When a force 𝐹̅ with magnitude F acts on a body, and it moves a distance d in the direction of the
force, the work done is:
W= (1)
Newton’s second law states that:
F= (2)
Substituting (2) into (1) yields:
W= (3)
For motion in a straight line with constant acceleration, we have the following equation of motion:
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎d (4)
If we rearrange the formula to make a the subject of the formula, then we get:
𝑎= (5)
Substituting (5) into (3) yields:
W=
Alternatively, you could have used calculus:
10. Work through Examples 7.6 and 7.7 in your textbook.
The final speed in Example 7.6 could also have been found using kinematics i.e. the
TAKE equations of motion. Some of the examples in this section can be solved without
NOTE considering energy, but it is worth noting that solutions involving energy are generally
shorter and easier than those using kinematics and dynamics alone.
10.5. Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of a system:
Mechanical energy (Emech) = Kinetic energy (K) + Potential energy (U)
10.5.1. Translational Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the work that object can do because it is moving.
Translational kinetic energy (K) is calculated as:
1
𝐾= 𝑚𝑣 2
2
where m is the mass of the object moving at velocity with magnitude v. Translational kinetic energy is
distinct from rotational kinetic energy and is the energy associated with translational motion.
1. What is the SI unit for K? ______________
2. Is K a scalar or a vector? ______________
Kinetic energy is proportional to speed squared. This proportionality means that a car
FUN traveling at 100 km/h has four times the kinetic energy it has at 50 km/h (not two times
FACT the energy as one would intuitively expect), helping to explain why high-speed collisions
are so devastating.
3. How fast must a 3000 kg elephant move to have the same kinetic energy as a 65.0 kg sprinter
running at 10.0 m/s? Ans: 1.47 m/s
10.5.2. Gravitational Potential Energy
Potential energy is the energy stored in a system due to an object’s position, shape or state.
When an object has potential energy due to its position in a gravitational field, then it has gravitational
potential energy. When there is work, there is a transformation of energy. The work done against the
gravitational force goes into an important form of stored energy called gravitational potential energy.
Let us calculate the work done by an external force in lifting a book of mass m through a height Δy. If
the book is lifted straight up at constant speed, then the magnitude of the force needed to lift it is
equal to the magnitude of the book’s weight, mg:
We define this to be the gravitational potential energy (ΔUg) put into (or gained by) the object-Earth
system:
ΔUg = mgΔy
Note: Δy is positive when the final height is greater than the initial height, and vice versa.
4. What is the SI unit for Ug? ______________
Gravitational potential energy can be seen as energy stored in an object-Earth system by an external
force, with the potential to be converted to other forms of energy, such as kinetic energy. If we release
the mass, the gravitational force will do an amount of work equal to mgΔy on it, thereby increasing its
kinetic energy by that same amount (by the work-energy theorem). The stored gravitational potential
energy is therefore released as kinetic energy.
5. Consider the scenario where you lift your pencil (mass m) from the ground to a height Δh above
the ground.
5.1. Assuming that you lift the pencil at a constant speed, draw the forces acting on the pencil
and derive an expression for the work done by you on the pencil in the process of lifting it to
the height Δh.
5.2. What is the change in gravitational potential energy of the pencil (ΔUg)?
5.3. Now consider what happens when you drop the pencil. Describe the energy transformations
that occur.
5.4. Show that the ΔK gained by the pencil just before it strikes the ground is equal to its loss of
gravitational potential energy (- ΔUg).
5.5. What is the change in mechanical energy of the system from the time of release to just before
the pencil strikes the ground?
Gravitational potential energy depends only on the vertical height of an object above the surface of
the Earth:
6. Suppose a 350 g kookaburra (a large kingfisher bird) picks up a 75 g snake and raises it 2.5 m from
the ground to a branch. (a) How much work did the bird do on the snake? (b) How much work did
it do to raise its own centre of mass to the branch? Ans: (a) 1.8 J (b) 8.6 J
When calculating gravitational potential energy, we have the option of defining an

absolute Ug relative to an arbitrarily defined reference level (where Ug is set to equal 0);
TAKE or we can simply work with changes in potential energy, ΔUg. We usually choose the
NOTE reference level to be Earth’s surface. What is important is the difference in gravitational
potential energy, because this difference is what relates to the work done. This difference
is independent of your choice of reference configuration.
7. Work through Example 7.8 in your textbook. What is your gravitational potential energy, Ug, right
now?
a) Ug < 0 J
b) Ug = 0 J
c) Ug > 0 J
d) more than one of the above answers could apply
10.5.3. Elastic Potential Energy
An example of elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a deformed spring (one that is either
compressed or stretched from its equilibrium position).
• The elastic potential energy stored in a spring is zero whenever the spring is undeformed (x = 0).
• Us always positive in deformed spring:
8. Assume that the block in Figure 1 is now attached to the spring, and that the adapted spring-
block system is in perpetual motion. Complete the table below for the spring-block system:
xi xf Ws Wext ΔK ΔU ΔEmech
0 -xmax Compression 1 2 1 2
− 𝑘𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑘𝑥
2 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
-xmax 0 Return to 1 2 1 2
𝑘𝑥 − 𝑘𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
neutral 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
0 xmax Elongation 1 2 1 2
− 𝑘𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑘𝑥
2 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
xmax 0 Return to 1 2 1 2
𝑘𝑥 − 𝑘𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥
neutral 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
Figure 1
10.6. Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
Conservative forces have these two properties:
1. Work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points is independent of
the path taken by the particle.
2. Work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed path is zero.
A force is non-conservative if it does not satisfy properties 1 and 2 above.
Conservative Forces Nonconservative Forces

The work done by a conservative force does not The work done by a nonconservative force adds
change the amount of mechanical energy in a or removes mechanical energy to or from a
system. E.g. gravitational force, spring force. system. E.g. the force of friction dissipates
mechanical energy from a system by converting
∆𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = 0 it into thermal energy; the push of an external
force on a toy car adds mechanical energy by
increasing the cars speed.
∆𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ ≠ 0
The work done by or against a conservative The work done by a nonconservative

force depends only on the starting and ending force depends on the path taken.
points of a motion and not on the path taken.
Wg = −mgˆj  ( y f − yi ) ˆj = mgyi − mgy f

1 2 1
Ws = kxi − kx f 2
2 2
We can define a potential energy (U) for any There is no potential energy associated with
conservative force e.g. gravitational potential nonconservative forces. Even if the thermal
energy or elastic potential energy. Potential energy generated by friction is captured, it
energy is stored energy that is completely cannot be fully converted back to work i.e. it is
recoverable as work. not recoverable.
The work done by a conservative force in

recovering stored potential energy is given by:
Wc = - ΔU
11. Conservation of Energy
References:
Textbook: Chapter 8: Conservation of Energy
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 8: Conservation of Energy
Section 11: Conservation of Energy

Determine the work done by a non-conservative force. 11.3 and 11.4
Define power. 11.5
Cheat Sheet
11.2. Conservative Forces
The work-energy theorem states that the net work done by all forces acting on a system equals its
change in kinetic energy. In equation form, this is:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝛥𝐾 …. (A)
If only conservative forces act, then Wnet = Wc, where Wc is the total work done by all conservative
forces. Thus,
Wc = ΔK
Previously, we saw that if a conservative force does work, then the system loses potential energy. That
is, Wc = −ΔU. Therefore,
−ΔU = ΔK or ΔK + ΔU = 0
This equation means that the total mechanical energy is constant for any process involving only
conservative forces. That is,
ΔEMech = 0
 EMech = K + U = constant, or
Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf (conservative forces only) …. (B)
where i and f denote initial and final values. This equation is a form of the work-energy theorem for
conservative forces. It is known as the conservation of mechanical energy principle.
1. A chicken egg of mass m is dropped from a height h above the ground. Neglecting air resistance,
which of the following statements is true regarding the egg as it falls?
a) mechanical energy of egg is decreasing
b) kinetic energy of egg is decreasing
c) potential energy of egg is decreasing
d) potential energy of egg is increasing
2. How does the potential energy of an object change when its speed is doubled? Assume that
mechanical energy is conserved.
a) The potential energy increases.
b) The potential energy decreases.
c) The potential energy does not change.
d) Insufficient information is given to answer this question.
3. An object of mass m = 7 kg is thrown straight upward with an initial speed of 15 m/s. What
maximum height, hmax does the object reach above the point of release?
4. Watch Video: When a physics teacher knows his stuff!!

4.1. Was the lecturer ever in any real danger? Use energy conservation principles to explain.
4.2. How much starting speed would the ball need to raise it an extra 5 cm above its starting
height on return to the lecturer? The lecturer could get seriously injured if this happened!
4.3. Why did the ball not reach its starting height when it returned to the lecturer?
5. Shown below is a box of mass m1 that sits on a frictionless incline at an angle above the horizontal
θ=30°. This box is connected by a relatively massless string, over a frictionless pulley, and finally
connected to a box at rest over the ledge, labelled m2. If m1 and m2 are a height h above the
ground and m2 >> m1: (a) What is the initial gravitational potential energy of the system? (b) What
is the final kinetic energy of the system?
11.3. Nonconservative Forces
The work-energy theorem states that the net work done by all forces acting on a system equals its
change in kinetic energy. In equation form, this is:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝛥𝐾 …. (A)
The net work is the sum of the work by nonconservative forces plus the work by conservative forces.
That is, Wnet = Wnc + Wc, so that
Wnc + Wc = ΔK
where Wnc is the total work done by all nonconservative forces and Wc is the total work done by all
conservative forces. As in the previous section, the work done by a conservative force comes from a
loss of potential energy, so that Wc = −ΔU. Substituting this equation into the previous one and solving
for Wnc gives
Wnc = ΔK + ΔU = ΔEMech
This equation means that the total mechanical energy changes by the amount of work done by
nonconservative forces. We can rearrange the above equation to obtain
Ki + Ui + Wnc = Kf + Uf …. (C)
This means that the amount of work done by nonconservative forces adds to the mechanical energy
of a system. If Wnc is positive, then mechanical energy is increased, such as when the person pushes
the crate up the ramp in Figure 7.16. If Wnc is negative, then mechanical energy is decreased, such as
when the motion of the crate is opposed by friction. If Wnc is zero, then mechanical energy is
conserved, and nonconservative forces are balanced. For example, if the man were to push the crate
at a constant speed on level ground. The positive work done by the push of the man on the crate is
removed by the work of friction, and the crate has constant energy.
Figure 7.16
1. Someone wants to launch an object into the air by using a track with the profile shown below. The
object is released at A but comes to a standstill at C – it never gets airborne. Suggest how this
setup can be changed to help achieve the aim.
11.4. Problem-solving Strategy for Energy
Equation C, relating mechanical energy changes to the amount of work done by nonconservative
forces, is the only equation you need for problems relating to energy conservation problems:
Ki + Ui + Wnc = Kf + Uf
• When no change in potential energy occurs, applying Equation C reduces to applying Equation A
(i.e. the work-energy theorem) by setting the change in kinetic energy to be equal to the net work
done on a system by nonconservative forces.
• When there are no nonconservative forces acting, Equation C reduces to Equation B.
Lastly, you have been introduced to two forms of potential energy i.e. gravitational potential energy
(Ug) and elastic potential energy (Us). We can therefore rewrite Equation C as follows:
Ki + Ug,i + Us,i + Wnc = Kf + Ug,f + Us,f
or
ΔK + ΔUg + ΔUs = Wnc
1. Work through the selected problems in your textbook as indicated in the accompanying lecture
slides.
2. A 100 g toy car is propelled by a compressed spring that starts it moving. The car follows the curved
track in Figure 7.38. Show that the final speed of the toy car is 0.687 m/s if its initial speed is 2.00
m/s and it coasts up the frictionless slope, gaining 0.180 m in altitude.
3. (a) Calculate the force needed to bring a 950 kg car to rest from a speed of 90.0 km/h in a distance
of 120 m (a fairly typical distance for a non-panic stop). (b) Suppose instead the car hits a concrete
abutment at full speed and is brought to a stop in 2.00 m. Calculate the force exerted on the car
and compare it with the force found in part (a). Ans: (a) -2470 N (b) -1.48x105 N
4. A 60.0 kg skier with an initial speed of 12.0 m/s coasts up a 2.50 m high-rise as shown in Figure
7.39. Find her final speed at the top, given that the coefficient of friction between her skis and the
snow is 0.0800. (Hint: Find the distance travelled up the incline assuming a straight-line path as
shown in the figure.) Ans: 9.46 m/s
Figure 7.39
5. (a) How high a hill can a car coast up (engine disengaged) if work done by friction is negligible and
its initial speed is 110 km/h? (b) If, in actuality, a 750 kg car with an initial speed of 110 km/h is
observed to coast up a hill to a height 22.0 m above its starting point, how much thermal energy
was generated by friction? (c) What is the average force of friction if the hill has a slope 2.5 above
the horizontal? Ans: (a) 47.6 m (b) 1.89x105 J (c) 375 N
6. Tarzan grabs a vine hanging vertically from a tall tree when he is running at 9.0m/s. (a) How high
can he swing upward? (b) Does the length of the vine affect this height? Ans. (a) 4.1 m (b) No
7. Assume that the force of a bow on an arrow behaves like the spring force. In aiming the arrow, an
archer pulls the bow back 50 cm and holds it in position with a force of 150 N. If the mass of the
arrow is 50 g and the “spring” is massless, what is the speed of the arrow immediately after it
leaves the bow? Ans. 39 m.s-1
8. The massless spring of a spring gun has a force constant k = 12 N/cm. When the gun is aimed
vertically, a 15 g projectile is shot to a height of 5.0 m above the end of the expanded spring. (See
below.) How much was the spring compressed initially? Ans. 3.5 cm
9. In a Coyote/Road Runner cartoon clip, a spring expands horizontally quickly and sends the coyote
into a rock. If the spring extended 5 m and sent the coyote of mass 20 kg to a speed of 15 m/s, (a)
what is the spring constant of this spring? (b) If the coyote were sent vertically into the air with
the energy given to him by the spring, how high could he go if there were no non-conservative
forces? Ans. (a) 180 N/m (b) 11.47 m
10. In the movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail a cow is catapulted from the top of a castle wall
over to the people down below. The gravitational potential energy is set to zero at ground level.
The cow is launched from a spring of spring constant 1.1×104 N/m that is expanded 0.5 m from
equilibrium. If the castle is 9.1 m tall and the mass of the cow is 110 kg, (a) what is the gravitational
potential energy of the cow at the top of the castle? (b) What is the elastic spring energy of the
cow before the catapult is released? (c) What is the speed of the cow right before it lands on the
ground? Ans. (a) 9819.81 J (b) 1375 J (c) 14.27 m.s-1
11. A boy throws a ball of mass 0.25 kg straight upward with an initial speed of 20m/s. When the ball
returns to the boy, its speed is 17 m/s. How much work does air resistance do on the ball during
its flight? Ans. 13.88 J
12. A massless spring with force constant k = 200 N/m hangs from the ceiling. A 2.0 kg block is attached
to the free end of the spring and released. If the block falls 17 cm before starting back upwards,
how much work is done by friction during its descent? Ans. -0.45 J
11.5. Power
The same amount of work is done by a runner who sprints up a hill and by a pedestrian who walks
slowly up the hill, stopping regularly for rests. Clearly there is an important difference between these
two cases which is not captured by the concept of work alone.
Power is the rate at which work is done.

𝑊
Average power: 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∆𝑡
Instantaneous power: 𝑃 = 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑣⃗ (see lecture slides for derivation)
1. What is the SI unit for power? _______________
2. What is the power output in watts and horsepower of a 70.0 kg sprinter who accelerates from rest
to 10.0 m/s in 3.00 s? Ans: 1.17x103 W = 1.56 hp
3. Calculate the power output in watts of a shot-putter who takes 1.20 s to accelerate the 7.27 kg
shot from rest to 14.0 m/s, while raising it 0.800 m. (Do not include the power produced to
accelerate his body.) Ans: 641 W
Figure 7.41
4. (a) What is the average useful power output of a person who does 6.00×106 J of useful work in
8.00 h? (b) Working at this rate, how long will it take this person to lift 2000 kg of bricks 1.50 m to
a platform? (Work done to lift his body can be omitted because it is not considered useful output
here.) Ans. (a) 208.33 W (b) 141.26 s
5. A 75.0 kg cross-country skier is climbing a 3.0 slope at a constant speed of 2.00 m/s and
encounters air resistance of 25.0 N. Find his power output for work done against the gravitational
force and air resistance. (b) What average force does he exert backward on the snow to
accomplish this? Ans: (a) 127 W (b) 63.5 N
12. Linear Momentum and Collisions
Teaching and Learning Framework
References:
Textbook: Chapter 9: Linear Momentum and Collisions
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 9: Linear Momentum and Collisions
Section 12: Linear Momentum and Collisions

Define: (i) linear momentum, (ii) impulse, (iii) a collision, (iv) elastic and inelastic
12.2, 12.4, 12.6
collisions.
Obtain the relationship between the resultant force on an object and the rate of 12.3
change of linear momentum.
Use the conservation of momentum to solve problems. 12.5 - 12.7
Cheat Sheet
Linear Momentum
Generally, momentum implies a tendency to continue on course—to move in the same direction—
and is associated with great mass and speed. The scientific definition of linear momentum is consistent
with most people’s intuitive understanding of momentum: a large, fast-moving object has greater
momentum than a smaller, slower object.
Linear momentum is defined as the product of an object’s mass multiplied by its velocity. In symbols,
linear momentum is expressed as:
𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗
Momentum 𝑝⃗ is a vector having the same direction as the velocity 𝑣⃗. The SI unit for momentum
is kg.m.s-1.
In unit vector notation, 𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑚𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑚𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂
In one dimension, 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 , or simply, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣.
1. (a) What is the momentum of a garbage truck that is 1.20×104 kg and is moving at 30.0 m/s? (b)
At what speed would an 8.00 kg garbage bin have the same momentum as the truck?
Ans. (a) 3.60x105 kg.m/s (b) 4.50x104 m/s
Momentum and Newton’s Second Law
The importance of momentum was recognized early in the development of classical physics.
Momentum was deemed so important that it was called the “quantity of motion.” Newton actually
stated his second law of motion in terms of momentum: The net external force equals the change in
momentum of a system divided by the time over which it changes. Using symbols,
∆𝑝⃗
∑ 𝐹⃗ =
∆𝑡
Or,
𝑑𝑝⃗
∑ 𝐹⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is equal to the net force acting on the
particle. Force acting over time can change momentum.
This statement of Newton’s second law of motion includes the more familiar F = ma as a special case,
when the mass of the object or system is constant. We can derive the familiar form of Newton’s
second law as follows:
𝑑𝑝⃗ 𝑑(𝑚𝑣⃗) 𝑑𝑣⃗

∑ 𝐹⃗ = = = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
when the mass is constant.
Newton’s second law of motion stated in terms of momentum is more generally applicable because it
can be applied to systems where the mass is changing, such as rockets, as well as to systems of
constant mass.
1. How can a small force impart the same momentum to an object (of constant mass) as a large
force?
Impulse
The change in the momentum of a particle is equal to the impulse of the net force acting on the
particle: ∆𝑝⃗ = 𝐼⃗
𝑑𝑝⃗
∑ 𝐹⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝑑𝑝⃗ = ∑ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡
𝑝⃗𝑓 𝑡𝑓
∴ ∆𝑝⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝑝⃗ = 𝑝⃗𝑓 − 𝑝⃗𝑖 = ∫ ∑ 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡
𝑝⃗𝑖 𝑡𝑖
𝒕
Impulse, 𝑰⃗ = ∫𝒕 𝒇 ∑ 𝑭
⃗⃗𝒅𝒕
𝒊
Remember:
We often assume force is constant during the brief instant of impulse / momentum change:
∆𝑝⃗ = 𝐼⃗ = (∑ 𝐹⃗ ) ∆𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑔
Forces are usually not constant. It is, however, possible to

( F) avg

1 tf
t ti
 Fdt find an average effective force Favg that produces the same
I= ( F) avg
t
result as the corresponding time-varying force. The figure
to the left shows a graph of what an actual force looks like
as a function of time. The area under the curve has units of
momentum and is equal to the impulse or change in
Favg momentum between times t1 and t2. That area is equal to
the area inside the rectangle bounded by Favg, t1, and t2.
Thus the impulses and their effects are the same for both
the actual and effective forces.
The effect of a force on an object depends on how long it acts, as well as how great the force is. An
understanding of impulse can save lives. Airbags, for example, allow the net force on the occupants in
a car to act over a much longer time when there is a sudden stop. The momentum change is the same
for an occupant, whether an air bag is deployed or not, but the force (to bring the occupant to a stop)
will be much less if it acts over a larger time. For the same reason, cars are designed to crumple in a
collision. A longer collision time means the force on the car will be less. See Video: The Physics of Car
Crashes.
1. An automobile dashboard, seat belt, and air bag, are each used alone in separate collisions from
the same speed.
1.1. In terms of impulse, rank these from greatest to least.
1.2. In terms of the average force each delivers to a front-seat passenger, rank these from
greatest to least.
2. A car moving at 10 m/s crashes into a tree and stops in 0.26 s. Calculate the force the seat belt
exerts on a passenger in the car to bring him to a halt. The mass of the passenger is 70 kg.
Ans. 2692.31 N
3. Suppose a child drives a bumper car head on into the side rail, which exerts a force of 4000 N on
the car for 0.200 s. (a) What impulse is imparted by this force? (b) Find the final velocity of the
bumper car if its initial velocity was 2.80 m/s and the car plus driver have a mass of 200 kg. You
may neglect friction between the car and floor. Ans. (a) -800 kg.m/s (b) -1.2 m/s
4. A 75.0 kg person is riding in a car moving at 20.0 m/s when the car runs into a bridge abutment.
(a) Calculate the average force on the person if he is stopped by a padded dashboard that
compresses an average of 1.00 cm. (b) Calculate the average force on the person if he is stopped
by an air bag that compresses an average of 15.0 cm. Ans. (a) -1.5 MN (b) -0.1 MN
5. Calculate the final speed of a 110 kg rugby player who is initially running at 8.00 m/s but collides
head-on with a padded goalpost and experiences a backward force of 1.76×104 N for 5.50×10–2 s.
Ans: -0.8 m/s
6. When serving a tennis ball, a player hits the ball when its velocity is zero (at the highest point of a
vertical toss). The racquet exerts a force of 540 N on the ball for 5.00 ms, giving it a final velocity
of 45.0 m/s. Using these data, find the mass of the ball. Ans. 60 g
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of Momentum: Whenever two or more particles in an isolated system interact, the total
momentum of the system does not change.
An isolated system is defined to be one for which the net external force is zero: ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 0
Only internal forces act on the objects in the system, and these cancel out
by Newton’s Third law. In the figure to the left, for example,
F12 = −F21
Therefore,
F12 + F21 = 0
Therefore,
d ( m1 v1 ) d ( m2 v 2 )
+ =0
dt dt
d
( m1 v1 + m2 v 2 ) = 0
dt
d d
( m1 v1 + m2 v 2 ) = 0  ( p1 + p 2 ) = 0
dt dt
p tot = constant
p1i + p 2i = p1 f + p 2 f
For an isolated system, momentum is independently conserved along each length dimension:
p1ix + p2ix = p1 fx + p2 fx p1iy + p2iy = p1 fy + p2 fy

p1iz + p2iz = p1 fz + p2 fz
We have already seen that the three length dimensions (x, y and z) are independent, and, in general,
momentum can be conserved in different ways along each dimension. For example, during projectile
motion and where air resistance is negligible, momentum is conserved in the horizontal direction
because horizontal forces are zero and momentum is unchanged. But along the vertical direction, the
net vertical force is not zero and the momentum of the projectile is not conserved. However, if the
momentum of the projectile-Earth system is considered in the vertical direction, we find that the total
momentum is conserved.
Conservation of momentum is violated only when the net external force is not zero. But another larger
system can always be considered in which momentum is conserved by simply including the source
of the external force. For example, in a collision of two cars, the two-car system conserves momentum
while each one-car system does not.
1. Under what circumstances is momentum conserved?
2. Can momentum be conserved for a system if there are external forces acting on the system? If so,
under what conditions? If not, why not?
3. Can objects in a system have momentum while the momentum of the system is zero? Explain your
answer.
4. Must the total energy of a system be conserved whenever its momentum is conserved? Explain
why or why not.
Types of Interactions
Although momentum is conserved in all interactions in an isolated system, not all interactions are the
same. It’s useful to categorise different types of interactions, according to how the interacting objects
move before and after the interaction. There are three main types of interactions: explosions, elastic
collisions, and inelastic collisions.
12.6.1. Explosions
∑ 𝑝⃗𝑖 = ∑ 𝑝⃗𝑓
∑ 𝐾𝑖 ≠ ∑ 𝐾𝑓
An explosion is when a single object breaks apart into two or more pieces. An example of this is a
firecracker, or a bow and arrow, or a rocket rising through the air toward space. If the object is initially
motionless, then the system (which is just the object) has no momentum and no kinetic energy. After
the explosion, the net momentum of all the pieces of the object must sum to zero (since the
momentum of this closed system cannot change). However, the system will have a great deal of kinetic
energy after the explosion, although it had none before. Thus, we see that, although the momentum
of the system is conserved in an explosion, the kinetic energy of the system is not (since it increases).
1. Where does the energy come from? Does conservation of energy still hold?
12.6.2. Elastic Collisions in One Dimension
∑ 𝑝⃗𝑖 = ∑ 𝑝⃗𝑓
∑ 𝐾𝑖 = ∑ 𝐾𝑓
An elastic collision is one that also conserves kinetic energy. Macroscopic collisions are mostly
inelastic since some kinetic energy is always converted into other forms of energy such as heat transfer
due to friction and sound. However, some macroscopic collisions can be nearly elastic, for example
the collision between two steel blocks on ice, or a collision between two carts with spring bumpers on
an air track. Icy surfaces and air tracks are nearly frictionless, more readily allowing nearly elastic
collisions on them.
2. See the lecture slides for useful equations when solving problems involving elastic collisions.
12.6.3. Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension
∑ 𝑝⃗𝑖 = ∑ 𝑝⃗𝑓
∑ 𝐾𝑖 ≠ ∑ 𝐾𝑓
An inelastic collision is one in which the internal kinetic energy changes (it is not conserved). This lack
of conservation means that the forces between colliding objects may remove or add internal kinetic
energy. Work done by internal forces may change the forms of energy within a system. For inelastic
collisions, such as when colliding objects stick together, this internal work may transform some
internal kinetic energy into heat transfer. Or it may convert stored energy into internal kinetic energy,
such as when exploding bolts separate a satellite from its launch vehicle.
A collision in which the objects stick together is called a perfectly inelastic collision because it reduces
internal kinetic energy to the minimum it can have while still conserving momentum.
3. See the lecture slides for a useful equation when solving problems involving perfectly elastic
collisions.
Problems
Problem solving approach:
1. Define a closed system.

2. Determine which type of interaction is involved in the problem (elastic or inelastic).
3. Write down the relevant expressions for the type of problem (see lecture slides).
4. Subsitute the given values.
5. Solve for the unknown.
1. See the lecture slides for recommended examples from the textbook.
2. Two identical objects (such as billiard balls) have a one-dimensional collision in which one is
initially motionless. After the collision, the moving object is stationary and the other moves with
the same speed as the other originally had. Show that both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved.
3. A 70.0 kg ice hockey goalie, originally at rest, catches a 0.150 kg hockey puck slapped at him at a
velocity of 35.0 m/s. Suppose the goalie and the ice puck have an elastic collision and the puck is
reflected back in the direction from which it came. What would their final velocities be in this
case? Ans. vpuck = -34.9 m/s and vgoalie = 0.15 m/s
4. During an ice show, a 60.0 kg skater leaps into the air and is caught by an initially stationary 75.0
kg skater. (a) What is their final velocity assuming negligible friction and that the 60.0 kg skater’s
original horizontal velocity is 4.00 m/s? (b) How much kinetic energy is lost?
Ans. (a) 1.78 m/s (b) -266.61 J
5. A battleship that is 6.00×107 kg and is originally at rest fires a 1100 kg artillery shell horizontally
with a velocity of 575 m/s. (a) If the shell is fired straight aft (toward the rear of the ship), there
will be negligible friction opposing the ship’s recoil. Calculate its recoil velocity. (b) Calculate the
increase in internal kinetic energy (that is, for the ship and the shell). This energy is less than the
energy released by the gun powder—significant heat transfer occurs.
Ans. (a) -1.05x10-2 m/s (b) 1.818x108 J
6. A 30,000 kg freight car is coasting at 0.850 m/s with negligible friction under a hopper that dumps
110,000 kg of scrap metal into it. (a) What is the final velocity of the loaded freight car? (b) How
much kinetic energy is lost? Ans. (a) 0.182 m/s (b) 8.52x103 J
7. Space probes may be separated from their launchers by exploding bolts. (They bolt away from
one another.) Suppose a 4800 kg satellite uses this method to separate from the 1500 kg remains
of its launcher, and that 5000 J of kinetic energy is supplied to the two parts. What are their
subsequent velocities using the frame of reference in which they were at rest before separation?
Ans. 0.704 m/s and -2.25 m/s
13. Rotational Motion
References:
Textbook:
Chapter 10: Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis
Chapter 11: Angular Momentum
Moodle:
Lecture slides:
Chapter 10: Rotation of a Rigid Object About a Fixed Axis
Chapter 11: Angular Momentum
Section 13: Rotational Motion
Cheat Sheet

Define average and instantaneous angular velocity and angular acceleration. 13.2
Convert degrees to radians, and conversely. 13.2
Know that each particle in an object rotating about a fixed axis has the same 13.2
angular velocity and angular acceleration.
Obtain equations of motion for an object undergoing rotational motion from the 13.2
equations of motion in a straight line.
Derive relationships between linear and rotational motion (viz v = rω and at = rα). 13.2
Define: (i) torque, (ii) angular momentum. 13.3
Have gained knowledge regarding the cross product of vectors and be able to 13.3
apply the knowledge.
Solve problems on the above. 13.2 and 13.3
Rotational Motion
1. See the lecture slides for Chapter 10 to learn how we describe and quantify the rotation of a rigid
object about a fixed axis.
Torque
1. See the lecture slides for Chapter 11 for introductions to the vector cross product and torque.
Putting It All Together: Linear vs Rotational Motion
In this section, we see that the kinematic and dynamic expressions for rotational motion look very
similar to those for linear motion. See the tables below for an overview of these similarities. The
concepts highlighted in red are not examinable. They are simply included for interest.
Kinematics Motion in 1D Rotating object

Position s
𝑥 =
r
Displacement
x  x f − xi    f −  i
Velocity x x dx   d
vx ,avg  vx  lim = avg    lim =
t ; t → 0 t dt t ; t → 0 t dt
Acceleration vx vxf − vxi   f − i
ax ,avg  =  avg  =
t t f − ti t t f − ti
; ;
vx dvx  d 
ax  lim =   lim =
t → 0 t dt t → 0 t dt
Kinematic
equations
(constant
acceleration)
Dynamics* Motion in 1D* Rotating object*
 N2
ext = I F ext = MaCM  = I 
Momentum
L  r  p L = Iω
;
dL
τ = dt
*NOT EXAMINABLE (JUST FOR NOTING – similarities between dynamics for 1D motion and rotational
motion)
14.Static Equilibrium
References:
Textbook: Chapter 12: Static Equilibrium and Elasticity
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 12: Static Equilibrium
Section 14: Static Equilibrium

State the conditions for static equilibrium. 14.2 - 14.4
Apply these conditions to solve problems on equilibrium. 14.5
Cheat Sheet
Equilibrium
Equilibrium is defined to be motion without linear or rotational acceleration.
1. Distinguish between static and dynamic equilibrium and give an example of each.
Torque
In the previous chapter, we introduced the concept of torque to quantify the effectiveness of a force
in rotating an object. Torque is the rotational equivalent of a force. It is a measure of the effectiveness
of a force in inducing a rational acceleration. Consider the figures below. The net external force on the
stick in both scenarios is zero, but in one case, equilibrium is achieved, whereas in the other, with the
same forces applied in different places, the stick experiences accelerated rotation. Therefore, we
know that the point at which a force is applied is another factor in determining whether or not
equilibrium is achieved.
Source: College Physics, OpenStax
1. To understand what factors affect rotation, let us think about what happens when you open an
ordinary door by rotating it on its hinges (its pivot point). Identify three factors that determine
how effective you are in opening the door. How does this correlate with the equation for torque?
2. When opening a door, you push on it perpendicularly with a force of 55.0 N at a distance of 0.850m
from the hinges. What torque are you exerting relative to the hinges? Ans. 46.75 N.m
3. Try the chair lift challenge. See Video: Man VS Woman - Chair Lift Challenge. What is happening
here?
Conditions of Equilibrium
Two conditions must be met to achieve equilibrium. For a rigid object in equilibrium:
1. We often see people balancing a load on their head. Explain why the centre of mass of the load
needs to be directly above the person’s neck vertebrae.
2. Two children push on opposite sides of a door during play. Both push horizontally and
perpendicular to the door. One child pushes with a force of 17.5 N at a distance of 0.600 m from
the hinges, and the second child pushes at a distance of 0.450 m. What force must the second
child exert to keep the door from moving? Assume friction is negligible. Ans. 23.33 N
SAFE Physics
Once we have established that the system is in static equilibrium, we practice SAFE physics (as we did
before):
S: Sketch
A: Axes (choose appropriate axis of rotation)
F: Forces (identify forces)
E: Equations (∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, ∑ 𝜏𝑧 = 0 )
TAKE You can choose the point around which the torque is calculated. The point can be the
NOTE physical pivot point of a system or any other point in space—but it must be the same point
for all torques. If the second condition (net external torque on a system is zero) is satisfied
for one choice of pivot point, it will also hold true for any other choice of pivot point in or
out of the system of interest. (This is true only in an inertial frame of reference.)
1. See the lecture slides for examples from the textbook.

2. Suppose a horse leans against a wall as in Figure 9.30. Calculate the force exerted on the wall
assuming that the force is horizontal while using the data in the schematic representation of the
situation. Note that the force exerted on the wall is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the force exerted on the horse, keeping it in equilibrium. The total mass of the horse and rider
is 500 kg. Ans. 1.43x103 N
Figure 9.30
3. (a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force on each foot of the horse in Figure 9.30 (two
are on the ground), assuming the centre of mass of the horse is midway between the feet. The
total mass of the horse and rider is 500kg. (b) What is the minimum coefficient of friction between
the hooves and ground? Note that the force exerted by the wall is horizontal.
Ans. (a) 2.55x103 N at 16 .3 to the left of vertical (i.e. toward the wall) . (b) 0.292
4. Suppose the weight of the drawbridge in Figure 9.33 is supported entirely by its hinges and the
opposite shore, so that its cables are slack. The mass of the bridge is 2500 kg. (a) What fraction of
the weight is supported by the opposite shore if the point of support is directly beneath the cable
attachments? (b) What is the direction and magnitude of the force the hinges exert on the bridge
1
under these circumstances? Ans. (a) 0.1667  6 𝑊 (b) F = 2.0x104 N straight up
Figure 9.33
5. Suppose a 900-kg car is on the bridge in Figure 9.33 with its centre of mass halfway between the
hinges and the cable attachments. (The bridge is supported by the cables and hinges only.) (a) Find
the force in the cables. (b) Find the direction and magnitude of the force exerted by the hinges on
the bridge. Ans. (a) 6.6x103 N (Assuming there are two cables) (b) 27 kN at 68
6. A sandwich board advertising sign is constructed as shown in Figure 9.34. The sign’s mass is 8.00
kg. (a) Calculate the tension in the chain assuming no friction between the legs and the sidewalk.
(b) What force is exerted by each side on the hinge? Ans. (a) 21.6 N (b) 21.6 N acting horizontally
Figure 9.34
7. (a) What minimum coefficient of friction is needed between the legs and the ground to keep the
sign in Figure 9.34 in the position shown if the chain breaks? (b) What force is exerted by each
side on the hinge? Ans. (a) 0.551 (b) 39.2 N
8. A person working at a drafting board may hold her head as shown in Figure 9.39, requiring muscle
action to support the head. The three major acting forces are shown. Calculate the direction and
magnitude of the force supplied by the upper vertebrae Fv to hold the head stationary, assuming
that this force acts along a line through the centre of mass as do the weight and muscle force. Ans.
Fv = 97 N,  = 59
Figure 9.39
9. Even when the head is held erect, as in Figure 9.40, its centre of mass is not directly over the
principal point of support (the atlanto-occipital joint). The muscles at the back of the neck should
therefore exert a force to keep the head erect. That is why your head falls forward when you fall
asleep in the class. (a) Calculate the force exerted by these muscles using the information in the
figure. (b) What is the force exerted by the pivot on the head? Ans. (a) 25 N down (b) 75 N up
Figure 9.40
10. A 75-kg man stands on his toes by exerting an upward force through the Achilles tendon, as
in Figure 9.41. (a) What is the force in the Achilles tendon if he stands on one foot? (b) Calculate
the force at the pivot of the simplified lever system shown—that force is representative of forces
in the ankle joint. Ans. (a) 2.21x103 N up (b) 2.94x103 N down
Figure 9.41
15.Universal Gravitation
References:
Textbook: Chapter 13: Universal Gravitation
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 13: Universal Gravitation
Section 15: Universal Gravitation

State the law of universal gravitation. 15.2
Solve problems on the above. 15.2
Instructions
1. Work through the lecture slides for this section of the work.
Cheat Sheet
16.Fluid Statics
References:
Textbook: Chapter 14: Fluid Mechanics
Moodle:
Lecture slides: Chapter 14: Fluid Mechanics
Section 16: Fluid Statics

Define: (i) a fluid, (ii) density, (iii) pressure, (iv) specific gravity, (v) buoyant force,
16.2 and 16.4
(vi) apparent weight
Be familiar with the units in which pressure is measured, as well as how pressure
16.3
is measured.
Derive an equation for the pressure at any depth in a fluid. 16.3
State Pascal’s principle and be able to apply it. 16.3
State Archimedes’ principle and be able to apply it. 16.4
Cheat Sheet
Definitions
A fluid is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress. Fluids include
liquids, gases and plasmas.
𝑚
Density is mass per unit volume. In equation form, 𝜌 = 𝑉
where ρ is the symbol for density, m is the
mass, and V is the volume occupied by the substance. In this course, we will often reference the
density of water (1000 kg.m−3) and that of mercury (13600 kg.m−3).
1. What is the SI unit for density? _____________
Specific gravity (S.G.) is the ratio of the density of an object to the density
of water at 4C:
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑆. 𝐺. =
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4℃
2. Watch Video: Specific Gravity for a conceptual understanding of S.G.
3. Why do you think the density of water at 4C is used?
Pressure is defined as the force divided by the area perpendicular to the force over which the force is
𝐹
applied, or 𝑃 = 𝐴.
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa): 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
• A given force can have a significantly different effect depending on the area over
which the force is exerted.
TAKE • Forces due to pressure are always exerted perpendicular to any surface.
NOTE • In addition to the pascal, there are many other units for pressure that are in common
use. We will often refer to the following conversions in this course:
1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 mm Hg
4. Which weighs more, a ton of feathers or a ton of bricks?
5. Suppose you have a coffee mug with a circular cross section and vertical sides (uniform radius).
What is its inside radius if it holds 375 g of coffee when filled to a depth of 7.50 cm? Assume coffee
has the same density as water. Ans. 3.99 cm
6. A trash compactor can reduce the volume of its contents to 0.350 their original value. Neglecting
the mass of air expelled, by what factor is the density of the rubbish increased?
Ans. 2.86 times denser
7. The aqueous humor in a person’s eye is exerting a force of 0.300 N on the 1.10 cm2 area of the
cornea. What pressure is this in mm Hg? Ans. 20.5 mm Hg
Pressure
16.3.1. Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s principle: A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to all
portions of the fluid and to the walls of its container.
1. A crass host pours the remnants of several bottles of wine into a jug after a party. He then inserts
a cork with a 2.00 cm diameter into the bottle, placing it in direct contact with the wine. He is
amazed when he pounds the cork into place and the bottom of the jug (with a 14.0 cm diameter)
breaks away. Calculate the force exerted against the bottom if he pounded the cork with a 120 N
force. Ans. 5880 N
16.3.2. Hydraulic systems
2. One of the most important applications of Pascal’s principle is hydraulic systems, which use an
enclosed fluid to exert forces e.g. hydraulic lifts and hydraulic brakes. Read and understand File:
Pressure derivations - HYDRAULIC SYSTEM.
3. What force must be exerted on the pedal cylinder of a hydraulic lift to support the weight of a
2000 kg car (a large car) resting on the wheel cylinder? The pedal cylinder has a 2.00 cm diameter
and the wheel has a 24.0 cm diameter. Ans. 136 N
4. A certain hydraulic system is designed to exert a force 100 times as large as the one put into it. (a)
What must be the ratio of the area of the wheel cylinder to the area of the pedal cylinder? (b)
What must be the ratio of their diameters? (c) By what factor is the distance through which the
output force moves reduced relative to the distance through which the input force moves?
Assume no losses to friction. Ans. (a) 100 (b) 10 (c) 1/100
16.3.3. Variation of pressure with depth in a fluid
The pressure in a static (non-flowing) fluid:
1. varies with depth in the fluid, but

2. is the same at all points at the same elevation.
Pressure in a liquid of uniform density is the same at all points at the same level:
TAKE
NOTE
Note: For a small volume of gas we can often treat the pressure as being the same
throughout the container.
5. Pascal’s principle implies that the total pressure in a fluid is the sum of the pressures from different
sources. In the case of a liquid, the pressure at any depth in the liquid is the sum of the pressures
exerted by the weight of water above that depth and that of the atmosphere above the liquid.
Read and understand File: Pressure derivations - PRESSURE VARIATION WITH DEPTH IN A FLUID.
6. What depth of mercury creates a pressure of 1.00 atm? Ans. 0.760 m
7. The greatest ocean depths on the Earth are found in the Marianas Trench near the Philippines.
Calculate the pressure due to the ocean at the bottom of this trench, given its depth is 11.0 km
and assuming the density of seawater is constant all the way down.
Ans. 1.10 x 108 Pa = 1.09 x 103 atm
8. A submarine is stranded on the bottom of the ocean with its hatch 25.0 m below the surface.
Calculate the force needed to open the hatch from the inside, given it is circular and 0.450m in
diameter. Air pressure inside the submarine is 1.00 atm. Ans. 3.99 x 104 N
16.3.4. Pressure measurement
16.3.5. Absolute and gauge pressure
“If you limp into a gas station with a nearly flat tyre, you will notice the tyre gauge on the airline reads
nearly zero when you begin to fill it. In fact, if there were a gaping hole in your tyre, the gauge would
read zero, even though atmospheric pressure exists in the tyre. Why does the gauge read zero? Tyre
gauges are simply designed to read zero at atmospheric pressure and positive when pressure is greater
than atmospheric. It is very common for pressure gauges to ignore atmospheric pressure—that is, to
read zero at atmospheric pressure.” – College Physics, OpenStax
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is positive for
pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures below it.
Absolute pressure is the sum of gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure. Pabs = Pg + Patm where Pabs
is absolute pressure, Pg is gauge pressure, and Patm is atmospheric pressure. In most cases the absolute
pressure in fluids cannot be negative.
16.3.6. Mechanical pressure gauge
In mechanical pressure gauges, pressure results in a force that is converted (or transduced) into some
type of readout.
16.3.7. Manometer
An entire class of gauges uses the property that pressure varies with depth in a fluid. Consider the U-
shaped tube shown below. This simple tube is called a manometer. The pressure at the surface of the
fluid in each arm of the manometer is the same as the pressure of the gas above it. Because any two
points at the same level in a stationary fluid must be at the same pressure, we can use Pascal’s
principle to express the difference in pressure in one arm of the manometer relative to the pressure
in the other.
P1 = PA + ρgΔh = P2 = PB
∴ ΔP = PB - PA = ρgΔh
9. Which pressure is greater in the above diagram? PA or PB? Briefly explain your answer.
A manometer with one side open to the atmosphere is an ideal device for measuring gauge pressures.
The gauge pressure is Pg = ρgh and is found by measuring h.
10. What is the density of the unknown fluid in the diagram to the right?
11. How tall must a water-filled manometer be to measure blood pressures as high as 300 mm Hg?
Ans. 4.08 m
12. Find the gauge and absolute pressures in the balloon and peanut jar shown in the figure below,
assuming the manometer connected to the balloon uses water whereas the manometer
connected to the jar contains mercury. Express in units of centimeters of water for the balloon
and millimeters of mercury for the jar, taking h =0.0500 m for each.
Ans. Pg = 5.00 cm H2O, Pabs = 1.039 x 103 cm H2O and Pg = -50.0 mm Hg, Pabs = 710 mm Hg
Source: College Physics, OpenStax
16.3.8. Barometer
A barometer is a device that measures atmospheric pressure. This device measures atmospheric
pressure, rather than gauge pressure, because there is a nearly pure vacuum above the mercury in
the tube. The height of the mercury is such that ρgh = Patm. Mercury barometers and manometers are
so common that units of mm Hg are often quoted for atmospheric pressure and blood pressures.
13. What are two reasons why mercury rather than water is used in barometers?
Buoyant Forces and Archimedes’ Principle
Consider an object totally or partially submerged in a fluid. Since pressure in a fluid increases with
depth below the surface of the fluid, we have that the pressure below the object is greater than the
pressure above the object. There is therefore a resultant upward force on the object. This net upward
⃗⃗ .
force is called the buoyancy force 𝑩
Archimedes' principle states that an object partially or totally submerged in a fluid is buoyed upwards
with a force ⃗𝑩
⃗ equal to the weight of the displaced fluid: ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝑾𝒇𝒍. 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑.
B = ( Pbot − Ptop ) A = ( fluid gh ) A

B = fluid gVdisp
B = M fluid g
16.4.1. Totally submerged object
1. Bird bones have air pockets in them to reduce their weight—this also gives them an average
density significantly less than that of the bones of other animals. Suppose an ornithologist weighs
a bird bone in air and in water and finds its mass is 45.0 g and its apparent mass when submerged
is 3.60 g (the bone is watertight). (a) What mass of water is displaced? (b) What is the volume of
the bone? (c) What is its average density? Ans. (a) 41.4 g (b) 41.4 cm3 (c) 1086.96 kg/m3
2. (a) Calculate the buoyant force on a 2.00 L helium balloon. (b) Given the mass of the rubber in the
balloon is 1.50 g, what is the net vertical force on the balloon if it is let go? You can neglect the
volume of the rubber. The density of air at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m3 and the density of helium
is about 0.18 kg/m³.
Ans. (a) 2.35x10-2 N (b) 5.30x10-3 N
16.4.2. Floating object
3. Logs sometimes float vertically in a lake because one end has become water-logged and denser
than the other. What is the average density of a uniform-diameter log that floats with 20.0% of its
length above water? Ans. 800 kg/m3
4. Find the density of a fluid in which a hydrometer having a density of 0.750 g/mL floats with 92.0%
of its volume submerged. Ans. 815 kg/m3

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Faculty of Science

MECHANICS AND THERMODYNAMICS

Physics Workbook: Part B

Lecturer: Prof Jaco Olivier

Last updated: 2023

6. Motion in One Dimension

6.1.Teaching and Learning Framework

Textbook: Chapter 2: Motion in One Dimension

Lecture slides: Chapter 2: Motion in One Dimension

Section 6: Motion in One Dimension

Specific learning outcomes Tutorial assignment

6.2.1. Position, Displacement and Distance

1. See lecture slides for the following definitions:

2. What is the SI unit for position, displacement and distance? ______

3.2. What is the cyclist’s final displacement?

3.3. What is the total distance travelled by the cyclist?

6.2.2. Average and Instantaneous Velocity and Speed

5. See lecture slides for the following definitions:

6.2. the average speed of the train in m/s?

8. See lecture slides for the following definitions:

11.3. At what value of t is the velocity zero?

6.2.3. Average and Instantaneous Acceleration

12. See lecture slides for the following definitions:

16.3. When is the acceleration zero? Ans. t = 6 s; t > 10 s

1. Explain the physical meaning of differentiation.

2.2. Determine the instantaneous speed at t = 3.80 s. Ans. 22.3 m/s

2.4. Determine the instantaneous acceleration at t = 2.70 s. Ans. 6.4 m/s2

2.6. At what time is the object at rest? Ans. 0.313 s

6.5.Freely Falling Objects

t (s) a (m.s-2) v (m.s-1) d (m)

6.5.1. Appling the equations of motion to free falling objects

7. Motion in Two Dimensions

7.1. Teaching and Learning Framework

Textbook: Chapter 4: Motion in Two Dimensions

Lecture slides: Chapter 4: Motion in Two Dimensions

Section 7: Motion in Two Dimensions

Specific learning outcomes Tutorial assignment

7.3. Speed Bus Jump

1.1. What is the y-component of the bus’s initial velocity?

1.2. What is the x-component of the bus’s initial velocity?

7.4. Projectile Motion

Problem-solving strategy for projectile motion

7.4.1. Special case: projectile launched on a flat horizontal surface

7.5. Uniform Circular Motion

1. Briefly explain the meaning of uniform circular motion.

3. What is the direction of the centripetal acceleration vector, 𝑎⃗𝑐 ?

8. The Laws of Motion

You have learnt about the properties of motion: displacement,

8.1.Teaching and Learning Framework

Textbook: Chapter 5: The Laws of Motion

Lecture slides: Chapter 5: The Laws of Motion

Section 8: The Laws of Motion

Specific learning outcomes Tutorial assignment

8.2.The concept of force

8.3.Newton’s Laws of Motion

2. True or False: A stationary object must have no forces acting on it?

In equation form, Newton’s second law of motion is:

7. Which has more inertia: a kilogram of cotton balls or a kilogram of gold?

8.4.1. Weight (W) and the Gravitational Force

where the universal gravitational constant, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2.

8.4.2. Normal Force (N)

8.4.4. Friction (f)

8.5.Practice S.A.F.E. Physics

1. Represent an object as a dot at the origin of a coordinate system.