Downloaded from www.clastify.

com by Dhruv Manral

1

Introduction
Vegetable oils or cooking oils are important in human nutrition as they aid in the provision of essential
fatty acids, supply energy and carry out absorption of dissolvable fat vitamins. Being a vegetarian, ensuring
appropriate quality of oils is even more critical as I have limited options for healthy fats to choose from.
According to Cleveland Clinic, the human body requires approximately 15 to 20% of Monounsaturated fat, 5
to 10% of Polyunsaturated fat, less than 10% saturated fat, and 0% of trans fat. Unsaturated fats have many
benefits, such as reducing the risk of heart disease, diminishing cholesterol levels, reducing inflammation,
etc., and are essential part of a healthy diet.
Repeated heating and reusing oils for cooking or ‘frying’ foods is a common practice in Asian
cultures. Since oil deteriorates during frying, it can lead to loss in vital unsaturated fats and gain in unhealthy
fats such as saturated and trans fats. In this project, I aim to understand the impact of repeated heating on
unsaturated fat content, as this affects the nutrition requirement of vegetarians like me who have limited
choice for healthy fats. Evidence based understanding will help me and fellow vegetarians to change
long-held cooking habits of repeated heating of oil and maximize the health benefits by consuming the most
unsaturated fat with minimum possible repeated heating. Since the data of variation of unsaturation with

om
repeated heatings is not available in the secondary sources, I decided to design and conduct an experiment
utilizing Wij’s method.

l.c
Extra virgin olive oil is utilized in this exploration, which is not processed or refined; it is made of

ai
organic, cold-pressed ingredients without any added chemicals. Typical fat content in this oil is 73% of
gm
monounsaturated, 11% polyunsaturated and 14% saturated (healthline.com). Since the total unsaturated fat
3@

content is high at 84%, Olive Oil offers the possibility to observe a wide range of variation in saturation with
repeated heating. The controlled variable is temperature; all the trials will be heated to the same temperature
l1

at around 177oC, for two reasons. (1) The most common temperature for frying (healthhub.sg) is 177 to
ra

232oC. (2) The value of controlled temperature also takes the smoke point of the oil into consideration. The
an

smoke point of an oil is the temperature where the oil starts to smoke up, generating toxic and harmful
m

fumes, signifying the decomposition and deterioration of the oil’s quality (business2community.com). Smoke
vs

point of Olive oil is in the range of 190-207oC (healthline.com). Hence, heating to 177oC ensures that the
ru

experiment is well within the smoke point thus not degrading the oil due to overheating.
dh

Methodology used in this project can be utilized for other vegetable oils as well to understand the
y

relative degradation in their unsaturated fats due to repeated heating. Insights gained through this project will
tif

impact the cooking habits and will influence the nutrition levels, particularly for vegetarians like me, who
as

have limited choices for unsaturated fat.

Cl

Research Question
“How does the repeated heating of cooking oils impact the unsaturated fat content of a cooking oil
(extra virgin olive oil), as measured by using the Iodine number?”

Scientific Background Knowledge

A. Types of Oils
Triglycerides are the main components in natural oils
(Sciencedirect.com). Triglycerides comprise three fatty acids,
which are long chain hydrocarbons with carboxylic groups
(COOH). These fatty acids in oils can be categorized into
saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids
depending on the number of double bonds which are present in
the fatty acid. Saturated fatty acids tend to contain solely single
bonds between the carbon atoms. In other words, they have the
maximum number of hydrogens bonded with the carbon atoms.
Monounsaturated fats are a type of unsaturated fats which tend to contain double bonds between the central
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
2
carbon atoms in addition to the already present single bonds in the fatty acid chain. Polyunsaturated fatty
acids are also another type of unsaturated fats which have more than one double bond in the backbone. Trans
fats are not covered in this as they are not naturally occurring fats and are due to industrial processes.
B. Iodine Number
The Iodine number of an oil explains the amount of unsaturation. It is equal to the amount of Iodine
absorbed by 100g of fat. Saturated fatty acid oils have low Iodine values and unsaturated fatty acid oils have
high Iodine values. Iodine number for Olive oil at room temperature is 80 (britannica.com). Iodine number
indicates the reactivity of Iodine with the double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids (mantech-inc.com). Finding
Iodine number involves Four scientific concepts: (B1) Electrophilic addition with Iodine Monochloride (ICl)
to saturate the fat with halogen, (B2) Separate unreacted ICl using Potassium Iodide, (B3) Titrate released
Iodine with Thiosulphate and (B4) indirectly determine the concentration of reacted Iodine using equivalent
moles.
B1. Electrophilic Addition with ICL
An electrophilic addition is a reaction when an
electrophile is added to a nucleophile. An electrophile is an
electron-deficient species. It is positively charged or partially

om
positively (+δ) charged molecule, with a tendency to accept

l.c
electron pairs from a Nucleophile. Nucleophile is an
electron-rich species that forms covalent bonds by donating

ai
electrons to electrophiles. In this reaction, the π bond of a gm
nucleophile containing a double or triple bond is broken and
3@

two new σ bonds are formed in place of the original bonds.

l1

Alkenes in the oil act as nucleophiles because they contain the electron rich C=C double bond, with π
ra

electrons being easily accessible to approaching reactants, like ICL. This is due to the open structure of the
an

sp2 hybridized carbon atoms of the double bond in alkenes. These π electrons in the nucleophile act as a
m

source of electrons for the electrophiles. In the interhalogen molecule, ICl, Chlorine is more electronegative
vs

than Iodine, resulting in a dipole moment in ICl. Iodine has a partial positive charge and is the electrophile.
ru

It reacts with one of the carbons in the alkene having rich π electrons.
dh
y
tif
as
Cl

Figure 3: Electrophilic addition of Iodine Monochloride to Alkene

Once the partially positive electrophile, which is Iodine in ICL, bonds with one of the carbons, the
other carbon in the alkene will have only six electrons in their valence shell making it electron deficient
resulting in carbocation. Chlorine, which has a partial negative charge, will now react with the carbocation.
they are unstable electrophiles and will react very quickly with nucleophiles, which is Cl- in ICl, to form a
new bond. Chlorine has a partial negative charge and will react with the carbocation. This is also be called
carbocation.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
3
During the electrophilic reaction, the π bond is broken and two new σ bonds are formed in place of
the original bonds in the alkene. Once this process is completed, the focus is to determine the amount of
Iodine that has reacted with the carbon in the oil, providing the unsaturated fat content. Each Iodine atom
reacts per double bond, thus the higher the number the double bonds the higher the Iodine number.
In the electrophilic addition, excess ICl is used in comparison with the Fat. Once the reaction is
complete, there will be unreacted ICL in the mixture.

B2. Separate Iodine from unreacted ICL using Potassium Iodide

Once the Electrophilic Addition concludes, the Iodine in the unreacted ICl in the mixture is liberated
by adding potassium iodide solution. By this method, the excess Iodine monochloride will result in I2
ICl + KI → KCl + I2
B3. Titrate the released Iodine with Sodium Thiosulphate
This I2 will be titrated with 0.1M Sodium Thiosulfate till neutralization. This helps to identify the
amount of Iodine released using the molar equivalence.

om
I2 + 2 Na2S2O3 → 2 NaI + Na2S2O4
B4. Indirectly determine the concentration of reacted Iodine

l.c
ai
Iodine can be calculated using the formula below (vlab.amrita.edu):
gm
(𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 − 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑙) × 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑜 × 12.69

(dot.state.tx.us)
3@
𝐼. 𝑉. = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
l1

𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 = Volume (cm3) of Sodium Thiosulfate used to reach neutralization with no oil sample. Since there is
ra

Iodine absorption here, all the Iodine will be unreacted with oil. Hence maximum amount of Sodium
an

Thiosulfate will be used here. This will act as a reference point to calculate Iodine value of oil.
m

𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑙 = Volume (cm3) of Sodium Thiosulfate used to reach neutralization with oil sample.
vs
ru

The difference between 𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 and 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑙 indicates the equivalent moles of Iodine used in the Electrophilic
dh

addition.
y
tif

[Thio Na2S2O3] is the concentration of the sodium thiosulfate (calculated in mol/dm3)

as

And 12.69 is the molar mass of Iodine divided by 10. This is because:
Cl

The Iodine value must be multiplied by 100 to get the value for 100 grams of oil (which was the definition of
Iodine value) and must be divided by 1000 to convert the volume of sodium thiosulfate from cm3 to dm3.

Hypothesis
It is hypothesized that when oil is reheated repeatedly, there is a decrease in the oil’s unsaturated fat
content due to oxidation, hydrolysis, hydrogenation, and polymerization. Oxidation occurs when a cooking
oil is exposed to the atmosphere’s oxygen (aboutoliveoil.com) while heating. This is due to the breakdown
and degradation of fat-soluble vitamins and polyunsaturated acids (btsa.com). This may also be followed by
other differences such as changes in the appearance of the oil, harmful effects in terms of the nutritional
value, altering the fatty acid composition of the oil, etc. (intechopen.com). Hydrolysis happens when water
reacts with oil during cooking, resulting in formation of glycerol and fatty acids. This reduces unsaturated
content and makes oil unhealthy (ncbi.com). Hydrogenation is a chemical process that adds hydrogen to the
unsaturated bonds on the fatty acid chains attached to the ​Triacylglycerols (TAGs) backbone. In this way, an
unsaturated fat can be turned into a saturated fat and trans-fat (healthline.com) and increase its melting point.
These hydrogenated oils affect heart health and blood sugar control. Once fatty acids are formed, further
oxidation due to heating results in polymerization leading to formation of gel-like species in vegetable oils
(JAOCS.com).
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
4

Variables
Table 1. Independent Variable: The number of times the oils are reheated
Why is it important to vary How is the independent variable changed

Studying Iodine number at various repeated I will take five samples from the same oil container and
heating will help to understand the impact on will reheat each sample by different times.
the saturation of olive oil. It is hypothesized 1. Oil sample 1: fresh oil reheated 0 times
that reheated oil can lead to a loss in vital 2. Oil sample 2: reheated 1 time
unsaturated fats and gain in saturated fats. It 3. Oil sample 3: reheated 2 times
can affect me especially, as I have limited food
4. Oil sample 4: reheated 3 times
options to choose from which act as a good
unsaturated fat source. 5. Oil sample 5: reheated 4 times
3 trials will be conducted with each oil sample that will
be reheated a certain number of times.

Table 2. Dependent Variable: Iodine number

How does it varies? How is the dependent variable calculated

om
The Iodine value refers to the degree of unsaturation of a Iodine number will be indirectly calculated
substance, in this case an oil. It is the number of grams of based on the formula using the titration values

l.c
Iodine which are absorbed by 100g of fat. As the oil is of Sodium Thiosulfate and the mass of oil,

ai
repeatedly heated, the extent of unsaturated fat comes using molar equivalence principle.
down, leading to reduction in consumption of Iodine. gm
Thus, the changing Iodine number indicates the change in
3@

the unsaturation of the oil.

l1
ra

Table 3. Controlled Variables

an

Variable How it is controlled Why is it important to control

m

Amount of Fixed quantity of 1 ml of starch Starch indicator solution changes to a dark blue
vs

starch indicator solution will be in colour in the presence of Iodine. It changes to white
ru

indicator every trial, using a pipette. colour at the endpoint of titration with Sodium
dh

solution Thiosulfate. If same quantity of Starch is not used, it

added would change the pH of the solution and affect the
y
tif

accuracy of data collected.

as

Temperature All the trials will be heated over To simulate real cooking conditions, all of the trials
Cl

at which the a hot plate to the same
oil is reheated temperature at around 177oC.
The temperature will be actively
tracked and monitored using a
digital thermometer.
will be heated to the same temperature at 177oC to
ensure that there is no variability of unsaturated
content due to excess heating in any of the samples.

Concentration Sodium Thiosulphate Solution All the chemicals are in solid natural state (in the
of the and Potassium Iodide Solution school laboratory). For this experiment, they must be
solutions created in the lab is thoroughly converted into liquid form of required concentrations
being used in stirred before each trial to ensure and used in every trial. If concentration changes
every trial no change in concentration. between trials, the results would not be comparable.

Amount of The amount of Chloroform used
ICL and will be 10cm3 whereas the
Chloroform amount of ICL used will be
used 20cm3 (±0.1). These values will
be consistent throughout the
experiment, while drawing with a
pipette from their respective
containers from the school’s
Chloroform is important as it is used as a solvent for
dissolving the oil. Adding too much or too less can
affect the results obtained from the experiment,
straying away from the main aim of the exploration.
(dhss.delaware.gov). In terms of the ICL, it is
imperative that the amount of Iodine that is reacted
with the oil is the same throughout, so that the
unsaturated fat value calculated in the end in the form
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
5

Chemistry laboratory of the Iodine number is solely dependent on the

chemical changes in oil and not due to the changes in
halogen content reacted with the oil.

Type of Oil All the sample of Extra Virgin If oil is used from different containers, the
Olive oil used in the experiment unsaturation levels may be affected by storage
will be drawn from the same conditions and the results may not be comparable.
source container.

Apparatus List (Table 4. Chemicals and equipment used in the experiment)

Chemicals Equipment

1. Iodine Monochloride(l) (500 ml) 7. 2×Conical flask 12. 2 ×Graduated Cyl. 100ml(±0.1cm)
2. Potassium Iodide(s) (30g) (250ml)
13. 4×Volumetric flask (100ml±0.1cm3)
3. Chloroform(l) (200 ml) 8. 1×Hot plate
14. 1×Burette (±0.05 cm3)
4. Sodium Thiosulfate(s) (30g) 9. 2×Beaker(250ml)
15. 1×Glass pipette (10ml ±0.05 cm3)
10. 1×Retort stand

om
5. Starch soluble(s) (2g) 16. 1×Digital Scale (±0.01 g)
6. Extra Virgin Olive Oil (l)(20g) 11. 1×Clamp

l.c
17. 1×Digital thermometer(±0.01oC)

ai
gm
Safety & Hazards (pubchem.com) Table 5. Safety & hazards in relation to the chemicals used
3@

Chemical Hazard Remedy

l1

Sodium Health: This chemical causes serious eye, skin, If exposed, rest and breathe in fresh air.
ra

Thiosulfa and respiratory irritation. Exposure to this Be sure to rinse the affected area with a
an

te chemical without proper protective equipment is lot of water for several minutes.
dangerous and not advised.
m

Small quantities up to 100 parts per

vs

Environmental: Excess Sodium Thiosulfate in million are not harmful to fish. The
ru

water could depress pH and dissolved oxygen amount used in the experiment is very
dh

causing mortality of fish (springer.com) small.

y

Iodine Health: This chemical causes severe skin burns If exposed, immediately flush the
tif

mono and eye damage as it is skin corrosive. If affected area such as skin or eyes with
as

chloride swallowed, it can be fatal as it is toxic. May also running water for at least 20 minutes.
Cl

cause allergy or asthma symptoms or breathing

difficulties if inhaled.

Environmental: Excess Iodine can be harmful to Advisable to dilute with water and
marine life, if directly disposed into waterbodies dispose into sink. Besides, the amount
(howtodispose.info) used in the experiment is very small.

Chlorofor Health: This chemical is acutely toxic and is It is advisable to supply air respiratory
m harmful if swallowed. It may also cause serious protective equipment. It is recommended
skin corrosion and/or serious eye damage, along to move the affected individual to fresh
with following symptoms of headache, fatigue, air and evaluate vital signs such as the
and dizziness. As it is toxic, it is dangerous if pulse and rate of respiration.
inhaled, and is suspected of causing cancer. It
may cause damage to organs of the experimenter
if exposed to the chemical for prolonged
durations.

Health: Sunlight's ultraviolet radiation causes Experiment to be conducted in such a

chloroform and oxygen in the atmosphere to place which is well ventilated and
slowly react, generating the gas phosgene. This without exposure to sunlight.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
6

gas is more poisonous than chloroform and is

especially harmful if it gathers and gets
concentrated in a confined place (owlcation.com).

Environmental: When exposed to air, Chloroform

evaporates easily. It dissolves in water easily.
Chloroform also dissolves easily in water but does
not stick to the soil very well. It can travel
through soil to reach groundwater and enter a
water supply
Chloroform waste should not be
disposed through a sink, by pouring on
the soil, into a sewer, or into a septic
system.

To solve these ethical and environmental problems, the potentially fatal chemicals were disposed of safely in
the waste bin which is professionally collected and dealt with by a specialized disposal company.
Methodology
This experiment will be conducted by following the procedure below, which is taken from amrita.edu
I: Preparation of reagents

om
1) To prepare 0.1M sodium thiosulfate solution, add 2.48g of sodium thiosulfate to 100ml of distilled
water.

l.c
2) To prepare 10% of potassium iodide solution, add 10g of potassium iodide to 100ml of distilled water.

ai
3) gm
To prepare 1% starch indicator solution, add 0.5g of starch soluble to 50ml of distilled water when
heated slightly to facilitate mixing.
3@

4) Make sure to stir the solution to avoid coagulation.

l1
ra

II: Experiment
an
m

5) Pipette out 10ml of fat sample dissolved in chloroform to an iodination flask labeled as “TEST".
vs

6) Add 20ml of Iodine Monochloride reagent into the flask.

ru

7) Then the flask is allowed to stand for a half an hour incubation in the dark.
dh

8) Set up a BLANK in another iodination flask by adding 10ml Chloroform to the flask.
y
tif

9) Add 20ml of Iodine Monochloride reagent to the BLANK

as

10) Incubate the BLANK in the dark for 30 minutes.

Cl

11) Meanwhile, take out the TEST from incubation after 30 minutes and add 10 ml of potassium iodide
solution into the flask.
12) Rinse the stopper and the sides of the flask using 50 ml distilled water.
13) Titrate the “TEST” against standardized sodium thiosulphate solution until a pale straw colour is
observed.
14) Add about 1ml starch indicator into the contents in the flask, a purple colour is observed.
15) Continue the titration until the color of the solution in the flask turns colourless.
16) The disappearance of the blue colour is recorded as the end point of the titration.
17) Similarly, the procedure is repeated for the flask labeled ‘Blank'
18) Record the endpoint values of the BLANK.
Data Collection
A. Qualitative Data (observations) Table 6. Table displaying all qualitative data

Before During After

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
7

● At the start of the ● After adding the Iodine reactant into the oil, the ● Immediately after
experiment, all the colour changed to dark brown (due to Iodine) reaching the endpoint,
reagents are clear the solution is cloudy
● After adding KI and incubating the flask, the
or colourless. white.
colour changes to dark orange when stirred
● There is a pungent and
● Upon titration with Sodium Thiosulfate, colour
strong chlorine- like
changes to straw yellow
odor emanating from the
● When the starch indicator is added to the analyte, flask after reaching the
the solution’s colour changes to black. endpoint.
● After further titration, the solution gradually
changes colour from a darker to a lighter shade of
purple This indicates that the end point is almost
nearing.

B. Quantitative Data

om
In each trial, throughout the experiment:

l.c
o Volume of Iodine Monochloride used / ± 0.10 cm3 = 20.00 cm3

ai
o Chloroform used / ± 0.50 cm3 = 10.00 cm3
Experimental Data:
gm
3@

Trial 1 Blank (No oil) New oil Reheat #1 Reheat #2 Reheat #3 Reheat #4
l1

Mass of oil ±0.01g - 0.21 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.19

ra
an

(Na2S2O3) Vol. used

23.10 11.80 15.50 18.25 19.60 19.85
m

to titrate / ±0.10 cm3

vs
ru

Trial 2 Blank (No oil) New oil Reheat #1 Reheat #2 Reheat #3 Reheat #4
dh

Mass of oil ±0.01g - 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.21

y
tif

(Na2S2O3) Vol. used

23.10 15.20 13.80 17.65 18.20 18.70
as

to titrate / ±0.10 cm3

Cl

Trial 3 Blank (No oil) New oil Reheat #1 Reheat #2 Reheat #3 Reheat #4

Mass of oil ±0.01g - 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.20

(Na2S2O3) Vol. used

23.10 12.40 14.90 18.55 18.30 19.50
to titrate / ±0.10 cm3
Table 7. Table displaying all quantitative data
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
8

Data Processing Table 8. Processed data table with illustrative calculations for three trials of new oil. These
will be repeated for the remaining reheated oils and shown in Table 9.

Step 1:
Calculating the Concentration of sodium thiosulfate Calculating the Uncertainty of Na2S2O3
used (Volume of water is 100 cm3) concentration
𝑚 2.48 ±𝑚 ±0.01
𝑛= 𝑀
= 158.12
= 0. 01568429041 = 0. 0157 𝑚𝑜 ∆𝑛 = 𝑀
= 158.12
= ± 0. 0000632 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛 0.0157
𝑐= 𝑣
= 100 = 0. 1568429041 = 0. 157 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑚
∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 ∆𝑛 ∆ 𝑣𝑜𝑙
1000
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
= 𝑛 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙
∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 0.0000632 0.1
0.157
= 0.0157 + 100.0
∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
0.157
= 0. 005025477707
∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 = 0. 000789
∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 = 0. 001

Result of Step 1: Concentration of 𝑁𝑎2𝑆2𝑂3= 0.157 ± 0.001 mol/dm3

Step 2:

om
Calculating the Iodine Value (New Oil of Trial 1) Calculating the Uncertainty of Iodine Value (New

l.c
Oil of Trial 1)

ai
gm
Uncertainty of Iodine number =
(𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 − 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑙) × 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑜 × 12.69 ∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = ∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 + ∆𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑖𝑙
3@

𝐼. 𝑉. = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0. 1 + 0. 1 = 0. 2
l1

(23.10−11.80)×0.157×12.69
ra

= 0.21
∆ 𝐼𝑉
=
∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙
+
∆ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
+
∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝐼𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
an

= 107. 2063285714 = 110

∆ 𝐼𝑉 0.2 0.01 0.001
= + +
m

107.21 11.30 0.21 0.157

vs

∆ 𝐼𝑉
= ± 0. 071688 × Iodine Val.
ru

107.21
dh

∆ IV = ± 7.685363
∆ IV = ± 8
y
tif

Result Step 2: Iodine value of New Oil of Trial 1 = 110 ± 8

as

Step 3:
Cl

Calculating the Iodine Value (New oil of Trial 2) Calculating the Uncertainty of Iodine Value (New
oil of Trial 2)

(𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 − 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑙) × 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑜 × 12.69 Uncertainty of Iodine number =

𝐼. 𝑉. = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∆𝐼𝑉 ∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 ∆𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝐼𝑉
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙
+ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
+ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
(23.10−15.50)×0.157×12.69
= 0.20 ∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = ∆𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 + ∆𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑖𝑙
= 75. 70854 = 76 = 0. 1 + 0. 1 = 0. 2
Vol = Vblank – Voil = 23.10-15.50 = 7.60

∆𝐼𝑉 0.20 0.01 0.001

75.71
= 7.60
+ 0.20
+ 0.157
∆ 𝐼𝑉
75.71
= 0. 08268521623 × Iodine Val.

∆ IV = ± 6.2599770004
∆ IV = ± 6
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
9
Result of Step 3: Iodine value of new oil of Trial 2 = 76 ± 6

Step 4:
Calculating the Iodine Value (New Oil of Trial 3) Calculating the Iodine Value (New Oil of Trial 3)

(𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 − 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑙) × 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑜 × 12.69 Uncertainty of Iodine number =

∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = ∆𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 + ∆𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑖𝑙
. 𝑉. = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∆𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0. 1 + 0. 1 = 0. 2
(23.10−15.50)×0.157×12.69
= 0.20 ∆𝐼𝑉 ∆ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 ∆𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∆ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
= + +
= 75. 70854 = 76 𝐼𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
∆𝐼𝑉 0.2 0.01 0.001
75.71
= 7.6
+ 0.20
+ 0.157
∆ 𝐼𝑉
75.71
= 0. 08268521623 × Iodine Val.

∆ IV = ± 6.2599770004
∆ IV = ± 6

Result of Step 4: Iodine value of new oil of Trial 3 = 76 ± 6

om
l.c
Step 5:

ai
Calculating % Error in average Iodine value (New Calculating % Uncertainty in average Iodine Value
Oil) (New Oil)
gm
3@

|𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎 − 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎| 7.685363

% error = X 100 % Uncertainty = 107.2063285714 × 100
l1

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑎𝑡𝑎
ra

Experimental data = average of the three trials = 7.168758694% = 7%

an

calculated above
m

% of uncertainty = average uncertainty of 3 trials /

= (110+72+89)/3 = 89.19
vs

average iodine value of 3 trials

Theoretical Iodine value of olive oil is about 80.
ru

(britannica.com) = 6 / 89 = 7%
dh

|89.19 − 80|
% error = X 100
y

80
tif

% error = 10% higher than theoretical value.

as
Cl

Result of Step 5: % error = 10% and % Uncertainty = 7%

Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
10
Table 9. Table displaying processed data of all trials. This table is filled following the same steps shown above in
Table 8 for the remaining trials.
# of times
0 1 2 3 4
reheated

Iodi Unc Iodi Unc Iodi Unc Iodi Unc Iodi Unc
ne ertai ne ertai ne ertai ne ertai ne ertai
Valu nty Valu nty Valu nty Valu nty Valu nty
e (±) e (±) e (±) e (±) e (±)

Trial 1 110 8 76 6 48 5 35 4 34 4

Trial 2 72 6 84 6 49 4 46 4 42 4

Trial 3 89 6 68 5 38 3 43 4 36 4

Average 89 6 76 6 45 4 42 4 37 4

% Error 10 5 40 50 50

om
%

l.c
7 8 9 10 11
Uncertainty

ai
Assumed gm
theoretical 80
3@

value
l1
ra
an

Graphs & Analysis

m
vs
ru
dh
y
tif
as
Cl

Figure 4: Graphical representation of Iodine values of all 3 trials

Based on the graph above showing data of all trials, the measurements are moderately precise. This is due to
systematic errors caused by a long delay in conducting the experiment with two weeks of holidays in
between.
This is because 16 measurements needed to be taken for all trails and reheatings, including the reference.
Each of the trials took nearly 45 minutes, as there was a 30-minute incubation period in each of the trials.
Hence the experiment could not be concluded in one sitting. The long delay may have affected the chemicals
as these are highly volatile.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
11

Figure 5: Graphical representation of the relationship between average Iodine value and # of reheats

om
R2 value for best fit line is 0.8854, meaning that the best fit line represents the relationship between average

l.c
Iodine value and number of repeated heating very well. The Y-intercept is at 85.4. This is close to the

ai
theoretical Iodine value of olive oil at room temperature, which is 80 according to Britannica. The
X-intercept is at
85.4 gm
= 6. 19, which is approximately 6 reheatings. However, the value of Iodine number
13.8
3@

may not reach 0 in real life, as it would taper off at an asymptote beyond a certain number of repeated
heating.
l1
ra
an

Conclusion
m

The main objective of this exploration is to understand the deterioration of unsaturated content in extra virgin
vs

olive oil upon repeated heating. This was conducted through Electrophilic Addition, followed by Iodometry
ru

titration (method of volumetric analysis of a redox titration in which the end point is deduced with the
dh

disappearance of Iodine (brainkart.com) ​. In this titration, the oil reacted with Iodine is titrated by the Sodium
Thiosulfate. The other chemical that was vital in this experiment is starch indicator, which is added to the fat
y
tif

sample before the titration process. Using this method, 3 trials were conducted, with each trial consisting of 5
as

different oil reheating variations. I derived the concentration of sodium thiosulfate used in the titration
Cl

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
process. This was done by calculating the moles 𝑛 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
of sodium thiosulfate powder diluted in
𝑛
100ml of water, and then finding the concentration by using 𝑐 = 𝑣
(volume being 0.1mol/dm3). The value
obtained for the concentration was 0.157 ± 0.001 mol/dm3. Keeping this in mind, the Iodine number of each
trial was found, along with its respective uncertainty. This was done by using the formula
(𝑉𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘 − 𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑙) × 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑜 × 12.69

𝐼. 𝑉. = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑖𝑙
, where the concentration of sodium thiosulfate used is the
value obtained earlier (0.157 mol/dm3).

Just as predicted in the hypothesis, the unsaturated fat content, as measured by the Iodine number, reduced as
the oil sample was reheated more times, showing an inverse relationship. This is evident in Fig 5. Another
related trend is seen in table 7. Here, the quantity of sodium thiosulfate titration kept increasing as the oil was
reheated more times, approaching the volume of Na2S2O3 required without oil (Vblank). This means that as
unsaturation decreases with reheating of oil, Iodine absorbed decreases. Further, more Sodium Thiosulfate is
required to titrate the excess unreacted Iodine. After further repeated heatings, if there is no further
unsaturation or the oil becomes fully saturated, the value of Na2S2O3 reaches that of the Vblank. In this case,
the Iodine value would be zero.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
12
All the Iodine values were averaged, along with their uncertainties. With regards to the average values, the
percentage error and percentage uncertainty were calculated, values ranging between 11-53% and 7.15-11%
respectively. The reason for having a 11% percentage error higher than the theoretical value could be due to
the fact that pure, extra virgin olive oil was used in this experiment, which may have much a higher
unsaturated fat content than compared to the theoretical source's regular olive oil, which may be containing
impurities affecting the unsaturated fat value.

The percent uncertainty of Iodine Value varies in the range of 7 - 11 percent. As calculated in table 8, the
uncertainty of Iodine Value is a sum of uncertainties of Sodium Thiosulfate, mass of oil and concentration of
Sodium Thiosulfate. The uncertainty of Sodium Thiosulfate is much more than the other two components.
So, the uncertainty of Iodine Value depends more on the uncertainty of Sodium Thiosulfate.

The major reason for the wide range of percentage error values calculated (11-53 percent) is that the assumed
theoretical Iodine value is 80; olive oil at room temperature is believed to have a theoretical value of 80, as
mentioned before during calculations. Because there is no relevant data indicating the trend of Iodine values
as oil is reheated, I chose to use 80 as the common theoretical value across all calculated reheated Iodine
values to emphasize how much the Iodine levels vary from the ideal, or theoretical value as the oil is heated

om
up more times. Thus, showing that the experiment’s accuracy reduced drastically as the olive oil was
reheated, just as predicted due to systematic errors.

l.c
ai
Standard deviations of the three trials in each of the five repeated heatings of oil are 14.6, 6.60, 5.23, 4.92
gm
and 3.27, meaning that the precision of the experiment was moderate. Lastly, when both percentage
uncertainty and percentage error are compared to one another, it can be deduced that the range of the
3@

uncertainty values are lower in comparison to the range of percentage error values. This could indicate that
l1

there were more systematic errors than random errors.

ra
an

Evaluation
m
vs

Strengths
ru

Conducting Multiple trials: This experiment was repeatedly conducted 3 times for each number of times
dh

the oil was reheated, making the data collected more reliable and augmenting accuracy. Conducting more
trials assists in eliminating potential outlets or anomalies within the data, reducing the random error
y

drastically. This can be seen as all data points had reasonably high precision.
tif
as

Using Iodine solution, in place of Iodine Monochloride: I was concerned that I could not source Iodine
Cl

Monochloride due to unavailability and had to substitute with Iodine solution a very important chemical in
this experiment. Even though I thought that this may affect the experiment to fail, or not show the desired
trend, the opposite was the truth. The data points gathered were in accordance with the predicted hypothesis,
showing an inversely proportional relationship.

Used most accurate equipment for the needed task: Throughout the experiment, the choice of equipment
for the measurement of mass of oil sample, volume of ICL, NA2S2O3, KI & Chloroform was kept constant.
Choosing precise equipment which was suitable for the experiment at hand is crucial because deciding to use
an instrument with high uncertainties will raise the percentage uncertainty, leading to a higher prevalence of
random errors.

Limitations
Entire experiment was NOT done in one sitting (storing for too long): As the experiment was conducted
over several weeks particularly due to the two-week holiday in between trials. Looking at the properties of
both Iodine solution and chloroform in PubChem website, it shows that both are extremely volatile, toxic to
some degree, and are extremely corrosive, especially over time. So the properties of these chemicals may
have undergone changes, This could have potentially affected the results obtained through this experiment by
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
13
increasing the systematic error as it is a part of the design of the project. This can be improved by planning
and finishing the experimenting process in one or at the most two sittings.

Human Reaction time (over titration): Over titration due to the relatively low human reaction time was
present in this experiment. It was one of the major random errors which was prevalent in all three trials.
Although the conducted experiment was done with utmost precaution, only a few drops of Na2S2O3
changed the colour from dark grey to becoming a completely white coloured solution. This means that more
sodium thiosulfate was used to reach the equivalence point; more titre was used to react the Iodine to break
all of the double bonds in the fat sample than needed. Therefore, this can largely affect the resulting value.
This issue can however be solved by tightening the burette clamp such that the Na2S2O3 droplets descend at
a very slow rate. This not only allows the investigator to swirl the flask to re-calibrate the solution's color
back to clear, but it also allows the experimenter to determine when the reaction ends based on any tiny color
changes.

ICL Chemical replaced by Iodine solution: As stated previously, the biggest weakness in this exploration
was replacing ICL with Iodine solution due to the chemical not being available in the school’s resources.
This changed the Iodine number results due to the change of reactant. This is evident because when

om
compared with other explorations on the internet, it is highlighted that the volume of sodium thiosulfate is
around 30-40 cm3, giving a consistent Iodine value (Youtube/EuroNews). However, as stated in the strengths,

l.c
the Iodine value did show the same trend, although the Iodine values and measure of the volume of sodium

ai
thiosulfate used were vastly different. Therefore, this initially made it quite uncertain why the ICL was
gm
needed in the first place. However, after research, it was found that ICl was planned to be utilized over the
Iodine solution as it had a better suitability in the case of oil. Interhalogens like ICl are all prone to
3@

hydrolosis and ionize to give rise to polyatomic ions. These interhalogens are usually more reactive than
l1

halogens (exception being F2). This is because the X-Y bonds in interhalogens are weaker than X-X bonds in
ra

diahlogen atoms. These X-Y bonds are weaker because of the differences in the electronegativities of the two
an

halogens in the X-Y bonds. For instance, ICl in this experiment, is more reactive than I 2 due to the difference
m

in electronegativity between Cl and I, polarizing the bond and making it much easier to break than I2, which
vs

is a non-polar molecule (chem.libretexts.com) Following the procedure and use ICl instead could have
ru

proven to confer more accurate results for this experiment, just as conducted by many reliable articles. This
dh

procedure is known as Wij’s method that utilizes ICL solution, commonly known as Wij’s solution. This is a
tried and tested method which could be followed to get more closer-to-ideal accuracy.
y
tif
as

Theoretical data being only 80 (high percentage error): Another major systematic error in the experiment
Cl

is since the theoretical value when calculating percentage error was assumed to be 80 for all temperatures,
even though the Iodine number changes after more oil reheats. This was assumed to be so as there was not
reliable data which represented this data to show otherwise, meaning that the findings of this experiment
could not be analysed with theoretical results as a backbone. Therefore, 80 was chosen to be the common
theoretical value across all reheated Iodine values to show how far the Iodine values differ from the
theoretical value as the oil is reheated a greater number of times. This is the main reason for the extremely
high percentage errors in the range of 11-53%.

Extension
Although this experiment focused on finding out the variation in the degree of unsaturated fat content
in olive oil when reheated multiple times, introducing other factors such as finding the effect of various
heating temperatures on the oil’s unsaturated fat content, analysing this effect on different types of oils
instead of just one, looking at the effect of using other reagents instead of Iodine chloride to see the most
effective one, or finding out how temperature affects the neutralization process could lead to interesting
results. All of these elements may have been investigated in addition to the initial goal of broadening
conceptual knowledge of this specific issue through this single research.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
14
Works cited

N.a. "Fat | Eat For Health." Eatforhealth.gov.au, 24 Sept. 2012,

https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/food-essentials/fat-salt-sugars-and-alcohol/fat. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

ScienceDaily. "Unsaturated fat." ScienceDaily, 21 Oct. 2020,

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/unsaturated_fat.htm. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

Adam Felman. "Saturated vs. unsaturated fats: Which is more healthful?." Medicalnewstoday.com, 28
Jan. 2020, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321655. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

Cleveland Clinic. "Healthy Fat Intake." Cleveland Clinic,

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/11208-fat-what-you-need-to-know. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

Encyclopedia Britannica. "Iodine value | chemistry." Encyclopedia Britannica,

https://www.britannica.com/science/Iodine-value. Accessed 23 Oct. 2020.

om
Publishing, Harvard. "Healthier Oils Make Fried Food Safer - Harvard Health". Harvard Health, 2020,
https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/healthier-oils-make-fried-food-safer#:~:text=Reusing%20oil

l.c
%20for%20cooking%20is,absorbs%20the%20degraded%20oil%20products. Accessed 7 Dec 2020.

ai
gm
"Estimation Of Iodine Value Of Fats And Oils (Procedure) : Biochemistry Virtual Lab I :
Biotechnology And Biomedical Engineering : Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham Virtual Lab ".
3@

Vlab.Amrita.Edu, 2021, https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=3&brch=63&sim=1111&cnt=2. Accessed 4 Apr 2021.

l1
ra

Fda.Gov, 2021,
an

https://www.fda.gov/media/84012/download#:~:text=Storing%20Any%20Extra%20Prepared%20Potassium,
m

out%20any%20unused%20KI%20solution. Accessed 6 Apr 2021.

vs
ru

https://2g1hrx40gw3t1oo1bvqfy70u-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/SSERC-b
dh

ulletin-272p7_8-Iodine-value.pdf
y
tif

"How To Prepare Iodine Solution - Wikihow". Wikihow.Com, 2021,

as

https://www.wikihow.com/Prepare-Iodine-Solution. Accessed 28 May 2021.

Cl

Connelly, View. "A Blank Look At… Blanks". Andy Connelly, 2019,
https://andyjconnelly.wordpress.com/2019/01/22/a-blank-look-at-blanks/#:~:text=Identifying%20contaminat
ion%3A%20Blanks%20allow%20you,of%20contamination%20been%20artificially%20introduced.
Accessed 28 May 2021.

"Acid-Base Titrations". Chemistry Libretexts, 2013,

https://chem.libretexts.org/Ancillary_Materials/Demos_Techniques_and_Experiments/General_Lab_Techniq
ues/Titration/Acid-Base_Titrations#:~:text=with%20the%20reagent.-,Indicator,the%20accuracy%20of%20th
e%20experiment. Accessed 28 May 2021.

Jaarin, Kamsiah, and Yusof Kamisah. "Repeatedly Heated Vegetable Oils And Lipid Peroxidation".
Lipid Peroxidation, 2012. Intech, doi:10.5772/46076. Accessed 28 May 2021.

"Estimation Of Iodine Value Of Fats And Oils (Theory) : Biochemistry Virtual Lab I : Biotechnology
And Biomedical Engineering : Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham Virtual Lab ". Vlab.Amrita.Edu, 2021,
https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=3&brch=63&sim=1111&cnt=1. Accessed 28 May 2021.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
15
"Triglycerides - An Overview | Sciencedirect Topics". Sciencedirect.Com, 2021,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/triglycerides#:~:text=Triglycerides%20and%20fatty%20a
cids%20with,in%20natural%20oils%20and%20fats.&text=Triglycerides%20are%20derived%20from%20gl
ycerol,even%20carbon%20number%20chain%20length. Accessed 28 May 2021.

Dhss.Delaware.Gov, 2021, https://dhss.delaware.gov/dhss/dph/files/chloroformfaq.pdf. Accessed 13

Oct 2021.

​Barber, H. "Electrical Instrumentation". Plant Engineer's Handbook, 2001, pp. 255-272. Elsevier,
doi:10.1016/b978-075067328-0/50019-7. Accessed 8 Nov 2021.

Youtube.Com, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WQ7WQrJ1A1U&ab_channel=EuroNews.

Accessed 8 Nov 2021.

Kar, and Theory Titrations. "Theory - Iodimetric And Iodometric Titrations". Brainkart, 2021,
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Theory---Iodimetric-and-Iodometric-Titrations_30840/. Accessed 8 Nov
2021.

om
"Chloroform In The Environment And Its Potential Health Dangers". Owlcation, 2022,

l.c
https://owlcation.com/stem/Chloroform-in-the-Environment-and-its-Dangers#:~:text=Chloroform%20can%2

ai
0be%20dangerous%20without,enclosed%20space%20and%20becomes%20concentrated. Accessed 10 Jan
2022. gm
3@

"Is Olive Oil A Good Cooking Oil? A Critical Look". Healthline, 2022,
l1

https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/is-olive-oil-good-for-cooking#nutrient-loss. Accessed 16 Jan 2022.

ra
an

Fitzsimmons, Kelly. "The Danger Of Cooking With Healthy Oils Past Their Smoke Point". Business 2
m

Community, 2022,
vs

https://www.business2community.com/health-wellness/the-danger-of-cooking-with-healthy-oils-past-their-s
moke-point-0418150#:~:text=When%20an%20oil%20is%20heated,oil%20has%20started%20to%20decomp
ru

ose.
dh
y

"Alkenes". Chemistry Libretexts, 2016,

tif

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Organic_Chemistry)/H
as

ydrocarbons/Alkenes#:~:text=Alkenes%20are%20a%20class%20of,to%20describe%20alkenes%20is%20ole
Cl

fins. Accessed 16 Jan 2022.

Abasolo, Carolina et al. "The Oxidation Process In Fats And Oils - BTSA". BTSA, 2019,
https://www.btsa.com/en/process-oxidation-fats/. Accessed 16 Jan 2022.

Oil, About. "Cooking Oil And Oxidative Stability". Aboutoliveoil.Org, 2022,

https://www.aboutoliveoil.org/cooking-oil-and-oxidative-stability. Accessed 16 Jan 2022.

​"Why Extra Virgin Olive Oil Is The Healthiest Fat On Earth". Healthline, 2022,
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/extra-virgin-olive-oil#nutrition. Accessed 18 Jan 2022.

"Interhalogens". Chemistry Libretexts, 2014,

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Inorganic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_and_Websites_(Inorg
anic_Chemistry)/Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_17%3
A_The_Halogens/1Group_17%3A_General_Reactions/Interhalogens. Accessed 20 Jan 2022.
Downloaded from www.clastify.com by Dhruv Manral
16
Bonetti, Rino, and Wallace O. Parker. "Insights Into Polymerization Of Vegetable Oil: Oligomerization
Of Oleic Acid". Journal Of The American Oil Chemists' Society, vol 96, no. 10, 2019, pp. 1181-1184. Wiley,
doi:10.1002/aocs.12274. Accessed 20 Jan 2022.

"Canola Oil, Olive Oil, Soybean Oil- How To Choose Cooking Oil?". Health Hub, 2021,
https://www.healthhub.sg/live-healthy/1118/the-oily-truth#:~:text=So%2C%20for%20deep%2Dfrying%20(,
oils%20with%20higher%20smoke%20points.

CHOE, E., and D.B. MIN. Chemistry Of Deep-Fat Frying Oils. 2022,
https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00352.x.

"Electrophilic Addition Reactions Of Alkenes - Electrophilic Substitution With Examples". BYJUS,

2022, https://byjus.com/chemistry/electrophilic-addition-alkenes/. Accessed 20 Jan 2022.

Valqui, Melissa. "Nucleophile- What Is It? | Chemtalk". Chemtalk, 2021,

https://chemistrytalk.org/what-is-a-nucleophile/. Accessed 20 Jan 2022.

om
"Three Types Of Triglycerides | Livestrong.Com". LIVESTRONG.COM, 2022,
https://www.livestrong.com/article/382856-three-types-of-triglycerides/. Accessed 20 Jan 2022.

l.c
ai
De, Riju et al. "Multi-Objective Optimization Of A Batch Transesterification Reactor Considering
gm
Reactor And Methanol Separation Unit Together". Computer Aided Chemical Engineering, 2017, pp.
2203-2208. Elsevier, doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-63965-3.50369-x. Accessed 20 Jan 2022.
3@
l1

Tiefenbacher, Karl F. "Technology Of Main Ingredients—Sweeteners And Lipids". Wafer And Waffle,
ra

2017, pp. 123-225. Elsevier, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809438-9.00003-x. Accessed 20 Jan 2022.

an
m
vs
ru
dh
y
tif
as
Cl