STRUCTURE OF ROOTS

The root is the underground part of a plant that typically functions to anchor the plant in the soil
and absorb water and nutrients. It also serves as a storage organ and plays a crucial role in the
overall growth and development of the plant. The structure of a root consists of several distinct
regions, each with its specific functions.

1. Root Cap:
The root tip is covered by a protective layer called the root cap. The root cap helps in the
penetration of the root through the soil by secreting lubricating substances and protects the
delicate apical meristem, which is responsible for root growth.

2. Apical Meristem:
The apical meristem is a region of
actively dividing cells located at the tip of the
root. It gives rise to new cells that differentiate
into various tissues, allowing the root to grow
in length.
3. Region of Cell Elongation:
Located just above the apical meristem, this
region consists of cells that undergo rapid
elongation. As the cells elongate, the root
pushes further into the soil.
4. Region of Cell Maturation:
In this region, the cells differentiate into
specific types of tissues. The three primary
tissues found in the mature root are the
epidermis, cortex, and vascular tissue.
a. Epidermis:
The outermost layer of cells in the root is called the epidermis. It is responsible for
absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. The epidermis is often covered by tiny hair-like
structures called root hairs, which increase the surface area for absorption.
b. Cortex:
The cortex is the layer of cells located beneath the epidermis. It provides support to the
root and stores starch and other nutrients. The cortex also facilitates the movement of water
and nutrients from the epidermis to the vascular tissue.

c. Vascular Tissue:
The vascular tissue in the root is responsible for transporting water, nutrients, and
hormones throughout the plant. It consists of two types of conducting tissues: xylem and
 phloem. The xylem carries water and minerals upward from the roots to the rest of the plant,
while the phloem transports sugars and other organic compounds both upwards and
downwards.

MODIFIED ROOTS
Apart from the typical root structure described above, plants have evolved modified roots
to fulfill specialized functions. Here are some examples of modified roots:

1. Food Storage Roots:

Food storage roots are specialized roots that have evolved to store carbohydrates and other
nutrients in the form of starch, sugars, and proteins. These roots serve as a reservoir of
energy and nutrients, allowing plants to survive during periods of dormancy, adverse
conditions, or to support growth and reproduction.

• Structure and Adaptations:

o Enlarged Size: Food storage roots are typically swollen or enlarged compared
to regular roots. The enlargement is a result of the accumulation of storage
tissues, which can vary in shape and size depending on the plant species
o Parenchyma Cells: The storage tissues within these roots are composed of
parenchyma cells. These cells have large vacuoles that can store starch, sugars,
and other nutrients.
o Reduced or Absent Root Hairs: Since food storage roots primarily serve for
nutrient storage rather than nutrient absorption, they often have reduced or no
root hairs.
• Nutrient Storage:
o Carbohydrates and Sugars: Food storage roots primarily store carbohydrates,
such as starch and sugars. These energy-rich compounds are synthesized during
the plant's active growth phase and stored in the roots for future use.
o Proteins and Nutrients: In addition to carbohydrates, food storage roots can
also store proteins and other nutrients, including minerals and vitamins. These
stored nutrients provide a source of energy and building blocks for growth,
flowering, and fruit production.

• Survival and Growth:

o Dormancy Support: Food storage roots play a vital role in supporting
plants during periods of dormancy or unfavorable conditions. During
dormancy, when above-ground growth slows down or ceases, plants rely on
the stored energy in the roots to sustain essential metabolic processes.
o Growth Resumption: When favorable conditions return, plants can utilize
the stored energy in food storage roots to initiate new growth, develop
shoots, and produce leaves.

• Examples of Plants with Food Storage Roots:

o Tubers: Potatoes are a well-known example of tuberous food storage
roots. The underground tubers store starch, which provides a source of
energy for sprouting and plant growth.
o Taproots: Plants like carrots, parsnips, and beets have taproots that
store sugars and starches. These roots can be elongated and fleshy,
providing a nutrient reserve for the plant.
o Rhizomes: Ginger and turmeric plants have rhizomes, which are
horizontal, underground stems that store starches and other nutrients.

2. Water Storage Roots:

o Water storage roots, as the name suggests,
are modified roots that have evolved to store
water in specialized tissues. These roots are
typically found in plants growing in arid and
semi-arid environments where water
availability is limited.
• Structure and Adaptations:
o Enlarged Size: Water storage roots are often swollen or tuberous, with a significant
increase in size compared to regular roots. The enlargement is due to the
accumulation of water-storing tissues.
o Parenchyma Cells: The storage tissues within these roots are composed of
parenchyma cells that have the ability to absorb and retain large amounts of water.
o Reduced or Absent Root Hairs: Water storage roots may have reduced or no root
hairs since their primary function is water storage rather than absorption from the
soil.

• Water Absorption and Storage:

o Water Uptake: Water storage roots still have the capacity to absorb water from the
surrounding soil when available. They possess a network of fine roots and surface
extensions to maximize water absorption during periods of rainfall or irrigation.
o Water Storage Tissues: The parenchyma cells within water storage roots have
large vacuoles that can store significant amounts of water. These cells can expand
and contract based on water availability, allowing the plant to utilize stored water
during periods of drought or water scarcity.

• Drought Resistance:
o Reduced Transpiration: Water storage roots help plants conserve water by
minimizing transpiration. The swollen tissues act as a reservoir, reducing the
overall surface area available for water loss through transpiration.
o Succulence: The water-storing tissues of these roots often contain high
concentrations of organic compounds, such as sugars and starches. These
compounds help maintain cellular integrity and provide energy during periods of
water scarcity.

• Examples of Plants with Water Storage Roots:

o Succulents: Plants like cacti, agaves, and aloes are well-known examples of
succulents that have specialized water storage roots. Their roots are adapted to store
water efficiently in arid environments, allowing them to survive extended periods
of drought.
o Xerophytes: Various xerophytic plants, such as desert shrubs and succulent
perennials, have evolved water storage roots to cope with limited water availability
in hot and dry regions.
3. Propagative Roots:
Some plants can reproduce asexually through modified roots. These roots develop
into new plants when they come into contact with the soil.. Unlike regular roots that
primarily serve anchorage and nutrient absorption functions, propagative roots give
rise to new individuals, allowing plants to expand their population and colonize
new areas.

• Structure and Adaptations:

- Adventitious Root Formation: Propagative roots typically develop from
non-root tissues, such as stems, leaves, or other parts of the plant. These
roots emerge adventitiously, meaning they arise from locations other than
the primary root system.
- Increased Meristematic Activity: The cells in propagative roots often have
high meristematic activity, allowing for rapid cell division and growth,
facilitating the formation of new plantlets.
- Enhanced Nutrient Storage: Propagative roots may possess increased
nutrient storage capacity to provide resources for the development of new
plants until they establish their independent root systems.

• Asexual Reproduction:
- Vegetative Propagation: Propagative roots enable vegetative
propagation, a form of asexual reproduction, where new plants are
produced from the parent plant without the involvement of seeds or sexual
reproduction.
- Clonal Reproduction: Propagative roots allow plants to produce
genetically identical offspring, resulting in clonal populations with
identical genetic traits to the parent plant.

• Methods of Propagation:
- Suckers: Some plants, such as banana trees and raspberries, produce
suckers or basal shoots from underground propagative roots. These
 suckers grow into new plants that are genetically identical to the parent
plant.
- Rhizomes: Plants like bamboo and ginger have rhizomes, which are
underground stems that can produce adventitious roots and buds. These
buds develop into new shoots and eventually independent plants.
- Runners: Plants such as spider plants and some ferns produce long,
slender stems called runners that run along the soil surface. Adventitious
roots develop at nodes on these runners, allowing the formation of new
plants.

4. Pneumatophores:
Pneumatophores, also known as aerial roots or breathing roots, are specialized roots
that emerge from the submerged or waterlogged parts of plants, primarily in
swampy or marshy environments. These unique roots have adaptations that enable
efficient gas exchange between the underground plant tissues and the atmosphere.

• Structure and Adaptations:

- Vertical Orientation: Pneumatophores grow vertically above the water
or soil surface, allowing them to extend into the air. They typically emerge
from the submerged parts of the plant, such as the roots or rhizomes, and
project upward to reach the atmosphere.
- Lenticels: Pneumatophores have specialized structures called lenticels.
Lenticels are small openings or pores on the surface of the roots that
facilitate the exchange of gases, including oxygen and carbon dioxide,
between the root tissues and the surrounding air.
- Aerenchyma Tissue: Pneumatophores often contain aerenchyma tissue,
which is a spongy tissue with large air spaces. Aerenchyma helps to
transport gases within the roots, facilitating the movement of oxygen from
the atmosphere to the submerged parts of the plant.

• Gas Exchange:
- Oxygen Uptake: Pneumatophores enable the uptake of oxygen from the
air. Oxygen is essential for the respiration of root cells, as the submerged
or waterlogged conditions limit the availability of oxygen in the soil. The
vertical orientation and lenticels of pneumatophores allow direct access
to atmospheric oxygen, ensuring sufficient oxygen supply to the roots.
- Carbon Dioxide Release: Pneumatophores also facilitate the release of
carbon dioxide produced during root respiration. The lenticels allow
carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the root tissues and into the atmosphere,
preventing its accumulation, which can hinder metabolic processes.
 • Adaptation to Waterlogged Environments:
- Aerating Roots: Pneumatophores serve as a means for plants to aerate
their submerged root systems. In waterlogged or swampy environments,
the lack of oxygen in the soil can be detrimental to plant survival.
Pneumatophores help plants overcome this challenge by facilitating
oxygen uptake, maintaining root respiration, and preventing oxygen
deprivation.
- Stabilization: In addition to their role in gas exchange, pneumatophores
can also provide additional stability to plants in waterlogged soils. The
vertically oriented roots anchor the plant and provide structural support,
especially in soft or unstable substrates.

• Examples of Plants with Pneumatophores:

- Mangroves: Mangrove trees are well-known for their pneumatophores.
These trees grow in saline or brackish water habitats and have specialized
roots, including pneumatophores that enable them to thrive in anaerobic
soil conditions.
- Cypress Trees: Some species of cypress trees, such as the bald cypress
also develop pneumatophores to cope with waterlogged environments.

5. Buttress Roots:
Buttress roots are large, above-ground roots commonly found in tall trees
growing in shallow or nutrient-deficient soils. These roots provide stability and
support to the tree by spreading outwards near the base. Buttress roots are large,
wide and above-ground roots that radiate from the base of certain trees, providing
additional stability and support to the trunk. These roots are commonly found in
trees growing in tropical rainforests, where the soil is often shallow and nutrient-
poor, and the rainfall is abundant
• Structure and Adaptations:
- Wide and Flared Shape: Buttress roots are characterized by their broad
and flared shape that extends outwards from the base of the tree trunk.
They often appear as large, plank-like structures that can extend
horizontally for several meters.
- Surface Extensions: Buttress roots have surface extensions and ridges
that increase the contact area with the soil, providing additional support
and anchorage.
- Sturdiness and Strength: Buttress roots are reinforced with strong and
dense tissues, including thickened bark and wood, to withstand the forces
exerted by the tall tree and the surrounding environment.

• Stability and Support:

- Anchorage: The primary function of buttress roots is to anchor the tree
firmly in the ground, especially in environments with shallow or unstable
soil. The wide spread and deep penetration of these roots increase the
stability of the tree, preventing it from toppling over during strong winds
or storms.
- Counteracting Uplift Forces: Buttress roots help counteract the uplifting
forces that act on tall trees. The large surface area and the deep penetration
of the roots provide resistance against the upward forces generated by the
tree canopy and wind pressure.

• Nutrient Acquisition:
- Soil Exploration: Buttress roots can also aid in nutrient acquisition. Their
extensive surface area allows the tree to explore a larger volume of soil
and access nutrients that may be present in shallow soil layers.
- Adventitious Root Formation: Buttress roots have the ability to produce
adventitious roots along their surfaces. These additional roots enhance
nutrient uptake and provide supplementary support to the tree.

• Examples of Trees with Buttress Roots:

- Fig Trees: Many species of fig trees, such as the banyan treare known for
their prominent buttress roots. These roots provide stability to the large
canopy of the tree.
- Dipterocarp Trees: Several species of dipterocarp trees, which are
common in tropical rainforests, possess buttress roots. These roots help
support the massive trunks and allow the trees to grow tall in nutrient-
poor soils.
 6. Contractile Roots:
Some plants have contractile roots that pull the
stem or bulb deeper into the soil as they
contract. This mechanism helps plants to
anchor themselves Contractile roots, also
known as pull-down roots, are specialized roots
that have the ability to contract or shorten in
length. These roots are primarily found in
certain bulbous and cormous plants, and their
main function is to pull the plant deeper into
the soil.

• Structure and Adaptations:

- Contraction Ability: The most distinctive feature of contractile roots is
their ability to contract or shorten in length. As the plant grows, these roots
actively pull the base of the stem or bulb deeper into the soil, causing the
plant to be positioned at an optimal depth.
- Enlarged and Swollen Appearance: Contractile roots often appear
enlarged, swollen, or bulbous. This is due to the accumulation of
specialized tissues that contract and exert force to pull the plant
downwards.
- Strong Tissues: Contractile roots are composed of strong and specialized
tissues, such as sclerenchyma cells, which provide mechanical strength
and support for the contracting process.

• Soil Adaptation and Stability:

- Optimal Soil Depth: Contractile roots ensure that the plant is positioned
at an ideal depth in the soil. This adaptation allows the plant to maintain
a stable position and avoid exposure to unfavorable environmental
conditions, such as extreme temperatures or drought.
- Protection from External Stress: By pulling the plant deeper into the
soil, contractile roots protect the plant from external stressors, including
wind, erosion, and physical disturbances. This anchoring mechanism
enhances the plant's stability and survival.

• Protection of Underground Structures:

- Protection of Storage Organs: Contractile roots play a crucial role in
protecting underground storage organs, such as bulbs or corms, from
 damage or desiccation. By pulling these organs deeper into the soil, the
roots shield them from potential threats and ensure their proper
functioning.
- Protection during Dormancy: For plants with bulbs or corms,
contractile roots assist in burying the storage organs deeper into the soil
during the dormant phase. This protects them from freezing temperatures
or desiccation, providing a safe and suitable environment for the plant's
dormancy.

• Examples of Plants with Contractile Roots:

- Tulips: Tulips are a well-known example of plants with contractile roots.
The contractile roots of tulips actively pull the bulb deeper into the soil,
ensuring its stability and protection during different stages of growth.
- Gladiolus: Gladiolus plants have contractile roots that assist in pulling
the corm deeper into the soil, protecting it and ensuring proper
development and emergence of new shoots.

.
7. Parasitic Roots:
Parasitic plants have modified roots
called haustoria that penetrate the tissues
of host plants. These roots establish a
connection with the host's vascular
system to extract nutrients and water,
often at the expense of the host plant's
resources.
Examples
mistletoe and dodder.

8. Aerial roots
They are commonly found in various plant species and serve different functions depending on
the plant's habitat and requirements.
• Support and Anchorage: One of the primary functions of aerial roots is to provide
additional support and anchorage to the plant. In some species, such as epiphytic orchids
and bromeliads, aerial roots grow from the stem or branches and extend into the air. These
roots wrap around tree trunks or other structures, helping the plant to cling and remain in
an elevated position.

• Absorption of Water and Nutrients: Aerial roots have the ability to absorb moisture and
nutrients directly from the air. They often have specialized structures such as velamen or
spongy tissues that aid in this process. Velamen is a unique, spongy, and water-absorbing
tissue found in the outer layer of certain aerial roots. It helps in absorbing and retaining
moisture from the surrounding environment, especially in epiphytic plants that grow on
tree branches or rocks.

• Photosynthesis: Some aerial roots have chlorophyll-containing cells, allowing them to

perform photosynthesis. These roots produce energy-rich compounds by converting
sunlight into usable energy. This ability to photosynthesize helps in supplementing the
plant's nutritional needs, especially in epiphytes that may have limited access to soil
nutrients.

These modified roots demonstrate the adaptability of plants to different environmental

conditions and their ability to fulfill specific requirements for survival and growth.

Conclusion
root, in botany, that part of a vascular plant normally underground. Its primary functions
are anchorage of the plant, absorption of water and dissolved minerals and conduction of
these to the stem, and storage of reserve foods. The root differs from the stem mainly by
lacking leaf scars and buds, having a root cap, and having branches that originate from
internal tissue rather than from buds.
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4. ^ Daley, Jason (August 10, 2018). "The Corn of the Future Is Hundreds of Years Old and Makes Its Own
Mucus". Smithsonian Magazine. ISSN 0037-7333.
5. ^ Sheeran, Laura; Rasmussen, Amanda (14 February 2023). "Aerial roots elevate indoor plant health:
Physiological and morphological responses of three high-humidity adapted Araceae species to indoor
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