Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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Architectural Engineering

The effectiveness of urban green infrastructure in reducing surface urban

heat island
Baghdad city as a case study

Maryam F. Abdulateef a,⇑, Hoda A. S. Al-Alwan b

a
Dept. of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
b
Dept. of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the era of the devastating impacts of climate change, many cities around the world make strenuous
Received 20 March 2021 efforts to find suitable and sustainable adaptation strategies to address the climatic dangers. In the past
Revised 20 May 2021 decades, Baghdad city witnessed an increase in the intensity of surface urban heat island (SUHI) as a
Accepted 18 June 2021
result of the change in land cover and population density. By reviewing the related literature, it was
Available online 03 July 2021
found that many studies discussed SUHI intensity and causes, yet there is limited knowledge concerning
the adaptation to such a phenomenon. In general, urban green infrastructure (UGI) represents a vital sus-
Keywords:
tainable strategy that can achieve climate change ’adaptation and mitigation’ simultaneously.
Urban green infrastructure
Urban heat island
Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of UGI in reducing SUHI in
Simulation Baghdad city. Risafa municipality was selected as a case study, as it suffers from a high level of SUHI risk.
Risafa Using a computer climatic simulation program; ENVI-met, the temperature of different surfaces in the
Surface temperature study area was assessed, and two typical models were selected. Surface temperature (Ts) of different
points in these two models was measured according to the base case scenario and to three proposed sce-
narios of UGI. The results show that UGI has an apparent role in declining Ts in both models. It was also
found that the cooling effects of injecting UGI scenarios in similar surfaces of the two models are conver-
gent. This confirms the UGI great effectiveness in reducing SUHI in Baghdad City. It is also found that the
effectiveness of UGI in cooling the existing surfaces depends on the original condition of the surfaces and
the intensity and types of the injected UGI assets.
Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams Uni-
versity. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction the world witnessed an increase in temperature average by 0.74 °C,

It becomes evident for all, even the non-specialized people, that
the climate is dramatically changing over time. From the scientific
perceptive, that is entirely true as the earth is warming decade
after decade since 1850 [1]. On the global scale, the climate change
evidence has already been very apparent. During the 20th century,
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: m.abdulatif1204@coeng.uobaghdad.edu.iq (M.F. Abdulateef),
hoda-alwan@coeng.uobaghdad.edu.iq (H. A. S. Al-Alwan).
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
a drop in ice cover by 40% and a rise in natural sea-level by 17 cm
[2]. Climate change (CC) is an inevitable result of the increase of
long-lived greenhouse gases (GHG) within the atmosphere. Green-
house gases trap the solar radiation that reflects from the earth and
return it towards the surface [3]. Consequently, climate change has
become one the most pressing global issues of our time. Accord-
ingly, controlling and reducing greenhouse gase emissions become
a certain demand to address this issue [4].
The global change caused many regional and local impacts
which varied significantly between sites [3]. These impacts formed
real risks to the entire world and especially to the cities where peo-
ple mainly concentrate. At the same time, many cities around the
world suffer from the phenomenon of ’urban heat island’. In gen-
eral, urbanization processes lead to change the surface’s climate
within cities and form what is called (urban climate) [5]. One of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2021.06.012
2090-4479/Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
the main urban climate’s characteristics is the phenomenon of ’ur-
ban heat island’ or (UHI). Basically, UHI is defined as the urban
areas’ clear tendency to have a higher temperature than their adja-
cent rural areas [6]. Other definitions refer to UHI as the variations
in the microclimate which result from man-made interventions
and modifications in the natural environment [7,8].
Climate change and UHI link strongly with each other in the for-
mation and treatment process. Global warming, the main cause of
climate change, leads to intensifying UHI in cities. On the other
hand, measures to reduce UHI and cool cities assist in reducing
global warming [9]. So, increasing the local intensity of UHI can
be considered as a certain impact of global climate change.
The change of urban climate is considered a complicated state
of climate change (CC), as it results from external factors such as
CC and internal factors such as the city urbanization processes
[5]. Therefore, it is wrong to say that the change in urban climate
is only a result of global climate change, as human factors are also
strongly involved. In general, this does not negate the fact that CC
impacts have a greater extent in cities than in the surrounding
rural areas. In light of this, CC has a direct role in urban climate
change [10].
UHI has two main types which are atmospheric UHI and surface
UHI. These two types are different in their formation ways, mea-
surement processes, impacts intensity, and to some degree in the
ways to control [11]. Atmospheric UHI refers to the increase of
urban areas’ air temperature (Ta) compared to it in the nearby
rural areas [12]. Surface UHI or SUHI represents the second type
of UHI. It refers to the temperature increase of the urban built
and dry surfaces (Ts) compared to the surrounding rural areas
[13]. On average, the day differences between urban and rural sur-
faces’ temperature ranges between 10
to15
C, while during the
night, the difference is smaller and limited between 5
to10
C [13].
So, SUHI occurs during day and night. It tends to have a higher
value during the day as the sun exists. So, it is a ’diurnal UHI’. On
the other hand, atmospheric UHI is more noticed after sunset as
the artificial urban surfaces slowly emit back what they absorbed
during the day. This is called the ’nocturnal UHI’ [11].
A remote-sensing-based study, which was conducted in 2018,
found that SUHI intensity in Baghdad city is about 17° C which
indicates a high value of such a phenomenon [14]. When this
intensity was compared with previous studies [15,16], it was found
that Baghdad city suffers from a rapidly growing SUHI phe-
nomenon. What increases the risk of such a phenomenon is Bagh-
dad’s being the highest populated governorate in Iraq [17].
Accordingly, this emphasizes the need to provide knowledge of
how to reduce urban heat island in Baghdad city.
To reduce UHI, urban green infrastructure (UGI) represents a
vital adaptation strategy. UGI refers to the planned network of
green and blue assets either within urban areas or located outside
but affecting them [18]. The vitality of such strategy stems from
the following aspects:
- UGI represents a sustainable adaptation strategy: UGI is an
ecosystem-based approach [19]. Ecosystem work depends on
some processes which are usually defined as the mechanisms
by which an ecosystem functions in nature [20]. These pro-
cesses include the energy cycle flow, nutrients cycles, self-
regulation, succession, resilience and flexibility. Having such
processes enables UGI to be a sustainable adaptation strategy.
- UGI supports both climate change adaptation and mitigation: In
the field of controlling temperature, UGI plays a double climatic
role: adaptive and mitigative [19]. The adaptive role of UGI rep-
resents in reducing the air and surface temperature via two
main processes of evapotranspiration and shading. The mitiga-
tive role of UGI represents in its ability to control and reduce
the causes of temperature rise by reducing greenhouse gases
2
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
emission and their concentrations within the biosphere. UGI
supports UHI mitigation directly by carbon storage and seques-
tration [21]. UGI can also indirectly support UHI mitigation
through several services; the first is by offering natural substi-
tutions for fossil fuel and materials such as biofuel and bioma-
terials. The second is by encouraging friendly-environment
transport such as walking. UGI also contributes to decrease
energy demand for automatic transportation and air condition.
It also offers green jobs which ensure the economic capacity
development with the least amount of environmental harm.
- UGI is not mere green spaces: UGI planning should be con-
ducted according to two main principles which are: connectiv-
ity and multifunctionality. UGI should be planned as a
connected network of different green and blue assets that are
not functionally or structurally interrupted throughout the city.
It should also be planned to offer many environmental, eco-
nomic and social functions simultaneously [22]. UGI should
be planned and managed just like the engineered infrastructure.
On the other hand, green spaces can be planned as separate
spaces for recreational purposes only. So, UGI is not similar to
green spaces which are usually suggested to reduce UHI.
Because of being a vital adaptation strategy, the effectiveness of
UGI in reducing the surface urban heat island in Risafa municipal-
ity in Baghdad city will be investigated in this research.
2. Literature review
The literature review will be presented in relation to the
research’s main terms: UHI and UGI. Concerning UHI, many inter-
national and local studies will be explored. The international stud-
ies related to UHI are manifold and detailed. Some studies
presented a general knowledge about UHI formation, causes and
mitigation measures. These studies also demonstrated some cool-
ing measures such as urban vegetation and cooler materials use
[23–25].
Some other studies focused mainly on the impact of the urban
configuration on the UHI intensity in a particular city, such as El-
Oued city, Dubai and Aleppo. These studies included a comparison
of the intensity of UHI in a traditional organic and modern grid
configuration. The comparisons were conducted either by field
measurements or computer simulations or both of them. The
results assured that, in hot arid regions, the traditional organic
configuration experiences lower UHI intensity than the modern
grid configuration [26–28]. Another study was conducted in 2018
to investigate the impact of the type of urban growth in defining
the UHI intensity in Cairo. The results indicated that the unplanned
growth of the urban areas in Cairo plays a significant role in
increasing the local UHI intensity [29].
Rose and Devadas (2007) [30], Shishegar (2013) [31], Jihad and
Tahiri (2016) [32], Jamei et al. (2017) [33] and Chatzidimitriou and
Axarli (2017) [34], discussed the impact of the street geometry
parameters, i.e. width, building height and orientation, on the
UHI intensity in some cities. The results assured that these param-
eters significantly impacted the street airflow and solar access, dra-
matically impacting the UHI intensity.
Wei et al. (2016) investigated the general impact of some urban
morphology parameters such as the floor area ratio, site coverage
ratio and building stories at the UHI intensity. They found that
these parameters had an important role in determining both the
UHI intensity and the modeled buildings’ cooling energy [35].
On the other hand, some studies provided comprehensive
knowledge about UHI formation and mitigations in a specific city.
This knowledge dramatically impacted the city’s general develop-
ment plan. For example, the national institute of Quebec, Canada,
presented a literature review about UHI mitigation strategies.
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526

The study involved a multi-criteria comparison between these
strategies. That was to define the most applicable one in Quebec
city. The study’s results shaped a basic part of Québec Action Plan
on Climate Change [36]. Peron et al. (2015) presented an analysis of
UHI in Venice mainland, Italy. This study integrated both field
measurement and computer simulations. That was to measure
the UHI intensity and investigate the validity of the proposed mit-
igation strategies [37]. In general, there are many studies that were
conducted to frame a complete image about UHI impact and
cooling measures in large cities such as Madrid [38], Rome [39],
Greater Cairo [40], Beirut [41], Sao Paulo [42], etc.
Local studies about UHI can be divided, based on their main
research trend, into three main types:
- Studies related to measure UHI intensity: many local research-
ers used remote sensing techniques to measure the intensity of
SUHI in Baghdad city. That was by measuring the infrared emit-
ted from the different elements’ surfaces. Hadi and Abdulwah-
hab (2012) verified the phenomenon intensity in Baghdad and
the Marshes in 1990 and 1998. The results illustrated that SUHI
intensity in these two study areas witnessed a rapid increase.
This increase significantly impacted the local ecological sys-
tems, especially in the Marshes area [43]. In 2015, another
study was conducted by Al-Lami to measure SUHI intensity in
Baghdad city in 2001. The study assured that the temperature
difference between Baghdad built-up areas and the surrounding
vegetated or water areas is about 12 °C [15]. Ali et al. (2017)
conducted a study to compare SUHI in Baghdad and London.
The study concluded that SUHI intensity of Baghdad city was
about 15 °C in 2013 [16]. These studies offered an overview
concerning the SUHI intensity in the city of Baghdad. A more
recent study was carried out by Abdulateef and Al-Alwan in
2020 to measure SUHI in Baghdad city in 2018. The research
results assured that Baghdad SUHI reached about 17 °C in
2018 [14].
- Studies related to discuss UHI causes: Other studies used the
simulation computer programs to verify local urban configura-
tions’ role in defining the UHI intensity of Baghdad city. One of
these studies was conducted in 2016 by Alobaydi and Bakar-
mana. This study investigated the intensity of UHI in three urban
configurations which are: modern attached, modern detached
and traditional compact. The study showed that different street
geometry of these configurations played different roles in UHI
formation. The study assured that the traditional compact con-
figuration had the best environmental performance as it wit-
nessed the coolest temperature compared to the other two
types of configurations [44]. Another study was presented in
2018 by Mohammed and Salman to investigate the role of urban
geometry and green areas in UHI formation in Baghdad city. In
this study, a comparison was conducted between two samples
of streets in attached and detached configurations. The results
concluded that street geometry played an essential role in UHI
intensity. The study also confirmed that vegetation contributed
significantly in reducing this intensity [45].
edge was presented concerning the important role that ecological
land use definition played in planning dynamic UGI in the new
eco-friendly cities. The study also explored UGI applications in many
eco-friendly cities [47]. Al-Maelf presented an analytical study
about the phenomenon of excesses at the green land uses in the city
of Baghdad. In this study, UGI was suggested as one of the best prac-
tices to conserve the green spaces inside the cities. The study pro-
vided basic knowledge about UGI regarding the conceptual and
practical applications [48]. In another study conducted by AbdelRa-
him and Abaas, UGI was presented as one of many suggested policies
that can achieve the synergic adaptation in activating the urban left-
over spaces in Baghdad city. The study investigated the role of UGI in
lowering the outdoor temperature [49].
Based on the previous literature review, some main aspects can
be concluded:
- At the international scale, studying UHI is a wide research field
that deals with the phenomenon intensity, causes and mitiga-
tion measures. Each of these sub-fields can be explored at dif-
ferent scales, beginning from the single plot scale and
reaching the whole city scale.
- Studying UHI and the effect of its mitigation measures is deeply
related to the local conditions of the city. So, the abundance of
international knowledge can not substitute for having local
specific knowledge about UHI reduction in Baghdad city.
- There is limited knowledge concerning SUHI reduction in Bagh-
dad city.
- There is limited local knowledge concerning UGI in general, as
well as the absence of knowledge regarding UGI as a strategy
of climate change adaptation.
According to these conclusions, a clear diagnosis for the missing
knowledge was framed. That is concerning the research basic
terms; UHI and UGI. Accordingly, the research problem will be sta-
ted as ‘‘the lack of knowledge concerning the role of UGI as an
adaptation strategy of SUHI in Baghdad city”. The research’s basic
aim is offering knowledge about the effectiveness of UGI in reduc-
ing SUHI in Baghdad city.
3. Study area description
The study is carried out in Risafa, a municipality located at the
center of Baghdad city at the north-east bank of the Tigris river.
Risafa is one of the fourteenth municipalities that constitute Bagh-
dad urbanized area. It is located at 33°200 57 N latitude and

Concerning UGI, there are some local studies that directly pre-
sented and adopted the term urban green infrastructure. In 2012,
the term was introduced by AbdulRaheem and AbdulRazzaq as a
solution to save the remaining and add the required green open
spaces in the city of Baghdad. The study surveyed the city’s existing
green spaces such as agricultural areas, urban parks and some
underdevelopment projects. The study also proposed some new
sites to compensate for the lack of green spaces in the city [46]. In
2016, a thesis conducted by Abdulateef and Shaheen presented
UGI as a basic layer in the planning of eco-friendly cities which
can act as a complete mature ecosystem. In this study, some knowl- Fig. 1. Risafa location in relation to Baghdad city.

3
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526

44°240 4600 E longitude (Fig. 1) [50]. In general, Baghdad city is con-

stituted of four different urban patterns which are: organic, mod-
ern paralleled, modern loop-grid and hybrid patterns [51]. Risafa
includes the four urban patterns [52]. Accordingly, it has been
selected as a case study in many recent urban design researches
[51,52], as it offers a significant opportunity to investigate the role
of more than one type of urban patterns in Baghdad. Hence, Risafa
presents an ideal model of the configuration of Baghdad
municipality.
Risafa forms the oldest municipality in Al Risafa side of Baghdad
[53]. It also includes a significant part of Baghdad center business
districts (CBD) [54]. From the north-east, Risafa is bounded by
Qanat Al Jaeish high way that separates the study area from the
municipalities of Al Sadr 1 and 2. Al Karrada and Al Ghadeer align
Risafa from the south-east, while Tigris river is from the south-
west. Al Adhamiya municipality aligns Risafa from the north-
west. Risafa is separated from these municipalities by some main
streets such as Bor Saiad, Safi Al Din Al Hilli and Al Hareth street.
It is divided into 14 districts that completely differ in their shapes
and areas.
As SUHI is considered as a certain type of climate change, the
selection of the study area should be based on the area’s exposure
to the risk of such a phenomenon [55]. Climate change risk is Fig. 2. Risafa main land uses.
defined as ‘‘the potential for impacts where something of value is at
stake and where the outcome is uncertain”. It refers to the potential- Baghdad Comprehensive Development Plan 2030 offers some
ity, when the result is uncertain, for negative impacts on social, instructions about the future development of Risafa. Some of the
environmental and physical resources [56]. Climate change risk related instructions include the gradual transfer of the industrial
depends on two main factors: the hazard (the intensity) and the uses in the study area to new locations. Sites of current industries
vulnerability (the exposure) [57]. are to be converted to central parks or what the city needs of public
The focus of the current research is directed towards Risafa services. In addition to that, it was recommended to establish some
because it represents an area with a high level of SUHI risk [58]. green axes throughout the study area [54]. So, proposing UGI as a
This result was based on the following aspects: strategy to reduce SUHI comes in line with the decisions of the
local authorities to develop the study area.
- Risafa has a high SUHI value: previous studies about SUHI
intensity [14–16] refer to Risafa as one of Baghdad municipali- 4. Methodology
ties with the highest Ts value.
- Risafa has a high vulnerability to SUHI: Risafa is susceptive to be The research’s basic aim is offering knowledge about the effec-
adversely impacted by SUHI because of many causes. It repre- tiveness of UGI in reducing SUHI in Baghdad city. As previously
sents Baghdad main historical and commercial area [54] and mentioned, SUHI results from the significant difference of surface
has many outdoor activities such as streets, commercial, com- temperature (Ts) between the built-up and green areas. Accord-
mercial/mixed and industrial uses. Within Risafa, there are ingly, to investigate the role of UGI in lowering such phenomenon
many public buildings such as hospitals, kindergarten, universi- involves finding and monitoring the effect of UGI in the Ts of the
ties, governmental buildings, banks, mosques, etc. Having all different surfaces in the study area before and after the injection
these characteristics increase the study area’s vulnerability to of the UGI assets. In general, assessing the real Ts can be conducted
SUHI. via three main methods:

Accordingly, Risafa is at risk [58]. As it has a high value of and
vulnerability to SUHI, so it is at risk and has the priority to have
a climate change adaptation plan. The analysis of the study area’s
land uses indicated that dark asphalt streets represent the highest
ratio of Risafa with about 26.8%. Residential use appears in second
place with a ratio of 19.9%. The commercial activity constitutes
about 7.5% distributed throughout Risafa at the major streets’
edges. On the other hand, commercial/mixed uses occupy about
13.2%. The industrial activity is found as a large zone in the middle
of the south-east of Risafa. This zone represents 6.9% of the total
area. It includes different types of governmental and private stores
such as large and small, closed and opened stores. Most of these
stores have been built with temporary structures such as sandwich
panels. There are broad vacant areas with industrial zones that are
usually used as discharging dock where large truck containers are
stored. Other uses such as green areas, education facilities, hospi-
tals, cemeteries, etc. appear in graduated and close proportions.
These uses are distributed unevenly throughout Risafa. Slums,
vacant lands and abandoned buildings are also found with the
sum of 3.8% of the total area (Fig. 2).
4
- Ground monitoring: this type of assessment depends on the
field measurements by using some digital infrared radiation
thermometers [59].
- Atmospheric monitoring: this method depends on remote sens-
ing techniques which involve satellite image processing to iden-
tify the changes in environmental and biophysical factors [15].
- Ts can also be assessed by using some simulation models partic-
ularly if there are some proposed mitigation scenarios [60].
The simulation process, in the current research, will be con-
ducted by using ENVI-met; a computer microclimatic simulation
program. Many studies proved the ENVI-met validity to be used
in simulating the urban microclimate conditions. In 2013, a
research was conducted to define the most suitable computer sim-
ulation program for assessing urban development performance.
That is by analyzing the main physical processes: air exchange,
heat exchange, radiation, irradiation, evaporation and acoustics.
The study confirms that ENVI-met is the most suitable application
for conducting such an assessment process [61]. Some studies
include a comparison between ENVI-met and other simulation
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
programs such as RayMan, Ladybug and ANSYS Fluent. These stud-
ies highlight the advantages of ENVI-met in urban microclimate
simulation. Compared with RayMan, ENVI-met involves the
interaction between different elements of the urban scene: soil,
vegetation, atmosphere and buildings, while RayMan can only sim-
ulate the interaction between the vegetation and the buildings
[62]. Ibrahim (2020) compared two microclimate tools: Ladybug
and ENVI-met in terms of modeling some important climate indi-
cators such as mean radiant temperature and universal thermal cli-
mate index. The study reveals a great amount of consistency
between the results of these two tools particularly from the hours
8 am to 5 pm [63]. Another study conducted in the same year indi-
cates that both ENVI-met and ANSYS Fluent can calculate many cli-
mate indicators such as Ts, but ENVI-met is easier to be used and
needs less license and computation cost. Compared to ANSYS Flu-
ent, ENVI-met is also able to calculate psychological equivalent
temperature (PET) and Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) which are con-
sidered as important indicators of human thermal comfort [64].
That is because ENVI-met offers the ability to calculate the
required meteorological parameters of these two indicators, such
as air temperature, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature,
wind velocity, etc. [62].
Some studies refer to the acceptable range of consistency
between the field measurement and the ENVI-met numerical
results. Elnabawi et al. (2013) used field receptors measurement
to validate the results of ENVI-met simulation of many climatic
parameters such as air temperature, relative humidity, mean radi-
ant temperature, etc. in Cairo. The research’s results show the over-
all agreement between the observed and modeled output. The
study concluded that the modeled microclimate conditions are
not less important than the field-measured conditions, as the first
can be considered as a reliable tool of urban planning and adapta-
tion with the current climate change. ENVI-met has the ability to
simulate different existing and proposed urban scenarios [65].
Zakhour (2015) revealed the great similarity between the mea-
sured and simulated values of the air temperature in the modern
part of Aleppo [28]. In 2018, Simon et al. verifies the ENVI-met abil-
ity to assess the thermal interaction between the urban environ-
ment and vegetation in certain environments. That was by
comparing the tree leaf’s temperature in two cases: real site and
ENVI-met simulation. The comparison assures the high agreement
between the in-situ and simulation measurements and the ENVI-
met capability to simulate the transpiration rates and leaf temper-
atures of trees in different urban environments [66].
Another survey conducted by Tsoka et al. proved that, until
2018, there were 280 journals and conference papers employed
ENVI-met as a reliable model to simulate the urban microclimate
parameters and were available in the Scopus. Most of these studies
were done in the period between 2012 and 2017. This assures the
popularity of ENVI-met in urban climate analysis. The survey
involved a quantitative evaluation refers to the ENVI-met capabil-
ity to predict the microclimate conditions with good accuracy.
Accordingly, ENVI-met forms a reliable tool to simulate the micro-
climate conditions as long as the user realizes its advantages and
limitations and can explain the results carefully [67].
Fig. 3 shows the methodology followed to achieve this assess-
ment. For more details concerning the applied methodology, some
related aspects will be discussed separately in the following
sections.
4.1. Simulation process
In this research, the simulation will be conducted by using
ENVI-met 4.4.5. ENVI-met is a holistic model of climatic simulation
in which different components of natural and urban settings inter-
act with each other. This program was first produced in 1994 by
5
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
Michael Bruse [68]. Since then, the program has continuously
developed, keeping pace with the required simulation methods
while investing the latest computer available technology. It is a
SVAT (Soil, Vegetation, Atmosphere and Transfer) type of simula-
tion model. That means it can simulate the transfer among all soil,
vegetation, and atmosphere in one integrated process. This is what
distinguishes ENVI-met from other climatic simulation programs.
ENVI-met supports the simulation processes in many different
fields such as solar analysis, wind flow and turbulence, microcli-
mate and thermal comfort, green & blue technologies, pollutant
dispersion, etc. [68].
The program’s main inputs are divided into two groups: the
physical configuration of the study area and the local weather con-
ditions such as air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed
and orientation. The program’s main outputs are climate-related
distribution maps and many other formats of data such as dia-
grams and tables. LEONARDO model; a particular application of
ENVI-met Headquarter, can produce all these outputs. The pro-
gram is equipped with the full properties of different materials,
soil, vegetation and water. Modification of these properties -
based on the local specifications- is also allowed within ENVI-met.
To calculate surface and buildings temperature, the program
employs the law of urban energy balance. Accordingly, the basic
equation to assess the surface temperature (Ts) is the following
equation [69]:
0 ¼ Rsw; net þ Rlw; net  cppjh  qLjv  Qw
Where as
Rsw, net and Rlw, net: net radiative energy fluxes.
cp: specific heat of the air.
q: air density.
Jh: turbulent fluxes of heat.
L: latent heat of vaporization.
Jv: turbulent fluxes of vapour.
Qw: heat flux through built surfaces.
The program interface, where the study area is mapped, con-
sists of a grid cell system with three dimensions: X, Y and Z, repre-
senting the vertical axes. Despite all the above-mentioned
advantages regarding the use of the ENVI-met in simulating the
urban microclimate, the program has some limitations. For exam-
ple, simulating a large area requires high computer specifications
to complete the processing process. Such type of simulation also
affects the results’ resolution as modeling a large area means using
a bigger grid cell size, which causes a low input and output accu-
racy [70]. Another limitation of the ENVI-met program represents
by modeling all geometries as cuboid shapes. That relates to the
grid-cell resolution which is completely cubed. ENVI-met is also
unable to model the heat released from human activities or what
is known as anthropogenic heat [64]. In this study, this will not
form a certain limitation as the anthropogenic heat was not
included in the Ts calculation because no data was available in this
regard. Despite these limitations, ENVI-met can handle the neces-
sary urban climate processes to achieve the research aim of simu-
lating the effectiveness of UGI in reducing the surface temperature
(Ts) [64].
4.2. Simulation settings
Because of the previously mentioned limitations, the current
simulation cannot be conducted at the total scale of the study area.
Accordingly, the simulation process will be conducted in a selected
model of the study area. To confirm the results of the simulation
process, more than one model is required. Accordingly, two main
models will be selected. The selection process will be based on
two main criteria. The selected simulation models should repre-
sent the study area’s different urban conditions, such as land use
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
Fig. 3. Methodology of assessing the effectiveness of UGI in the study area.
and land cover (Fig. 2). They should also include most of the pro-
posed UGI assets such as the green park, green corridors, green
buildings, green parking, etc. Accordingly, two simulation models:
A and B were selected as samples to investigate the UGI
effectiveness in the whole study area as they can meet the
above-guided criteria (Fig. 4).
Each of these models has an area of about 0.9 km2 with the
dimensions 960*960 m2. Buildings’ average height ranges between
5 and 7 m. No higher buildings exist in the study area. Accordingly,
the dimensions of the simulation grid for the model domain are
960 (x) * 960 (y)* 40 (z)m. The number of cells at each axis is
160*160*20, while the cell size is 6*6*2m2 respectively. Model
rotation out of grid north is 40°.
Although the higher solar thermal radiation in the middle parts
of Iraq, where the simulation area is located, usually occurs in the
summer solstice (21st June), July represents the month of the hot-
test air temperature [71]. That is because of the re-emitted heat
Fig. 4. Selected models of the simulation process.
6
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
from the earth’s surface. During the period between 21st June
and 21st July, the earth absorbs a fair amount of heat, which con-
tributes to raise the air temperature by the re-emitted heat [72].
Accordingly, the simulation date will be 21st July 2020 as it is con-
sidered as the date of the highest air temperature (Ta) recorded in
Baghdad. All inserted weather data is obtained from The Iraqi
meteorological organization and seismology. In general, all simula-
tion data are illustrated in Table 1.
To investigate the UGI effectiveness in defining different sur-
faces’ temperature in the selected models, the simulation should
be conducted in three different types of surfaces: horizontal sur-
faces of open urban spaces, buildings roofs and buildings walls.
In each simulation model, 15 points are selected to simulate Ts
of these types (9 points for the open urban spaces, 3 points for
buildings roofs and 3 points for buildings walls) (Fig. 5). These
points are selected to cover most of these surfaces’ properties, such
as types and materials. The chosen points also provide opportuni-
ties to investigate the effect of injecting different UGI assets. All
details about the default setting of the surfaces’ properties are
detailed in Table 1, Figs. 6 and 7. The parameter of (surface temper-
ature) was used to indicate Ts of open urban spaces, while (wall:
temperature node1/outside) was used to indicate Ts of buildings’
roofs and walls.
4.3. Simulation scenarios
For each model, four scenarios are proposed to assess the effec-
tiveness of the proposed UGI in defining Ts of the simulation mod-
els (Fig. 8). All scenarios are modeled in Spaces, one of ENVI-met
applications. In all scenarios, two main parameters are neutralized:
the traffic and the private green spaces. No updated data is avail-
able about the study area’s traffic pattern, and private green spaces
vary between sites and over time. In general, the ratio of these
spaces in private properties in Baghdad witnesses a continuous
decrease due to converting most of them to new buildings [48].
Accordingly, traffic and private green spaces cannot form a con-
stant indicator in defining Ts of the simulated models. As it is dif-
ficult to model them in ENVI-met, locations used for parking
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526

Table 1
Details of the simulation process of the two selected models in ENVI-met.

No. Type System Subsystem

1 Model domain settings Model location Lati. 33°340 N, Long. 44°410 E
Model Geometry X-Grids = 160, Y-Grids = 160, Z-Grids = 20, dx = 6,
dy = 6, dz = 2 (represents height), Model rotation out of
grid north = 40°
The default setting for walls and roofs Materials Albedo
Burned brick wall with default plaster 0.5
Sandwich panel wall 0.7
Aluminum wall 0.9
Light-weight concrete tiles 0.3
Sandwich panel roof 0.7
The default setting for soil and asphalt Loamy soil with an albedo of 0.2
Dark asphalt 0.2
2 General simulation settings Simulation starting date 21st July 2020
Simulation starting time 6:00 a.m.
Simulation duration 24 h
3 Basic Meteorological settings Wind speed in 10 m above the ground (m\s) 11
Wind direction(0 = from north. . .180 = from south) 300
The temperature of the atmosphere (°C) Min = 27.5 at 6:00 a.m. Max = 48.4 at 3:00p.m.
Relative humidity in 2 m above the ground (%) Min = 4 at 1:00p.m. Max = 7 at 6:00 a.m.

Fig. 5. Simulation points in the two selected models.

trucks’ containers, or open storing of the raw materials were con-
sidered vacant lands either soiled or concrete-covered.
The first scenario (BC scenario) refers to the base case of the
study area. In this scenario, all related features, whether planted
or built, are added as they are in the real world. Materials albedo
is also inserted according to their standard values previously men-
tioned in Table 1. Trees, low-density grass and hedges with an
average height of 2 m are inserted according to their real sites in
the simulation model.
Based on the construction materials, it was found that each sim-
ulated model consists of two main parts (review Fig. 2). The upper
parts of the two simulated models are similar, while the lower
parts are different and mixed. The top part of model A and B
includes housing and some public buildings that are constructed
by the traditional burned brick walls and concrete tiles roofs. The
lower part of model A consists of a large industrial area containing
shops and stores and comprises many sandwich panel structures.
On the other hand, the lower part of model B consists of a hybrid
type of building structures as some buildings have traditional con-
crete roofs with aluminum exterior walls. The sources of the spa-
tial information are the researcher’s site visit and ArcGIS Earth
available maps.
The second scenario (CM scenario) involves the use of cooler
materials in coating the existing surfaces. The main measures of
this scenario can be listed as follows:
- For locations paved with asphalt (albedo 0.2) such as
streets and parking, it is proposed to spread a thick layer
(10 cm) of grey concrete pavement (albedo 0.35) above
them.
- Traditional roofs with light-weight concrete tiles (albedo 0.3)
are covered with elastomeric coating; a white light material
with an albedo of 0.67.
- The scenario also involves the increase of traditional walls
reflectivity (albedo 0.5). That is achieved by painting them with
white exterior paints (albedo 0.8).
- High reflective surfaces such as aluminum walls (0.9) are kept
as they are, as they have a low Ts.

7
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526

Fig. 6. Properties of the selected points of model (A).

Fig. 7. Properties of the selected points of model (B).

- Soil-covered areas (albdo 0.2) also remain as natural surfaces. In
this scenario, no measures are recommended for them, except
the increase of soil humidity by ensuring continuous irrigation.
These proposals are prioritized on other cooling pavement
methods and roofs as they do not need significant transformations
of the existing surfaces.
The third scenario (GE scenario) involves the greening of
the existing surfaces. This scenario includes the following
measures:
- Existing public buildings are densely greened. That is by con-
verting traditional roofs and walls to green elements and add-
ing dense grass, large canopy trees and small lakes to these
buildings’ outdoor spaces.
- Vacant lands are converted to new small neighbourhood parks.
That is achieved by adding large canopy trees, more dense grass
and higher green hedges (4 m).
- Tiled and soiled spaces in the middle and adjacent to streets are
converted to green verges and medians by adding large canopy
trees and high-density grass.

8
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526

Fig. 8. Simulation scenarios of the two selected models.

- In model (B), 4 m hedges with pots are added in the bridge’s
medians.
- In model (B), existing cemeteries are surrounded by a line of
large canopy trees (Jacaranda Mimosifolia) and a deep water
channel. Trees with pots are added in the available vacant lands
of the existing cemeteries.
In the current and the following scenario, all trees inserted are
local and suitable for the simulated area climate. This is a basic rec-
ommendation for ensuring UGI vitality in a hot-dry climate [73].
Local trees with the higher shaded area available in ENVI-met, such
as Jacaranda Mimosifolia, Albizia Julibrissin and Gelditsia Triacan-
thos, are mainly inserted in the third and fourth scenarios. The
insertion of the local trees depends on the shaded area they pro-
vide. According to Albayati and Al Jawadi (2012), Jacaranda tree
offers the highest shaded area per day (2162 m2), Albizia and
Gelditsia provide a less shaded area per day (1295 and 1250 m2
respectively). On the other hand, palm trees offer the minimum
shading area among the local trees (475 m2) [74]. Accordingly,
Jacaranda tree was the most inserted tree in both models, while
no additional palms were added. Table 2 illustrates the details
and dimensions of each tree used in the simulation process. It also
shows the number of each type of these trees that are inserted in
the third and fourth scenarios.
The fourth scenario (NP scenario) involves converting some
current grey land uses to new urban parks. These uses include
the industrial and some mixed commercial uses that are to be
transferred out of the study area according to Baghdad Compre-
hensive Development Plan (2030). To convert these uses to new
local parks, the following measures are adopted:
- Transferring all industrial uses to its new proposed locations.
- Converting about a third of the available site to small dis-
tributed lakes.
- Large canopy trees, high green hedges (4 m), and denser grass
are planted throughout the site.
- Walkways and small plazas are added throughout the site. Light
concrete pavement is used in their construction as it has a high
albedo value (0.8).
- 4 m small water fountains are added in some points.
5. Results discussion
After simulating the four scenarios of the selected models, the
Ts value of the previously defined points was extracted. This was
achieved by using LEONARDO; another application of ENVI-met
4.4.5. Thermal values of all selected points were calculated at
3:00 pm; the peak hour of temperature in Baghdad was recorded
by the Iraqi meteorological organization and seismology.
The aim of choosing more than one model is to confirm the
results that can be generalized at all sites with similar conditions.

Table 2
Details of the trees inserted in the third and fourth simulation scenarios.

Model A
Tree Name Height Width Tree / BC scenario Tree / GE scenario Tree ratio / GE Tree / NP scenario Tree ratio / NP
(m) (m) scenario scenario
Jacaranda 15 9 14 790 59% 1283 57%
Mimosifolia
Albizia Julibrissin 12 11 30 430 29% 779 34%
Gelditsia 15 11 21 170 12% 200 9%
Triacanthos
Total / / 65 1390 100% 2262 100%
Model B
Tree Name Height Width Number in BC Number in GE Tree ratio in GE Number in NP Tree ratio in NP
(m) (m) scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario
Jacaranda 15 9 117 1244 62% 1615 65%
Mimosifolia
Albizia Julibrissin 12 11 34 372 18% 450 18%
Gelditsia 15 11 61 352 17% 358 14.5%
Triacanthos
Palm (small) 5 3 37 37 2% 37 1.5%
Palm (medium) 15 9 15 15 1% 15 0.6%
Total / / 264 2020 100% 2475 100%

9
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
Accordingly, the results of each model will be discussed separately.
After that, they will be compared with each other to investigate
their effectiveness in defining the surface temperature. If the two
models’ results are convergent, they can be generalized at the
entire high-risk area of Risafa municipality.
The temperature will be discussed as an average for surfaces
that were represented by more than one point, such as asphalt-
covered and soil-covered surfaces. So, the thermal change will also
be presented as an average. Herein, it should be mentioned that
any thermal change which is less than 1 °C will not be counted
in this average.
5.1. Results of model (A)
In model (A), Ts minimum average is reduced from 22.99 °C in
(BC scenario) to 20.96 °C in (NP scenario). Ts maximum average is
reduced from 48.1 °C in (BC scenario) to 40.78 °C in (NP scenario).
Accordingly, the thermal difference between the base case and the
full insertion of UGI assets represents a reduction Ts minimum
average of 2 °C, and the Ts maximum average by 8 °C (Fig. 9).
Table 3 reports the effect of the four proposed UGI scenario at
the Ts of different points in model (A). The following paragraphs
will detail the impact of each scenario separately.
In BC scenario, which refers to the base case of the simulated
model, it was found that (Table 3):
- The highest Ts of about 55 °C appears at light-weight concrete
roofs (A10 and A11).
- The lowest value of Ts of about 36 °C appeared at the sandwich
panel walls (A15), which are mainly found in the industrial
zone in the lower part of the model. Accordingly, the difference
between the highest and lowest value of Ts, in model A, is about
19 °C.
- Asphalt-covered streets have Ts value of about 46 °C (A1 and
A3). The temperature difference between A1 and A3 relates to
the difference in these streets’ urban geometry, such as the
aspect ratio and the shading rate.
- Soil-covered surfaces have Ts value of about 36 °C (A2, A4-9).
The difference in the base Ts between soil-covered points
relates to the difference in the value of the sky view factor of
these points.
- Burned brick walls with default plaster have Ts of about 42 °C
(A13 and A14).
- Sandwich panel roofs have Ts of about 41 °C (A12).
In CM scenario, which refers to the use of cooler materials in
covering the existing built-up surfaces, it was found the follows
(Table 3):
Fig. 9. Results of the simulation of model (A).
10
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
- After being covered with an elastomeric coating, light-weight
concrete roofs witness a Ts decrease by about 11 °C (A10 and A11).
- After spreading a layer of grey concrete, asphalt-covered streets
experience a Ts decline by about 4 °C (A1 and A3).
- By painting with new white plaster, the burned brick walls
experience a temperature reduction of about 4 °C (A13 and
A14).
Concerning GE scenario, which refers to greening the existing
uses, it was found that it relates mainly to the upper part of model
(A). According to this scenario, the below results were identified
(Table 3):
- After being densely vegetated, soil-covered surfaces in the
upper part of the model (A2 and A7) witness a significant Ts
decline of about 13 °C. The individual differences between Ts
decline of these points relate to the difference in their base
temperature.
- After being vegetated with a single medium canopy tree, soil-
covered surfaces in the street median (A4) witness a Ts decrease
of about 5 °C lower than the base case.
- After being converted to green, light-weight concrete roofs of
the public buildings (A11) witness a thermal drop of about
22 °C, that represents the highest Ts decline occurs as a result
of UGI injection in the study area.
- After being converted to green, burned brick walls of the public
building (A14) witness a decrease in Ts by 12 °C.
- When the cooling impact of GE scenario concerning public
buildings was compared to that of CM scenario, it was found
that the first has a double effect in reducing Ts of light-weight
concrete roofs (A11) and a triple effect in reducing Ts of burned
brick walls (A14).
Although they did not involve new UCI assets within GE scenar-
io, some points witness a Ts decline. In comparison with CM sce-
nario, A1 which refers to an asphalt-covered surface and A13
representing a burned brick walls of a house experiences a drop
in its Ts by about 3 °C. That is because of the cooling extent of
the new vegetated gardens added in the surrounding.
NP scenario, which involves the converting of some current
grey land uses to new urban parks. These land uses mainly exist
in the lower part of model (A). The scenario effect can be summa-
rized as follows (Table 3):
- After being densely vegetated, soil-covered surfaces in the
lower part of the model (A8 and A9) witness a significant Ts
decline of about 12 °C.
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
Table 3
Results of simulating the four proposed scenarios of UGI in model (A).
- Converting soil-covered surfaces to a deep lake (A5) leads to a
high Ts drop which about 19 °C.
- By converted to a pedestrian walkway with light concrete
(albedo 0.8), soil-covered surfaces (A6) witness Ts decline of
about 6 °C.
After being transferred and converted to new urban park,
sandwich panel roofs and walls experience an apparent Ts
decline (A12 and A15). The declining amount depends on the
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
surface type that was proposed instead of sandwich panel struc-
tures. A12, for example, was converted from a point at a sand-
wich panel roof to a grass-covered point. Accordingly, it
witnesses a decline in Ts by 12 °C. On the other hand, A15
was converted from a sandwich panel wall to a lake with deep
water. Accordingly, this point experiences a decrease in Ts by
about 17 °C.
Fig. 10 presents a graph that combines the effect of the pro-
posed UGI scenarios at the surfaces temperature in the model
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
Fig. 10. Effect of the proposed UGI scenarios at the surfaces temperature in the model (A).
(A). It can be observed the apparent decline of Ts between the base
case scenario and the other scenarios.
5.2. Results of Model (B)
In model (B), Ts minimum value is reduced from 22.91 °C in (BC
scenario) to 20.92 °C in NP scenario. Ts maximum value decreases
from 47.42 °C in BC scenario to 43.16 °C in (NP scenario). Accord-
ingly, the thermal difference between the base case and the full
insertion of UGI assets represents 1.99 °C of Ts minimum value
and 4.04 °C of Ts maximum value (Fig. 11). Table 4 reports the
effect of the four proposed UGI scenario at the Ts of different points
in model (B). The following paragraphs will detail the effect of each
scenario separately.
In BC scenario, the below results concerning Ts of different sur-
faces were identified (Table 4):
- The highest Ts value of about 54 °C appears at light-weight con-
crete roofs (B10 and B11).
- The lowest Ts value of about 21 °C appears at the aluminum
walls (B15) which are mainly found at the banks of Al Sheikh
Omer streets in the lower part of the model. Accordingly, the
difference between the highest and lowest value of Ts, in model
B, is about 33 °C. The low value of base Ts (about 24 °C) also
appears in vegetation-covered surfaces mainly found at the
bank of Mohammed Al-Qasim highway near Al-Canady Medical
College.
Fig. 11. Results of the simulation of model (B).
12
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
- Asphalt-covered streets at the street level have Ts value of
about 45 °C (B1 and A7-9).
- Asphalt-covered bridges have a higher Ts of about 48.0 °C (B12).
- Soil-covered surfaces have Ts value of about 34 °C (B2-B4 and B6).
- Burned brick walls with default plaster have Ts of about 40 °C.
Concerning CM scenario, it was found that (Table 4):
- After being covered with an elastomeric coating, light-weight
concrete roofs witness a Ts decrease by about 11 °C (B10 and
B11).
- After spreading a layer of grey concrete, asphalt-covered streets
and bridges experience a Ts decline by about 3 °C (B1 and B7-9).
- By painting with new white plaster, the burned brick walls expe-
rience a temperature reduction of about 5 °C (B13 and B14).
According to GE scenario, it was found that (Table 4):
- After being densely vegetated, soil-covered surfaces in the
upper part of the model (B2-B4) witness a significant Ts decline
of about 10 °C. The individual differences between Ts decline of
these points relate to the difference in their base temperature.
- After being vegetated with a single medium canopy tree in a
pot, soil-covered surfaces in cemeteries (B6) witness a Ts
decrease of about 5 °C lower than the base case.
- Adding a single medium canopy tree in a pot, asphalt-covered
bridges (B12) witness a Ts decline by about 15 °C.
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
Table 4
Results of simulating the four proposed scenarios of UGI in model (B).
- After being converted to green, light-weight concrete roofs of
the public buildings witness a thermal drop of about 19 °C (B11).
- After being converted to green, burned brick walls of the public
building (B14) witness a decrease in Ts by 14 °C.
- When the cooling impact of GE scenario concerning public
buildings’ roofs and walls was compared to that of CM sce-
nario, it was found that GE scenario has a double effect in
reducing Ts of light-weight concrete roofs (B11). It also has
a triple effect in reducing Ts of burned brick walls (B14) than
CM scenario.
13
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
- Adding densely vegetated medians in wide asphalt-covered streets
(B1 and B8) leads to a significant Ts decrease of about 20 °C.
- This scenario is beneficial even on the points that did not
change. In comparison with CM scenario, B13 witness a decline
of about 3 °C. That is because of the cooling extent of the new
vegetated median in the adjacent streets.
NP scenario relates mainly to the lower part of the model (B), at
the banks of Al Sheikh Omer streets. The simulation reveals the fol-
lowing aspects (Table 4):
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526

- After being transferred and converted to a new urban park,
asphalt-covered streets (A7 and A8) witness a dramatic change
of Ts which is about 21 °C. That represents the highest Ts
decline occur in model (B).
- After being transferred and converted to a deep water lake, alu-
minum walls (B15) experience a Ts reduction by only about
2 °C.
Fig. 12 illustrates the effect of the proposed UGI scenarios at the
model’s surfaces temperature (B). It can be observed the apparent
decline of Ts between the base case scenario and the other
scenarios.
5.3. Results confirmation
As previously mentioned in 5.1–2, a noticeable Ts decrease
between the base case scenario and the other scenarios in the
model (A) and (B). To confirm this effect of injecting UGI in the
study area, the results of the two models will be compared with
each other. If the two models’ results in lowering Ts are conver-
gent, the results will be confirmed and generalized at all sites with
similar conditions. During the results’ comparison, all surfaces that
exist in just one model, such as sandwich panel roofs and walls in
the model (A) and aluminum wall in the model (B), will be
excluded. That is because this comparison aims to confirm the
cooling effect of UGI at the similar surfaces that exist in both mod-
els. Tables 5 and 6 present the results of injecting UGI in reducing
Ts of built-up and natural surfaces in the two models. By analyzing
these results, it can be concluded that the cooling effects of inject-
ing UGI scenarios at similar surfaces in both models are conver-
gent. This confirms the UGI ability to reduce the intensity of
surface urban heat island (SUHI) in the entire high-risk area of
Risafa.
Herein, it should be mentioned that some surfaces exist in both
models but cannot offer the same opportunities to inject the same
UGI scenario. For example, in both models, streets are found, but in
the model (A), they cannot be included in GE scenario as they are
narrow and do not have enough space in the middle to add densely
vegetated medians.
6. The cooling effect of UGI in Baghdad city
To assess the cooling effect of UGI in Baghdad city, Ts will be
defined concerning the surfaces that exist in the two selected

Fig. 12. Effect of the proposed UGI scenarios at the surfaces temperature in the model (B).

Table 5
Cooling effect of UGI at the temperature of built-up surfaces in model A and B.

Surface Base T. Ts difference in CM Ts difference in GE scenario Ts difference in NP scenario

scenario
Model A B A B A B A B
Light concrete roofs 55 54 11 11 –22 19 Not included Not included
Asphalt-streets 46 45 4 3 Not included 20 Not included 21
Burned brick wall 42 40 4 5 12 14 Not included Not included

Table 6
Cooling effect of UGI at the temperature of natural surfaces in model A and B.

Surface Base T. Ts difference in Ts difference in GE scenario

CM scenario
Ts difference in NP scenario
Single tree Densely Grey concrete Densely vegetated Deep water
vegetated
Model A B A B A B A B A A A B
Soil 36 34 0 0 -5 -5 -13 -12 -6 -12 -19 Not included

14
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
models. Concerning the common surfaces, the cooling effect will be
defined as an average of the two models. These surfaces can exist
in any area of Baghdad city. After that, the cooling effect of UGI
concerning the surfaces that exist in just one model will be defined.
These surfaces can exist in some areas of Baghdad city.
Concerning light-weight concrete roofs, it was found that
(Fig. 13-A):
- In the base case, light-weight concrete roofs have the highest Ts
of about 55 °C. This high value of Ts relates to two main causes:
the first is about roofs’ being as horizontal unshaded surfaces
that are fully open to the solar radiation and the second relates
to the low albedo of concrete materials about 0.3.
- After being covered with an elastomeric coating (albedo 0.67),
light-weight concrete roofs witness a Ts decrease by about
11 °C. That relates to increase the roofs’ albedo by about (0.37).
- After being converted to green, light-weight concrete roofs of
the public building witness a decrease in Ts by 21 °C, that is
because of the vegetation’s natural ability to cool the hosting
surfaces.
Concerning asphalt-covered streets, it was found (Fig. 13-B):
- Asphalt-covered streets have a high Ts value of about 46 °C.
That is because of the low albedo of asphalt which is about 0.2.
- After spreading a grey concrete layer (albedo 0.35), asphalt-
covered streets experience a Ts decline by about 4 °C. That
results from increasing the streets albedo by about (0.15).
Fig. 13. Cooling effect of UGI at the surfaces in all areas of Risafa municipality.
15
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
- After being converted to densely vegetated medians, the
asphalt-covered spaces in the middle of streets witness a Ts
decline of about 20 °C. That is because of replacing asphalt with
soil and plants. So, the physical character of these surfaces was
inversed.
- After being converted to a densely vegetated park, the asphalt-
covered streets experience a Ts decline of about 21 °C. That
relates to inverse these surfaces character from entirely built-
up for natural one.
Concerning burned brick walls, it was found (Fig. 13-C):
- Burned brick walls have a base temperature of about 41 °C. This
results from these walls having a moderate value of albedo,
which is about 0.5.
- By painting with new white plaster (albedo 0.8), the burned
brick walls experience a temperature reduction of about 5 °C.
This temperature decline relates to increasing the wall albedo
by about (0.3).
- After being converted to green, burned brick walls of the public
building have a Ts decrease by 13 °C. That is because of the veg-
etation’s natural ability to cool the hosting surfaces.
Concerning soil-covered surfaces, it was found (Fig. 13-D):
- The base temperature of soil-covered surfaces is about 35 °C.
- After being vegetated with a single tree, soil-covered surfaces
witness a Ts of about 5 °C.
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
- After being converted to a pedestrian walkway with light con-
crete, Ts decrease about 6 °C, that is because the albedo value
of light-weight concrete (0.8) is higher than soil (0.2).
- After being densely vegetated, these surfaces witness a Ts
decline of about 13 °C. That is because of the vegetation’s natu-
ral ability to cool the hosting surfaces.
- By converting to a deep lake, Ts of soil-covered surfaces decline
by 19 °C.
Concerning sandwich panel roofs, it was found that (Fig. 14-A):
- Sandwich panel roofs have a base temperature of about 41 °C.
- No UGI measures or assets were proposed to Sandwich panel
roofs in CM and VE scenario.
- Transferring sandwich panel roofs and convert their sites to
grass-covered led to decrease Ts by 12 °C.
Concerning sandwich panel walls, it was found that (Fig. 14-B):
- Sandwich panel walls have the lowest base Ts in the model (A)
which is about 35 °C. Two main reasons lay behind this; the
first is about walls’ being as vertical surfaces that can be in
the shade for a certain number of hours. The second repre-
sents the high albedo of sandwich panel walls which is about
(0.7). That represents the highest value of albedo found in the
model (A).
- Transferring sandwich panel walls and adding deep lake instead
of them cause Ts decline by 17 °C.
Fig. 14. Cooling effect of UGI at different surfaces in some areas of Risafa municipality.
16
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
Concerning asphalt-covered bridges, it was found that (Fig. 14-
C):
- Base Ts of asphalt-covered bridges is about 48 °C. It is higher
than the asphalt-covered street. That is because bridges are just
like roofs consist of horizontal unshaded surfaces which are
fully open to solar radiation.
- After spreading a layer of grey concrete, Ts of asphalt-covered
bridges declines by about 3° C. That results from increasing
the bridges’ albedo by about (0.15).
- After adding a medium canopy tree in a pot, the temperature of
the bridges’ asphalt decreases by about 15 °C.
Concerning aluminum walls, it was found that (Fig. 14-D):
- Aluminum walls have the lowest Ts in the two models, which is
about 21 °C. That results from aluminum having to the highest
value of albedo, which is about (0.9).
- No UGI measures or assets were proposed to aluminum walls in
CM and VE scenario.
- Even if the aluminum walls are transferred and replaced by a
deep water lake with 4 m water fountain, Ts reduction will be
less than 2 °C.
The analysis of the two models’ results reveals some additional
results as follows:
- Deep water has the lowest Ts in the study area. That is very
compatible with the results of the previous studies as the Tigris
river refers to the coldest area in Baghdad city.
M.F. Abdulateef and H. A. S. Al-Alwan
- The effect of certain assets of UGI in lowering Ts depends on the
conditions of the original surface. The cooling effect of the
intensive garden used to cover soil-covered areas is higher than
when used instead of a sandwich panel roof. That is because the
soil-covered area has a higher base Ts surface than the sand-
wich panel roof.
7. Conclusions
This study aimed to offer knowledge about the effectiveness of
UGI in reducing SUHI in Baghdad city. By using ENVI-met, a com-
puter climatic simulation program, the temperature of the study
area surface was assessed according to four UGI scenarios which
involved the use of the cooler materials and the addition of differ-
ent green and blue assets to the existing grey uses. It was found
that UGI has an effective role in reducing the SUHI intensity by 4
to 22 °C in Baghdad city.
UGI cooling role depends on two main factors: the inserted
green or blue assets and the conditions of the original surface.
The cooling capacity of UGI, in a certain location, depends on many
parameters such as the diversity of the green and blue assets or the
type of the asset itself. By comparing the results of many points
with different assets, it was found that points that have large
canopy trees, hedges and water fountains witness a higher Ts low-
ering than those were covered only by grass. It was also noticed
that points which were covered with Jacaranda mimosifolia are
lower Ts than those covered with Gelditsia Triacanthos. That is
because the first offers higher shaded area than the latter.
Concerning the conditions of the original surfaces, it was found
that the cooling effect of the intensive garden when it was used to
green asphalt-covered area is higher than when it was used to the
green soil-covered area. That is because the first has higher base Ts
than the second surface.
To ensure the maximum cooling effect of UGI in Baghdad city,
UGI scenarios should be used in combination and according to
the surface type and specifications. It is difficult to state which sce-
nario is the best for cooling surfaces in Baghdad city as each type of
the available surfaces has its optimal scenario. The cooler materials
scenario was proved very effective for lowering Ts of the houses’
roofs and walls. Greening the existing land uses is proved very suit-
able for greening the public buildings and streets, while NP was
optimal when there were vacant lands that can be converted to
new parks. Gathering of more than one scenario has a significant
effect in reducing the Ts of any target area.
Employing UGI, as an essential strategy of climate change adap-
tation – SUHI in particular- in Baghdad city, can save the city’s
future from the starting risks of such a phenomenon. This infras-
tructure can also act as a nucleus for a wider adaptation strategy
at the country and the regional scale. So, UGI can help recover
the previous character of the city’s site which was natural and
vibrant and has been lost by the continuous urban sprawl.
8. Research limitation and further studies
The research was conducted to simulate the effectiveness of UGI
in reducing the surface urban heat island (SUHI). That is by com-
paring and monitoring the difference of the Ts value between the
base case scenario and the proposed UGI scenarios. Although the
field survey, site measurement, building modeling, materials
albedo and plants selection were scientifically-based used in this
study, there are still some limitations that relates either to the sim-
ulation program or to the simulation models or to both of them.
The first limitation relates to the size of simulation models which
is highly restricted by the available simulation grid of ENVI-met.
Further researches with other microclimate simulation programs
17
Ain Shams Engineering Journal 13 (2022) 101526
are recommended to investigate the effectiveness of UGI insertion
on Ts in a larger study area in Baghdad city. The second limitation
links to the number of the simulated models, which are two in the
current study. More selected models should be simulated in future
to more confirm the current research results. Finally, the ENVI-met
simulation depends on: specific heat of the air, turbulent fluxes of
heat, latent heat of vaporization, turbulent fluxes of vapor and heat
flux through built surfaces. Accordingly, this simulation did not
involve the anthropogenic heat, traffic for example, which can sig-
nificantly influence the results or offer other scenarios to reduce
SUHI in the study area. So, in case of the availability of the data
regarding such type of heat in Baghdad, further simulation pro-
cesses via other simulation programs could be conducted.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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Asst. Lecturer Maryam F Abdulateef. Maryam F
Abdulateef is a faculty member of Architectural Engi-
neering Department, Al Farabi University College since
2015. She obtained her BSc and MSc degrees in archi-
tectural engineering from University of Baghdad in 2012
and 2015 respectively. She obtained PhD in Architecture
and Environment in 2021 from University of Bagh-
dad. Currently, she is working on researches in the field
of urban green infrastructure and its impact on the
architecture and urban design.
Asst. Prof. Dr. Hoda A.S. Al-Alwan. Faculty member of
Architectural Engineering Department, College of Engi-
neering, University of Baghdad since 1989. Graduated
from University of Baghdad, Architectural Engineering
Dept. in 1983. Obtained MSc degree in Architecture in
1989, and PhD in Architectural Psychophysics in 2002
from University of Baghdad. Member of Scientific
Committee and Postgraduate Committee of Architec-
tural Department since 2006. Consultant in the Iraqi
Engineers Union since 2008. Supervised MSc and PhD
theses in the field of Architecture and Environment, and
participated in the membership of examining commit-
tees of postgraduate studies. Has 42 publications in international and local Archi-
tectural journals. Currently working on researches in the field of Environmental
Psychology.