# Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems:

Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance

without the help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors.

For example: Cellular Phone, TV Remote Control, Radio, GPS System, Tablet,
Bluetooth,Wi-Fi, Satellite.

# Evolution of mobile communication systems:

Initially the wireless system used to be of analog nature, where

telephony was meant for voice only.
Then, other value added services were introduced gradually.
As the new generations come data rate (speed at which data is being
transmitted) kept on increasing.
Higher generations were used for multimedia applications which
require high data rate.
In 2G and 2.5G data rate ranges upto 100kb while in the case of 3G
the data rate ranges upto 20Mbps.
4G- data rate is 100Mbps. 5G data rate is around 10Gbps.

#Generation of cellular systems:

<>1G – First generation mobile communication system:

The first generation of mobile network was deployed in Japan by NTT Company in Tokyo during 1979. In the beginning of 1980s, it gained
popularity in the US, Finland, UK and Europe. This system used analog signals.

Most popular 1G system during 1980s

 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)  Nordic Mobile Phone System (NMTS)  Total Access Communication System (TACS)

FEATURES:
 Mode of service: voice only
 Access technique: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Disadvantages of 1G system
 Poor voice quality due to interference
 Poor battery life
 Large sized mobile phones (not convenient to carry)
 Less security (calls could be decoded using an FM demodulator)
 Limited number of users and cell coverage
 Roaming was not possible between similar systems

<>2G – Second generation mobile communication system (GSM, CDMA,IS-136/DAMPS):

Shift from analog to digital systems (now SMS and email services).
It introduced a new digital technology for wireless transmission also known as Global System for Mobile communication (GSM). GSM
technology became the base standard for further development in wireless standards later. This standard was capable of supporting up to
64kbps (maximum) data rate which is sufficient for SMS and email services.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system developed by Qualcomm also introduced and implemented. CDMA has more features than
GSM in terms of spectral efficiency, number of users and data rate.

FEATURES:
 SMS services is possible
 Roaming is possible
 Enhanced security
 Encrypted voice transmission
 First internet at lower data rate
Disadvantages of 2G system
 Low data rate (less speed)
 Limited mobility
 Less features on mobile devices
 Limited number of users and hardware capability

<>2.5G and 2.75G system (GPRS, EDGE)

In order to support higher data rate,
 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) was introduced and successfully deployed. GPRS was capable of data rate up to 171kbps
(maximum).
 EDGE – Enhanced Data GSM Evolution also developed to improve data rate for GSM networks. EDGE was capable to support up to
473.6kbps (maximum).

<>3G Third generation system (CDMA 2000, WCDMA, UMTS)/Internet system:

Third generation mobile communication started with the introduction of UMTS – Universal Mobile Terrestrial / Telecommunication
Systems. UMTS has the data rate of 384kbps and it support video calling for the first time on mobile devices .
CDMA2000 was introduced to support higher data rate for CDMA networks. This technology has the ability to provide up to 384 kbps
data rate (maximum). It support video calling for the first time on mobile devices.
After the introduction of 3G mobile communication system, smart phones became popular across the globe. Specific applications were
developed for smartphones which handles multimedia chat, email, video calling, games, social media and healthcare.

Key features of 3G system

 Higher data rate
 Video calling
 Enhanced security, more number of users and coverage
 Mobile app support
 Multimedia message support
 Location tracking and maps
 Better web browsing
 TV streaming

Disadvantages of 3G systems
 Expensive spectrum licenses
 Costly infrastructure, equipment and implementation
 Higher bandwidth requirements to support higher data rate
 Costly mobile devices
 Compatibility with older generation 2G system and frequency bands

<>Introduction to 4G Fourth generation system (LTE, LTE+, WiMax):

4G systems are enhanced version of 3G networks developed by IEEE,
-Offers higher data rate and capable to handle advanced multimedia services.
-LTE (Long term evolution) and LTE+ wireless technology used in 4th generation systems.
-Compatible with previous version thus easier deployment of 3G are possible.
-Simultaneous transmission of voice and data is possible. All services including voice services can be transmitted over IP packets.
-Wireless transmission technologies like WiMax are introduced in 4G system to enhance data rate and network performance.
#PAGING SYSTEM

Paging systems are communication systems that send brief messages to a subscriber. Depending on the type of service, the message
may be either a numeric message, or an alphanumeric message. Paging systems are typically used to notify a subscriber of the need to
call a particular telephone number or for receiving further instructions. (vo 1800 vaale no se jo msgs aate the)
In modern paging systems, news headlines, stock quotations, and faxes may be sent.
A message is sent to a paging subscriber via the paging system access number (usually a toll-free telephone number).
The issued message is called a page. The paging system then transmits the page throughout the service area using base stations which
broadcast the page on a radio carrier.
(Base stations-

#CORDLESS TELEPHONE SYSTEM

Cordless telephones are one of those minor miracles of modern life - with a cordless phone, you can talk on the phone while moving
freely about your house or in your yard. Long before cell phones became so cheap that anyone could afford one, cordless phones gave
everyone the freedom to walk and talk within the privacy of their own homes.

They have 2 components: base and a handset

A base is attached to the phone jack. Base is connected to a wire and it receives all the incoming calls as an electrical signal and converts
it in radio signal.
A handset receives the radio signal from the base, converts it into electrical signal and sends the signal to the speaker, where it is
converted to the sound we hear.

#INTRODUCTION TO PCS

A personal communications service (PCS) is a type of wireless mobile service with advanced coverage and that delivers services
at a more personal level. It generally refers to the modern mobile communication that boosts the capabilities of conventional cellular
networks and fixed-line telephony network. It is also k/a digital cellular.PCS generally include:
-Wireless communication (data, voice and video)
-Paging and texting
-Wireless radio
-Satellite communication systems, etc
#PCS ARCHITECTURE

In radio network, each mobile station is connected to a

base station and the radio coverage of the base station is
called cell.
Each base station is controlled by a base station
controller. (Jaise agar ek area ka base station signals
weak ho toh BSC mobile station ko dusre area ke base
station ki coverage mei le aata hai)

In Wireline Transport Network, MSN (mobile switching

n/w) is connected to BS via lines.
MSN are also connected to a mobile database to track
the location of MS and BS. Once MSN knows which MS it
has to reach, it find its BS and sends signal via PSTN

#MOBILITY MANAGEMENT(MM)

It refers to the way the n/w manages the movt of the mobile subscriber / It refers to a functionality that facilitates mobile device
operation in UMTS or GSM n/w.
MM contains functions like location update, registration, authentication, identification.

-Location: when the user moves from 1 location to another the system should
know the current location to provide basic services like call and SMS.
When the system recognizes that an area code differs from previous update
it executes a location update by sending location request to its n/w

-Registration: if we are moving from one BS to another then the MSC (lets say
airtel) requires our some details to handover to the another BS.
There are 2 types of Registration: HLR and VLR
HLR: If we are moving from one BS1 to BS2 of the same network service
provider that we use then info is stored in HLR. (Hum airtel ki sim use krte hai
aur hum agar airtel ke BS1 se airtel ke BS2 gaye toh voh hmari details HLR mei
rkhta hai bcoz we are not mehmaan )
VLR : agar hum airtel ka sim use krte hai aur jio ke BS mei chle gaye toh
airtel hmari details jio ko dega and jio will save it in VLR kyuki hm mehmaan
hai)

-Handoff: It is a process which enable cell to proceed uninterrupted when

user move from cell to another (i.e., from the coverage of one BS to another)
It is of 2 type:
1) Intercell/Inter MSC (FROM MSC1 TO MSC2)/(FROM AIRTEL TO JIO) and
2) Intracell/Inter BS (SAME MSC BUT DIFF BS)
 1) Intracell or Inter BS:
When mobile unit travels from 1 BS to another BS but old and new both BS are connected to the same MSC. (going from delhi to
agra, dono jgh airtel ka tower coverage hai toh toh inter BS i.e., only BS changing)

STEPS:
i. Signals from the current BS not strong enough therefore MS momentarily suspend connection and initiate handoff procedure.
ii. When MSC received the signal it transfers the info to the idle channel in the new BS and new comm. path is set up.
iii. Now MS transferred to new BS
iv. When MSC receives handoff completion signal the connection to the current BS is terminated and resources are released.

2) Intercell or Inter MSC:

When mobile unit travel from coverage area of 1 base station to another base station, where both the base stations are
connected to different MSC.

#MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a

mobile unit in each cell communicates with a base station.
The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to
increase its capacity, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in
a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.

-For this there are several ways to allow access to the channel:
1) FDMA 2) TDMA 3) CDMA

1) FDMA:
Multiplexing Technique which allows multiple users to
share the same communication channel by dividing the
channel into multiple frequency bands. Each user is
allocated a specific frequency band, and they can
transmit and receive data using that assigned frequency.
It involves splitting channel’s available radio frequency
(RF) channel into multiple sub-channels (smaller),
dividing the frequency band into channels of equal
bandwidth so that each conversation is carried on a different frequency and assigning users to non-overlapping frequency bands.

ADVANTAGES:
A) Less complex than TDMA
B) Tight filtering through guard band to reduce interference.
C) BS and MS send and receive data simultaneously.

DISADVNATGES:
A) Cross talk may happen and cause interference.
B) Frequencies are allocated permanently and hence spectrum will be wasted when stations are not transmitting or receiving
C) Time consuming

2) TDMA (TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCES)

Multiplexing Technique which allows multiple users to share the same communication channel by dividing the signal into different
time slots and allocating unique time slots to each user however the frequency of the channel is same.

ADVANTAGES:
A) Access to full length frequency
B) No guard bands

DISADVANTAGES:
A) Sometimes, the data transfer take place before the allocated time which leads to wastage of the band
 3) CDMA (CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS)
Multiplexing Technique which allows multiple users to share the same communication channel by assigning a unique correlating
code to each user. In this every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted by separate frequency.
-Handoff is very well handled in CDMA.
- offers more space than TDMA

#FADING
-Fading is distortion of signal in simple words.
-Fading in communication refers to the variation in the strength or quality of a received signal over time due to changes in the
propagation environment.

REASONS FOR FADING:

1) Multipath Propagation: Signals can take multiple paths to reach the receiver, and when these paths have different lengths, the
signals may arrive at slightly different times, causing interference.
2) Atmospheric Conditions: Weather conditions, such as rain, fog, etc can attenuate or scatter radio waves, leading to signal
fading.
3) Shadowing: Obstacles like buildings, trees, or terrain can block or attenuate the signal, causing signal blockage in certain areas.
4) Doppler Effect: In mobile communication, the relative motion between the transmitter, receiver, and objects in between can
lead to Doppler shifts, causing frequency changes and signal fading.

#FAST FADING CHANNELS.

-Fast fading happens over a short period, such as due to rapid
movement of the mobile device. Techniques like equalization and
adaptive modulation can help combat fast fading.
-The time between the reception of the first version of the signal
and the last echoed signal is called delay spread.
-The two common models that are used for fast fading are Rayleigh
and Rice fading channel models.
 #RAYLEIGH MODEL

The Rayleigh fading model is a statistical model widely used in the analysis
and simulation of wireless communication systems, especially in scenarios
where multipath propagation is a significant factor. It provides a statistical
framework for understanding the variability in signal strength. Rayleigh
Channel is a channel which shows Rayleigh distribution of power profile.

USE: - engineers use this model to design communication systems that can
perform effectively in the presence of fading. Techniques such as diversity
reception, equalization, and error correction coding are often employed to
mitigate the impact of Rayleigh fading and improve the reliability of
wireless communications.

# DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAYLEIGH MODEL AND RICEAN MODEL

Rician fading and Rayleigh fading are both stochastic models for radio propagation that describe signal variation due to multipath
variation. Rician fading is a more general and realistic model than Rayleigh fading.

In Rayleigh fading channels, the amplitude of the received signal follows a Rayleigh distribution. There is no dominant line-of-sight
component, and signal strength varies randomly.

Rician fading includes a dominant line-of-sight path in addition to scattered paths, and the received signal amplitude follows a Rician
distribution.

Here are some differences between Rician fading and Rayleigh fading:

1)Line of sight (LoS) component

Rician fading models have a LoS component, while Rayleigh fading models do not.

2) Applicability

Rayleigh fading is most applicable when there is no dominant propagation along a line of sight between the transmitter and
receiver. Rician fading may be more applicable when there is a dominant line of sight.

#Rayleigh fading is sometimes considered a special case of Rician fading. In such a case, the Rician distribution reduces to a Rayleigh
distribution.

# BER PERFORMANCE (BIT ERROR RATE)

 Bit Error Rate (BER) is a unitless performance measure that quantifies the accuracy of data transfer. It's a measure of
the the number of bit errors divided by the total number of transferred bits during a studied time interval.
 It is often expressed as a percentage.
 Too high BER may indicate that a slower Data Rate would actually improve overall transmission time for a given
amount of transmitted data since the BER might be reduced, lowering the number of packets that had to be resent.
# DIVERSITY MODELLING FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
Diversity modeling in wireless communication refers to the use of multiple communication paths to enhance the reliability
and performance of a wireless communication system. This concept is particularly important in scenarios where the wireless
channel is subject to fading, shadowing, and other impairments that can degrade signal quality.

By leveraging diversity, communication systems :-

can mitigate the impact of these impairments and
improve overall system performance.
Inrease reliability and accuracy.

BER results are better when diversity is used.

Diversity technique is used to diminish the effect of fading on wireless communication.
Diversity exploits th random nature radio propogation by finding independent signal paths for communication.
It is mainly applied on the receiver and unknown to the transmitter.

# TYPES OF DIVERSITY

1) Spatial Diversity/Antenna Diversity:

Involves using multiple antennas at the transmitter and/or receiver. In this multiple signals from spatially separated antenna (base
station) is received on the mobile, the best signal is picked by the mobile using Diversity antenna technique.

Techniques such as Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) systems fall under spatial diversity.

2)Temporal Diversity/Time Diversity:

Multiple versions of the same signal are transmitted at different time instants. It involve retransmitting the same information
after a certain time delay, allowing the system to overcome fading and other time-varying channel conditions.
Multiple repitions of the signal will be received with multiple fading conditions and thereby providing for diversity.

3)Frequency Diversity:
Takes advantage of multiple frequency channels, i.e.,signal is transmitted using several frequency channels.
Frequency-selective fading affects different frequency components of a signal differently, so transmitting the same
information over multiple frequencies helps combat fading effects.(mtlb different channels mei different
components get affected)

3)Polarization Diversity:

uncorrelated signals in, say,

electronics or communication, don't
show a predictable relationship. They
do their own thing independently. It's
like they're not paying attention to
each other.

By having uncorrelated signals (independent fluctuations), if one polarization experiences a deep fade (signal becomes
weak), the other may still have a strong signal, and vice versa.

4)Selection Diversity:
Selects the best signal among multiple diversity branches.
Compares the received signals and chooses the one with the highest
quality.
Reciever branch having the highest instanteous SNR isused.

5)Feedback or scanning Diversity