WYŻSZA SZKOŁA FILOLOGICZNA

we Wrocławiu
Wydział Neofilologii

Agnieszka Ciećka–Grajerz

Wykorzystanie autonomii ucznia i strategii uczenia się jako

czynników motywujących w procesie przyswajania języka
angielskiego

Praca magisterska
napisana pod kierunkiem
prof. dr. hab. Piotra P. Chruszczewskiego

WROCŁAW 2013
 WYŻSZA SZKOŁA FILOLOGICZNA
we Wrocławiu
Wydział Neofilologii

Agnieszka Ciećka–Grajerz

The Use of Learner Autonomy and Learning Strategies as

Motivational Factors in the English Language Acquisition

M.A. thesis
written under the supervision of
prof. dr. hab. Piotr P. Chruszczewski

WROCŁAW 2013
Table of contents
Introduction 6
Chapter 1. Theoretical considerations on motivation……………………………………7
1.1. A review of motivation theories…………………………………………... 10
1.1.1. Theory of motivation on the basis of the pyramid of needs ……..11
1.1.2. Motivation in Achievement Motivation Theory …………………18
1.1.3. Motivation in the goal theories …………………………………..22
1.1.4. Cognitive attribution theories ……………………………………24
1.1.5. Motivation in Self-Determination Theory ……………………….27
1.2. A review of foreign language learning motivation theories ……………….29
1.2.1. The socio-educational model of motivation ……………………..30
1.2.2. L2 self as an important motivational factor in learning a foreign
……...language …………………………………………………………32
1.2.3. Task motivation in learning English ……………………………..34
1.2.4. Self–Worth theory of motivation ………………………………...37
1.2.5. Motivation on the basis of Expectancy–Value Theory…………..40
1.2.6. The concepts of helpless and mastery–oriented students ……….42
1.2.7. Willingness to communicate as a crucial factor in learning English
………………………………………………………………………….45
1.3. Chapter conclusions………………………………………………………..52
Chapter 2. Strategies increasing learner’s motivation……………………………….53
2.1. The definition of a good language learner…………………………………54
2.2. Learning styles and their influence on the choice of learning strategies …..57
2.3. Learner strategies leading to increase performance in language learning …59
2.1. Learner autonomy as a key to successful learning ………………………...65
2.4. Chapter conclusions………………………………………………………..70
Chapter 3. General conclusions……………………………………………………...71
References …………………………………………………………………………...74
Streszczenie………………………………………………………………………….80
List of tables and figures

Figure 1: The pyramid of needs created on the basis of Maslow’s text from 1943.....................12

Figure 2: Modified hierarchy of needs (Maslow 1954 cited in Gorman 2004: 47).....................15

Figure 3: The Process of Attribution (Shaver 1983, cited in Griffin [1991] 1994).....................25

Table 1: A process model of motivation (Dörnyei 2005: 85)......................................................36

Figure 4: Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, Noels

1998: 547)....................................................................................................................................46

Table 2: Multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner (Davis, Christodoulou, Seider, Gardner

2012).............................................................................................................................................57
Introduction
The work focuses on the topic on motivation as a determinant of success in learn-
ing English as a second language and the influence of language learning
strategies and learner autonomy as key factors in this field. It has been done
through the method of analysis and synthesis of books and articles devoted to
motivation in the space of over 60 years because a wider perspective gives an op-
portunity to analyse the topic more deeply. Many theories have been introduced
since the beginning of the twentieth century and the topic has been researched in
relation with psychology as well as with language learning and teaching. The aim
of the thesis is to show that the use of language learning strategies and the intro-
duction of learner autonomy increase the level of language learning motivation
among the learners as it helps them achieve success which, in turn, results in
higher degree of self-confidence. Students who are shown how to learn, do it
more willingly and do not give up if there is a lot of material to be learnt. Learner
autonomy lets the student feel in charge if their of learning process which has
also positive effects on the overall results of the language course.
The first chapter focuses on motivation theories from the psychological as
well as methodological point of view proposed since the mid-twentieth century.
The general motivation theories have been chosen to fit into the field of second
language learning and teaching. The second group presents theories specific for
language learning and they explain the reasons why people undertake language
courses and what makes them persist in such an enterprise. The second chapter is
devoted to some factors which are crucial for the learning process, namely the
learning strategies and learner autonomy. It also provides a definition of a good
language learner with a list of features which characterise such learners and the
level of motivation to continue it and gain further knowledge.
1. Theoretical considerations on motivation

This chapter focuses on the motivation theories in psychology. The phenomenon

has been widely researched by many well–known psychologists such as Sigmund
Freud (1922), Abraham H. Maslow (1943) or Bernard Weiner (1985) since the
beginning of the 20th century. The word m o t i v a t i o n is derived from the Latin
term motivus, meaning a moving cause, which suggests the initiation, direction,
intensity, and persistence of behaviour (Geen 1995). The definition implies that
to initiate any kind of action an individual has to be driven by an inner force
which is responsible for its continuation and termination throughout the whole
the activity. Motivation is also defined as “the level of effort an individual is
willing to expend toward the achievement of a certain goal” (Brennen 2006: 4).
According to Wiesław Łukaszewski (2004: 427) „(…) the term motivation is
used to describe all mechanisms responsible for initiation, orientation, upholding
and termination of an action”1 which means that a person must feel the need of
being successful in order to achieve a goal because if he or she lacks it, there is
no chance to finish the task they have undertaken. This may be observed in dif-
ferent fields of human life such as work or study. As Paul R. Kleinginna and
Anne M. Kleinginna suggest, motivation serves to activate or energize beha-
viour and direct it. Thus, to undertake a task and persevere in it, a person must
desire to be successful. Theories of motivation can be placed in one of four
groups, namely behavioural, cognitive, humanistic and biological. Motivation is
a key factor for all disciplines of human life such as work, studies or self-devel-
opment and it is important for people to increase its level in order to get better in
various areas of lives. The higher level of motivation is, the better the outcomes
are.

1
All translations done by the author unless otherwise stated
 Motivation in relation to the field of second language acquisition is an essen-
tial factor defined as the effort, which students make during the process of learn-
ing in order to achieve any success (Ellis [1997] 2003). Five types of motivation
explaining the reasons why students start language courses and persist in them
notwithstanding the long time it takes to be completed are suggested by Rod Ellis
([1997] 2003):
– instrumental motivation which means that learners put some effort into
learning L2 because they want to get good marks, a better job or to
pass an exam;
– integrative motivation which means that learners make effort because
they want to integrate with a target language community or they are in-
terested in L2 culture and they want to feel integrated with it;
– intrinsic motivation which takes place when learners do not have any
special reason for learning L2 but they are simply interested in lan-
guages and treat it as a hobby;
– Machiavellian motivation which is to be used to manipulate or over-
come other people;
– resultative motivation, which is a bit different from the previous ones
because it is not the cause of learning but its result. When a student is
successful in learning the second language, he or she may become
more motivated for further learning and the level of effort made in or-
der to acquire the language grows with their good marks or higher
salary.
Students learning the second language are driven by different factors which may
be classified to one of the groups mentioned above. Depending on one's language
aptitude and attitude, students may display versatile levels of motivation. Positive
attitude towards the second language may be developed by making lessons more
attractive for the students or suggesting them learning strategies. Classroom
activities should be chosen adequately to the level of the group but they also
should be adjusted to their interest as much as possible so the students are more
willing to take part in them and to compete in the peer group. A reasonable level
of competition works as a motivational factor but if it becomes too high, it occurs
to be negative as in such a situation students work only to get better results and
not to show themselves as competent and clever.
Another representative in the field of the second language acquisition is
Robert C. Gardner who introduced the concept of motivation consisting of three
elements: the effort, the desire of achievement and prosperous attitude towards
the language learned (Gardner 1985). Further on he explains that all those ele-
ments must go together in order to produce real motivation. If the individual is
motivated, they work harder and enjoy the activity. It brings them to high
achievements which, in turn, cause a greater level of involvement in the activity.
Only if such a situation happens, it is possible to call such a person motivated.
1.1. A review of motivation theories

The plurality of the motivation theories may lead to some degree of ambiguity. It
appears in motivation theories, as well as in the theories of personality. What lies
in the author’s field of interest, it is also closely related to learning and the meth-
odology of teaching as it plays an important role in the second language acquisi-
tion. Language learners must have certain degree of motivation to be able to
make the effort to study it for an overlong period of time which is characteristic
for courses in foreign languages. A person who makes the decision to study one
of them must set their goals, which determine the drive to work. This may lead to
the choice of some learning strategies, which are helpful during the process of
language acquisition. Although it is the learner, who makes the choice, the
teacher’s role cannot be underestimated, as his or her demeanour influences stu-
dent’s attitude towards the subject. The aim of this chapter is to show some of the
motivation theories, which may be applied to second language learning and ac-
quisition.
1.1.1. Theory of motivation on the basis of the pyramid of needs

Psychologists have presented a vast range of motivation theories. Some of them

are related to human behaviour itself and some may be freely used in the method-
ology of foreign language teaching as they describe factors which drive people to
learn. One of the leading conceptions dealing with motivation is Abraham
Maslow’s [1908–1970] hierarchy of needs. In his work published in 1943, Abra-
ham Maslow claims that human behaviour is determined by needs, which have to
be gratified in order for a person to function properly. He proposes a definition
consisting of five groups of needs in which he placed physical drives as well as
the ones dealing with human psycho such as cognitive or self-actualization needs.
He explained that in order to fulfil needs from the higher levels, the physiological
drives must be fulfilled in a degree which allows the individual to concentrate on
the next things which he or she needs to be happier.
Figure 1: The pyramid of needs created on the basis of Maslow’s text from 1943

At the bottom of the pyramid of needs there are the physiological ones such as
hunger, thirst, air or sex drive which must be necessarily met so that individual
may function. Every other need becomes less important when a person lacks food
or drink or cannot sleep for enough amount of time.

Undoubtedly these physiological needs are the most pre-potent of all needs.
What this means specifically is, that in the human being who is missing
everything in life in an extreme fashion, it is most likely that the major motiva -
tion would be the physiological needs rather than any others. A person who is
lacking food, safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food
more strongly than for anything else. (Maslow 1943: 373)
 At the next level the so-called safety needs may be found. Among these
one may distinguish the desire for stable employment, shelter in a safe neigh-
bourhood or a good health insurance policy. These needs appear when the previ-
ous ones are satisfied. A person seeks safety since the early childhood and it is
this period, which decides whether he or she will feel secure for the rest of their
life. Children in the first period of their lives exhibit all the emotions and this is
why scientists know much more about their reactions to the lack of safety as they
show every emotion with the whole body. Furthermore, Maslow (1943: 377)
states that young children “(...) need an organized world rather than an unorgan-
ized or unstructured one” and that this order shows them that they are secure.
Adults inhibit feelings in order to disguise them from the public view as they are
taught to do so. When a threatening situation happens, adults seek to feel assured
but they will not show that something is wrong.
When security needs are satisfied, the social needs emerge. The need for
love, friendship or good family relationship may be numbered here. Which are
equally important as the previous ones because people are sociable creatures who
must have their own place in a group in order to feel safe. An individual, who
does not starve for food or safety, will strive for close relationships, which will
give him or her the feeling of being loved and the possibility to give love to
someone as well. The need for affection is often associated with one’s sexuality
as these two elements may, and should, go hand in hand with each other. How-
ever, sex is a purely physiological drive, which lies on the bottom of the pyramid.
It transpires that this group prevails other needs and seeking for love may be-
come psychopathic. This happens when a person had all he or she needed to sur-
vived but felt unloved.
When a person has satisfied the lower needs, he or she may feel that there
is another element lacking in their life. They start to look for it from others as
well as higher self-evaluation, which belongs to the esteem needs.
 These needs may be classified into two subsidiary sets. These are, first, the de-
sire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of
the world, and for independence and freedom. Secondly, we have what we may
call the desire for reputation or prestige (defining it as respect or esteem from
other people), recognition, attention, importance or appreciation (Maslow,
1943: 381).

It is important to gratify these needs as they lead to the feeling of being

fulfilled what in turn helps to move to the next level, referred to as self-actualiza-
tion needs expressed by the desire for becoming something more than the person
currently is. It means that human beings are designed in such a way that they al-
ways want to achieve more so if the previous sets of needs are fulfilled, they
search for other achievements. People need to develop their full potential and not
stop in one point.
Abraham Maslow (1954) modified the pyramid by adding one extra level
placed between esteem and self-actualization needs. It consists of two elements
called cognitive needs, which are the needs for mental stimulation and aesthetic
needs, which describe the need for art and beauty. They are equally important as
the others because human beings need some additional stimulation to express
feelings and art gives them such an opportunity. Beauty plays an important role
in the development of one’s personality because attractive things are an inevit-
able element of life. Almost every individual seeks for mental exertion and cog-
nition. These two sets of needs, similarly to love, the feeling of belonging and the
esteem needs, are not completely connected with physiology, but they have to be
satisfied before self–actualization needs emerge.
Figure 2: Modified hierarchy of needs (Maslow 1954 cited in Gorman 2004: 47)

In Maslow’s opinion the needs do not have to be fulfilled in 100 per cent,
but the higher the degree of satisfaction, the more clearly the next need emerges.
It rarely happens that all needs are 100 per cent gratified but if this situation hap-
pens, the person becomes the so-called self-actualizer. According to Gorman
(2004), Maslow enumerated a list of characteristics, which must be possessed by
an individual aiming to be fully successful in life:
– a greater understanding of new or uncertain situations and life experi-
ences;
– the ability to react to changing circumstances;
– total acceptance of oneself and others for what they are;
– resistance to the norm, but not deliberately unconventional;
 – concern for the welfare of others;
– ability to develop satisfying personal relationships;
– high creativity;
– sound moral and ethical standards.
Phil Gorman (2004) states that Maslow’s characteristics are unrealistic
and almost no one can possess all of them. He claims that majority of ordinary
people may only acquire some of them and few who are able to have them all are
special and, as he cites Maslow, “(...) more capable of achieving more than
others” (Maslow 1954, cited in Gorman 2004: 45). It means that only unique in-
dividuals may reach the goal they have set and it depends on the person’s person-
ality and attitude. One may aim at accomplishing an established target and their
determination leads them to be successful.
The theory of motivation based on the pyramid of needs shows that human
behaviour is driven by needs, which must be gratified in order to achieve any
goals in their lives. Only individuals who have satisfied their basic needs aim to
self-actualization, which underlies their ambitions. If one’s physiological needs
are at least partially realised, they start to search for something more and it is ex-
actly at that moment when the process of further aspiration is initialized. They
are not hungry or thirsty, they feel safe and loved so they want to reach another
goal which, for example, may be learning a new language. Without satisfaction
of the basic needs it would not be possible because human beings first seek to
gratify the needs at the bottom of the hierarchy and then they can move up the
pyramid.
Maslow’s theory has provided the foundation for many further theories
that apply directly to motivation and Language Learning Motivation. These are
characterised by goals that have to be set by the person in order to be able to un-
dertake an activity and bring it to the end even if it needs a long time to be com -
pleted. Penelope Lockwood and her colleagues (2002) suggest that there are two
models of motivation: positive role models connected with achieving goals
through advantageous reinforcement and negative role models characterized by
feared self characterised by avoiding failure (Lockwood, Jordan and Kunda
2002). Individuals incited in a positive way learn because they want to achieve
better school result or attain some knowledge which may be useful every now
and then. The negative influence is seen in learners who make the effort to study
in order not to get bad notes. It does not matter what kind of motivation a learner
is driven by, but it plays an important role that often determines students’ aca-
demic results.
1.1.2. Motivation in Achievement Motivation Theory

One of the motivational theories is the so-called Achievement Theory, which is

based on the need for achievement and fear of failure. It derives from late 1930s.
It means that an individual may start an activity because he or she wants to suc-
ceed in it and the only result they are expecting is knowledge which may be
gained after completing the task or, on the other hand, the reason for initializing
an action may be simply the dread that they will not complete it correctly or even
completely fail. Regardless of the incentive which drives a person to undertake
the action and complete it, the individual is motivated to such a degree that he or
she does not cancel the task before it is completed because the need for achieve-
ment leads them to a conviction that they may be successful or the fear of failure
makes them work until they finish what they have started. Both drives may be al-
most equally strong and then the individual decides why they undertake the ac-
tion (Atkinson, Feather [1966] 1974).
The theory of human needs proposed by Henry Murray (1938) constituted
the basis for the achievement theory because he was the first to name the notions
of the need to achieve and the fear of failure, which later were used by other re-
searchers to create their theories. Murray suggested (1938: 80–81) the division of
needs, similar division was mentioned in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, into two
categories: primary, called viscerogenic and secondary, called psychogenic
needs. The former group is connected with the human body and consists of
drives such as: the need for sleep, food, water or air while the latter has no con-
nection with the body and is related to psychological needs such as:
– acquisition (acquisitive attitude) connected with gaining possessions
and property; grasping, snatching or stealing things; bargaining or
gambling; working for money or goods;
 – conservance (conserving attitude) related to collecting, repairing,
cleaning and preserving things; protecting against damage;
– order (orderly attitude) examples include arranging, organizing, put-
ting away objects; being tidy, clean and scrupulously precise;
– retention (retentive attitude) connected with retaining possession of
things; refusal of giving or lending; being frugal, economical and
miserly;
– construction (constructive attitude) characterized by organizing and
building;
– superiority (ambitious attitude) which has been broken up into two
needs: the Achievement that is the will to power over things, people
and ideas and the Recognition that is related to efforts to gain approval
and high social status;
– exhibition (exhibitionistic attitude) which is attracting attention to
one's person; exciting, amusing, stirring, shocking, thrilling others;
– inviolacy (inviolate attitude) which includes desires and attempts to
prevent a depreciation of self -respect, to preserve one's good name, to
be immune from criticism, to maintain psychological distance;
– infavoidance (infavoidant attitude) connected with avoidance of fail-
ure, shame, humiliation, ridicule; refraining from attempting to do
something that is beyond one's power;
– defendance (defensive attitude) which is defence against blame or be-
littlement;
– counteraction (counteractive attitude) connected with overcoming de-
feat and selection of the hardest tasks in order to defend one's honour
in action.
This extended list of psychogenic needs describes a human being as a complex
individual who knows what he or she wants to do so that they achieve any suc-
cess in their lives. People have higher feelings which let them distinguish what is
good and what is bad as well as drive them to undertake actions which result in
success.
Murray’s theory was the basis for the one proposed by John Atkinson and
Norman Feather in 1966 (Atkinson, Feather [1966] 1974) where such elements
coming from the theory of needs as the need for achievement and the fear of fail-
ure may be found. An individual may be driven either by the former or the latter
one but in both cases he or she strongly feels whether they want to attempt the
task or not (Knowels 1969). If the feelings of approaching the task and avoiding
it were equally intense, the result would be calculated by summing them up. The
decision will be made in favour of the one that will seem stronger depending on
the person’s attitude towards the task. For people who are optimistic and want to
complete the task, motivation for approaching the task will win. But for people
who are driven by fear of failure the stronger motivation will be to avoid the task
and they will never decide to try to undertake it. In some situations a person may
experience positive and negative motivation at the same time and the decision de-
pends on the relative strength of the opposing motives. The same task may be
perceived to be easy by an individual whose probability of success is high, but
arduous to one who does not feel they will succeed in it (Atkinson, Feather
[1966] 1974).
The first element of the theory that has to be noticed is the need to achieve
– a phenomenon that influences students to be successful at every task they un-
dertake. It depends on a student’s determination and it is not equal for every indi-
vidual. If the degree of the need to achieve is high, students work hard to be suc-
cessful even in a task that is not enjoyable for them simply to show their superi-
ority over the rest of the group, which, in turn, creates more positive attitude to-
wards success. If the desire for success is highly developed, it may overwhelm
negative factors such as lack of skills, experience, ability or time that can lead to
failure. A person motivated in a positive way does not let these negative elements
influence his or her performance in the task and tries to overcome them (Atkin-
son, Feather [1966] 1974). Relating it to the methodology of foreign language
teaching, teachers should awake the need to achieve in their students to show
them that they are able to succeed. The positive way of motivation is an import-
ant factor influencing students’ school performance and resulting in high grades
and language mastery whereas negative motivation leads to the higher probability
of failure.
In some cases the motive to avoid failure overwhelms the need to achieve
and stops a person from undertaking a task. The fear of being unsuccessful is so
strong that the individual is unable to initialize an action and they do not even at-
tempt it. Such people avoid situations in which they might look ridiculous or
show their shortcomings in front of others and so they avoid circumstances in
which they may not have much control over what is happening. This may, on the
one hand, lead to a completely passive attitude in which they do nothing in order
to succeed. On the other hand, this fear may also have a positive influence on a
student because if he or she experiences a situation in which they get a negative
response or they fail, they will try to prevent themselves from repeating it (Atkin-
son, Feather [1966] 1974).
1.1.3. Motivation in the goal theories

Human motivation should be directed towards objectives which need to be set in

order for the individual to work properly and achieve any success in different
areas of life. If the goals are established in a way which allows to improve one’s
performance, the person is more willing to undertake a task and complete it. The
more attainable the goal is, the higher the possibility of success and future repeti-
tion of the performance is. The main assumption of the theory is that a positive
outcome is related to reasonably defined goal.
Goal theories suggested by Edwin Locke and Gary P. Latham (2006) may
be described as setting goals which may improve performance. They should be
reasonably difficult so that they require some effort from the learner but not un-
manageable because then the individual would be more likely to fail rather than
succeed which, in turn, would cause low level of motivation. The difficulty of the
goal should be set in a way which allows the individual to accomplish the task
but with a certain level of effort. The learner’s performance is higher if he or she
behaves in a way which leads them to some goals which they accept and then
there is a chance to achieve what they have set. Christopher Earley and Christina
Shalley (1991) presented four stages of a person’s reasoning:
– establishment of standards to be attained – the stage during which an indi-
vidual sets a criterion or a goal;
– evaluation of whether the standards can be achieved – here the individual
checks whether the goal is possible to be accomplished;
– evaluation of whether the standards match personal goals – it takes place
when the person compares his or her personal goals with what he or she
has set and verifies if they coincide;
– approval of the standards, setting the goal and proceeding towards it – the
individual accepts the goal and starts to do the task.
These four stages take place within a person and exert a great influence on the
decision whether he or she should undertake a task and persist in it. If the evalu-
ation has a positive effect, the individual is more likely to succeed in education
and life because they are more courageous and do not quit actions owing to the
fear of failure which stops another people from any actions.
1.1.4. Cognitive attribution theories

Another important theory is the one concerned with human attribution of others’
behaviour, namely cognitive attributions theory which was first presented in
1980s. It resembles the Expectancy–Value model as it also analyses own or oth-
ers’ performances but it differs in such a way that in the Expectancy–Value the-
ory past experiences serve as predictors for the future ones, and in cognitive attri-
butions one analyses present behaviours and “ascribes reasons for those beha-
viours” (Petri 2005: 9). This means that any behaviour must have some motives
which give sense to persistence in it and its completion.
Concerning the cognitive attribution theories, Fritz Heider [1896–1988]
was the first one to point out the importance of the individual perceives his or her
successes and failures. His book The Psychology of Personal Relationships
(1958) constituted the basis for other psychologists researching cognitive motiva-
tion theories. He suggested that people are “naive psychologists” who try to ex-
plain their own and others’ behaviour. Attribution is defined as d r a w i n g i n -
f e r e n c e s and presented as a three-step process (Griffin [1991] 1994). The first
step takes place when the individual perceives the action. The second one occurs
when he or she makes the judgement whether it has been intended. The third one
makes the attribution. The process is presented on a diagram:
Figure 3: The Process of Attribution (Shaver 1983, cited in Griffin [1991] 1994)

The author explained the diagram on the basis of his own experiences in a court
but it may be seen as attributing the actions to one of the two factors: the first one
is the self, internal attribution: feelings or personal features, or the environment,
external attribution: the situation, good or bad luck, accident. Both situations may
have positive and negative results. If leaners ascribe successes only to external
factors, they are more likely to fail because they think that it was only by chance
that they succeeded while the students who are internally motivated know that
the good outcomes are connected with their knowledge or ability(Griffin [1991]
1994).
Bernard Weiner’s (1985) cognitive attributions theory assumes that suc-
cess–oriented individuals make an attempt to achieve any success and perceive it
as a result of the effort they have made while failure–avoiding people see it as
luck or a similar phenomenon. Concerning failures, motivated individuals ascribe
them to the lack of effort and not to inability as it is in the case of failure–avoid -
ing students. If one does not try hard enough and fails, he or she does not give up
and sees the possibility of future success but if they do not make any effort, they
feel guilty which may have negative influence on their future performance. Tak-
ing classroom environment into consideration, teachers often treat students who
seem to work harder in a more preferential way than ones who seem to work less
(Covington 1984). It seems that individuals who regard themselves as competent,
achieve more success in their lives as they do not give up actions they have un-
dertaken and they are more likely to repeat the action which has been rewarded
before (Weiner 1985, Covington 1984).
These theories emphasise the existence of external and internal factors that
govern human behaviour which makes them similar to the concepts of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation presented by Ryan and Deci (2000). Individuals may be
driven my their needs, feelings or interests and he or she will achieve a greater
success than the person who is motivated by such external factors as higher
grades or a better job. The action is more likely to turn out a success if both types
of factors affect the person as the task which is difficult but enjoyable and useful
is done with a higher degree of engagement than the one which is easy but does
not give any pleasure. In the previously presented theories, the external factors
such as experiences or expectancies are more important than the internal ones
and the following ones are concerned with the self.
1.1.5. Motivation in Self-Determination Theory

Apart from the need for achievement and the fear of failure described in
Achievement Motivation Theory, one may also find another need, which drives a
person to undertake an action, namely the need for competence described by Ed-
ward Deci and Richard Ryan in the so called Self–Determination Theory in 1985.
The authors suggested that people have an inborn need to be competent and find
solutions to problems as well as finish undertaken actions. It means that an indi-
vidual has to develop his or her competence in order to feel fulfilled.
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan (1985) suggest two types of motivation:
intrinsic, which consists of internal factors, such as joy, pleasure or satisfaction
and extrinsic, which means doing something to achieve results. Intrinsic motiva-
tion seems to be more effective in the methodology of teaching as it is connected
with the interest in the activity which makes it more absorbing. Individuals mo-
tivated intrinsically do not strive for any results, marks or rewards, but they
simply look forward to taking part in an entertaining task. At the source of this
theory there is Robert White’s (1959 as mentioned in Elliot et al. 2002) assump-
tion that humans are born with the need to gain knowledge and possess the power
over the world and it may be applied to the field of language learning and teach-
ing as it is the first theory that deals with human competence. If one strongly
feels the need for developing their full potential, they seek for new stimulation
which allows them to acquire some knowledge and find pleasure in such an
activity. Andrew Elliot and his colleagues (2002) base their theory on the belief
that people are born with the want to be competent in actions they undertake and
this need matures throughout the whole life. White’s standpoint is that children
develop their competence since they are born and the need to perform it in-
creases with age. It means that it is natural to aim at higher level of knowledge.
Young children perform different task throughout their lives and they expect the
audience’s reaction immediately after they complete the action. This reaction
may arouse positive or negative emotions. Elliot and colleagues’ competence
motivation differs from intrinsic motivation in that in the former the learners seek
for the outcome, while the latter one is about doing an activity for the sake of
pleasure (Deci and Ryan 2000; Elliot et al. 2002). Despite the discrepancy
between the two terms, they both are proper to be applied to the acquisition of the
second language as students, who enjoy the lesson or the course make more ef-
fort to learn and, moreover, they attempt to attain a goal they have set.
1.2. A review of foreign language learning motivation theories

Language learning is an arduous and sustained process and individuals who un-
dertake a language course need a high level of motivation in order to complete it,
and what is more important, to succeed in it. Last three decades have offered a
vast range of language learning motivation theories defining elements which
have to exist in order to make learning fruitful. The authors of these theories sug-
gest ideas which can help the teachers to increase their students’ motivation. It is
the teacher who guides the learners throughout the course and may use some
strategies to increase the level of motivation in his or her classroom. Language
learning strategies, as defined by Rebecca Oxford, are “operations employed by
the learner to aid the acquisition , storage, retrieval, and use of information”. The
author further expanded the definition to include ”specific actions taken by the
learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more
effective, and more transferrable to new situations” (Oxford 1990: 8). The use of
such strategies shows that teaching has changed from teacher centred to learner
centred and the role of the teacher has become the role of a guide helping to find
the right way of learning.
This chapter presents motivation theories connected with second language
learning and teaching so with what drives people to undertake a language course,
or a different form of language learning, and makes them persist in it and collect
good grades. Another important aspect presented in the chapter is devoted to
strategies which increase students’ motivation as well as help the teachers organ-
ize their classroom in such a way that the members of the group willingly learn
the language in the environment which is set in context of English-speaking
countries.
1.2.1. The socio-educational model of motivation

One of the crucial theories of language learning motivation is the so called socio-
educational model (Gardner 1985) based on the assumption that learning a
second or foreign language cannot take place without the feeling of integration
with the target group. It means that in order to fully acquire the language, one
needs to feel a part of the speech community in which it is used. Another import-
ant element is that there is no language learning without the acquisition of target
culture. Attitudes play a great role in this model as if one has positive feelings to-
wards English, he or she learns it with pleasure and for its own sake. Students
who do not like English or Americans do not make any effort to acquire it as they
do not see any reason for learning something that is not interesting for them and,
moreover, they do not like. Creating attitudes is the role of the teacher who can
show the culture, lifestyle or history in a way which makes learning more enjoy-
able even for learners with negative attitudes.
Foreign languages differ from other school subjects because it cannot be
learned without the social context as it is an integrative part of the self and the
culture (Williams 1994, cited in Dörnyei 1998). Marion Williams (1994) states:

There is no question that learning a foreign language is different to learning

other subjects. This is mainly because of the social nature of such a venture.
Language, after all, belongs to a person’s whole social being; it is part of one’s
identity, and is used to convey this identity to other people. The learning of a
foreign language involves far more than simply learning skills, or a system of
rules, or a grammar; it involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new
social and cultural behaviours and ways of being, and therefore has a significant
impact on the social nature of the learner (Williams 1994, cited in Dörnyei
1998: 122).
The social dimension of foreign language learning is such an important factor in
the process of acquisition as it serves to show one’s identity which has a great
meaning in multicultural communities where the majority of people speaks more
than one language because of bilingualism or multilingualism. This situation also
takes place in communities where fluent knowledge of a foreign language is a ba-
sic skill which one needs to master in order to get a job. A great number of
learners are instrumentally motivated for the reason of a good job or passing an
exam.
Language learning motivation is “the extent to which an individual works
or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction
experienced in this activity” (Gardner 1985: 10) which means that the person’s
wish to learn something as well as the pleasure found in this activity make him or
her motivated. Robert Gardner defines three components essential in the process
of learning: m o t i v a t i o n a l i n t e n s i t y , d e s i r e t o l e a r n t h e l a n g u a g e
and an a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e a c t o f l e a r n i n g t h e l a n g u a g e ( Dörnyei
1998: 122). If one of the elements lacks, no real motivation takes place because it
is an internal e n g i n e which consists of the effort made in order to complete the
task, pleasure found in it and the learner’s attitude towards the language and it
can be recognized only with all of these components. Contrary to Gardner’s opin-
ion, Zoltán Dörnyei (1998: 122) claims that strong motivation does not always
contain all three of them because task-enjoyment is sometimes substituted by ne-
cessity and the person who undertakes an action finds no pleasure in it but never-
theless he or she feels strongly motivated and this motivation is also real.
This model of language learning motivation consists of social and psycho-
logical factors of motivation. Robert Gardner (1985) states that real motivation
comprises of the student’s effort in order to complete the task, his or her desire to
learn and feelings toward the language to be learned. If the learners have positive
attitudes towards the target group, they do their best to gain the knowledge of
something that they like and their outcomes are higher than of those who do not
integrate with the native speakers of the second language.

1.2.2. L2 self as an important motivational factor in learning a foreign

language

The socio-educational model presented by Gardner (1985) constituted the basis

for later theories of language learning motivation. It has been argued that integ-
rativeness is a key explanation for learning a foreign language as it is the person
who finds the reasons for undertaking a course and the main cause may not be to
integrate with the other society. Making a decision is an internal process which
depends on the person’s traits of character and the motives often differ, some-
times students learn the language to pass an important exam or to get a better job
in a different country. Even if they aim to possess a native-like proficiency of the
language, they are often extrinsically motivated.
To explain the discrepancy which takes place inside the person during the
process of decision-making, Zoltán Dörnyei (2005) proposes the so called motiv-
ational self-system in which he distinguished three dimensions:
– the Ideal L2 Self , so the one which expresses the persons desire to become
a second language speaker and master it at the level of a native speaker;
this self is highly motivating as most learners want to reduce the differ-
ence between the actual and ideal self;
 – the Ought-to Self in which the learner believes that he or she should mas-
ter the language in order to meet some requirements and achieve some
success;

– the L2 Learning Experience which is specifically related to the learning

environment: attitudes towards learning a language or the situation in the
classroom. This element of the motivational self-system is believed to be
the most influential for the learner and such element as the teacher, the
curriculum or the peer group play an important role in the process of mo-
tivation.

This model shows the importance of the student’s perception of himself or her-
self and the way it influences their learning process. Each of the selves works as
a motivational factor but they affect the learner at a different level. The Ideal Self
seems to be the most beneficial as many people aim to become what they find
ideal and to reduce the gap between what they currently are and what they want
to be. Concerning the Ought-to Self, one’s beliefs that he or she learns a language
in order to pass an exam or get a rise in the salary because his or her boss or
teacher requires it. The last element, the L2 Learning Experience may, on the one
hand, be perceived as the intrinsic motivation (the learner’s attitude towards the
language) but on the other hand, it may be analysed as the extrinsic motive be-
cause such elements as the materials or classroom environment are important.
1.2.3. Task motivation in learning English

A process of learning a foreign language is long and demanding a great effort to

be completed. People who decide to undertake it must be highly motivated in or-
der to achieve any success in assigned tasks. Zoltán Dörnyei (2002) defined tasks
as activities which students do during the classes in a specific context which is
the learning environment with strictly set time boundaries . The author suggests
that the tasks can be analysed from two perspectives: theoretical, which is lan-
guage processing, and methodological, which is instructional design defined as
“(…) a technology for the development of learning experiences and environ-
ments which promote the acquisition of specific knowledge and skill by stu-
dents” (Merrill, Drake, Lacy, Pratt 1966). This means that the student’s language
use is equally important as the teacher’s language which serves to convey in-
formation and instruct learners.
In Dörnyei’s work (2002) two crucial factors which are observed while the
learning process can be found: trait and state motivation (Tremblay, Goldberg,
Gardner 1995). The first one refers to one’s individual characteristics such as in-
terest in English or attitude towards learning languages or towards the native
speakers of English and suggests the existence of two types of learners: extrovert
(who enjoy learning in a group) and introvert (who prefer individual learning).
What is important in trait motivation is that it is stable while state motivation is
connected with contemporary factors such as the balance between the effort and
time devoted to learning and the results. Both types of motivation may meet at
some point and this leads to a situation that the learner is driven by internal
factors (his/her interest in the language) and by “(…) situation-specific, task-de-
pendent factors (e.g. the challenging nature of the task)” (Dörnyei 2002) which
means that both factors are equally important. In an English as a foreign language
classroom, it is important that students have positive attitudes towards the culture
of the English-speaking countries and their inhabitants as it gives them favour-
able feelings about the classes and tasks which are assigned by the teacher who
may influence students’ way of thinking by introducing some facts connected
with the lifestyle, music or cinematography of such countries in an interesting
way.
Another concept connected with task motivation is p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d
a p p r o a c h which is the analysis of motivation during the whole task which may
last for up to several hours. Here, motivation is seen as a dynamic process which
starts with the initiation of a task and finishes simultaneously with it. Dörnyei
(2002: 140) suggests that it is improbable to keep a stable level of motivation
through the whole process. He introduces a model of learning motivation in
learning a second language consisting of three stages (Dörnyei, Ottó 1998). The
model describes possible elements which may influence the level of student’s
motivation during the process of carrying out a task. The number of these factors
is considerably high but all of them play an important role in the language
classroom even if the learner’s role in the choice of the task is low. Students ap-
proach the task with a certain level of motivation resulting from his or her atti-
tudes towards the L2 group but this kind of motivation is soon replaced by the
motivational influences existing in the actional stage which has the greatest signi-
ficance in the learning process as it takes place during the execution of the task.
Preactional stage – Actional stage – exec- Postactional stage –
choice motivation utive motivation motivational retro-
Motivational func- Motivational func- spection:
tions: tions: Motivational func-
– setting goals, – generating and carry- tions:
– forming intentions, ing out subtasks – formation of causal
– launching action. – ongoing appraisal (of attributions,
Main motivational in- one's performance) – elaboration of stand-
fluences: – action control (self- ards and strategies,
– various goal proper- regulation) – dismissal of intention,
ties (e.g. goal relev- Main motivational in- followed by further
ance, specificity and fluences: planning.
proximity), – quality of the learning Main motivational in-
– values associated experience (pleasant- fluences:
with the learning pro- ness, need signific- – attributional factors
cess itself, as well ance, coping poten- (e.g. attributional
with its actions and tial, self and social styles and biases),
consequences, image), – self-concept beliefs
– attitudes towards the – sense of autonomy, (e.g., self-confidence
L2 and its speakers, – teachers’ and parents’ and self-worth),
– expectancy of success influence, – received feedback,
and perceived coping – classroom reward- praise, grades.
potential, and goal structure
– learner beliefs and (e.g., competitive or
strategies, cooperative),
– environmental sup- – influence of the
port or hindrance. learner group,
– knowledge and use of
self-regulatory
strategies (e.g., goal
setting, learning and
self-motivating
strategies).

Table 1: A process model of motivation (Dörnyei 2005: 85)

 Task motivation is an important theory in the field of methodology of
teaching as it clearly defines a task as an action undertaken by a student during
the learning process (e.g. a lesson) in order to achieve a goal as well as it also un-
derlines the unstable nature of motivation throughout the completion of the task.
The theory also presents the plurality of motivational factors that influence stu-
dents’ learning and outcomes. To analyse the learner’s motivation, one needs to
look how it changes on each of the stages according to Dörnyei’s model and
what makes the student undertake, carry out and complete a task.

1.2.4. Self–Worth theory of motivation

Moving on to the next theory one may notice that the self–worth motivation the-
ory presented by Martin V. Covington in 1984 and revised by him in 1998 ap-
plies to the methodology of teaching. The importance of accomplishments as the
measure for high self–evaluation and respect of society is stressed. Individuals
seek for self–worth and attempt to avoid being seen as incompetent. This is the
next theory which may be freely used in the process of learning as students who
attempt the activity and make some effort to complete it, find themselves more
valuable and perform better in the task now and in the future.
The theory presumes that there are two ways which lead to success: effort
and ability, which means that some students gain good results without any effort
thanks to their high level of aptitude and others must work hard in order to attain
a good grade. Learners prefer to achieve success because of ability (Covington
1984) as it is an easier way to obtain better academic results but ones who have
to study more, see it as unfair because skilled students may do nothing and per-
form at the same level as the poorer ones who have made a lot of effort. Coving-
ton (1984) presents a study which has shown that it is success that counts inde-
pendently of the way in which it was attained and only achievements may in-
crease one’s self–esteem.
In his later work written in cooperation with Kimberly Müeller, Martin
Covington (2001) presents four types of students with regard to the theory from
1984. They distinguish f a i l u r e a v o i d i n g s t u d e n t s who learn because of
fear which means that they do not seek for any success and the feeling which ac-
companies them when the task finishes with a positive ending, is relief, not pride.
Such students tend to set goals which seem to be impossible to achieve in order
to avoid a negative effect such as being seen as incompetent. They value good
grades as they regard them to be the measure of their worth. Success is seen as
the lack of failure. Another group are s u c c e s s o r i e n t e d s t u d e n t s who strive
for good marks as they are the prize for the effort made in order to complete the
task and they reinforce their feelings of self–worth which results in higher degree
of motivation and interest in the task being learnt. Furthermore, a type of students
which combines the characteristics of both previously mentioned groups, is
called o v e r s t r i v e r s . Such learners “(...) are driven simultaneously both by
high hopes for success and by an excessive fear of failure” (Covington, Müeller
2001: 169) which means that their strategy for learning is to achieve success by
avoiding failures. What is characteristic for this group is that, when they succeed,
such students have mixed feelings: on the one hand they feel proud that they have
completed the task they have undertaken and, on the other hand, they feel re-
lieved that they have obviated failure. The last group of learners to be mentioned
are the so–called f a i l u r e a c c e p t i n g s t u d e n t s who are indifferent to both,
success and failure. It means that such students cannot be motivated neither by
rewards such as good grades nor by being threatened by poor grades. They seem
to put no effort into a task and do not participate in the competition which takes
place in every classroom.
The division of students into these four categories is seen in every group
of learners. It is the reason why motivating them is such a difficult task for teach-
ers who are unable to adjust motivational strategies to the needs of every indi-
vidual in the classroom so they try to vary them adequately to the class. It takes
some time to get to know students and their needs but it is crucial to be a success-
ful teacher whose group achieves high outcomes and is motivated to learn more
for their own purposes. If one finds the way to improve his or her group’s motiv-
ation, their job becomes easier as the students participate willingly and cooperate
during the lesson. What is important to plan an effective course is the correct ad-
justment of teaching strategies to the level of the group and to the predominant
type of students as this leads to better grades which, in turn, amplify the students’
self-evaluation.
1.2.5. Motivation on the basis of Expectancy–Value Theory

Expectancy–Value Theory is one of the cognitive theories and it is known since

1970s when it was presented by Martin Fishbein in his book entitled Belief, Atti-
tude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research written in
cooperation with Icek Ajzen in 1975. The main assumption of the theory is that
human behaviour is the sum of his or her expectations and the value he or she at-
tributes to the goal which they try to achieve. The higher the possibility of suc-
cess and the value of the activity are, the bigger the chance that the task is under-
taken.
Expectancy–Value Theory introduced by Jacquelynne Eccles et al. in
1983, belongs to the so called cognitive theories of motivation and is based on
John W. Atkinson’s achievement theory proposed in 1957. It consists of two
main concepts outlined by Atkinson (1957 as cited in Wigfield 1994: 50): the
first one is expectancy described as learners’ anticipations to be successful but
also awareness of the probability of failure and the other one is value character-
ised as “attractiveness of succeeding or failing on a task”. Jacquelynne Eccles et
al. (1983) distinguish four factors of subjective values which show what drives
learners to make an effort necessary to succeed in a task. The factors are:
– attainment value which is the importance of positive outcomes in a given
task;
– intrinsic value is connected with delight which an individual gains from
doing the task; it may be associated with the intrinsic motivation intro-
duced by Ryan and Deci (2000);
– utility value (or usefulness) relating to the individual’s future plans which
may be connected with taking an exam or with his or her future career;
 – cost which refers to activities which an individual has to give up in order
to fulfil the task as well as the effort which has to be made to accomplish
it.
The more of the values an individual can find in it, the higher the possibility of
success is. To make an activity meaningful, students must not only enjoy it but
also deem it to be useful and suppose he or she may be successful. This useful-
ness of the task plays a crucial role in the methodology of teaching as the attract-
iveness of assignments depends on their utility, the level of difficulty and the
amount of interest the students pay to it. Teachers who aim at a high degree of
motivation in their lessons, should pay more attention to the tasks they give to
their students. If the learners find all three elements in a task, they do it willingly
and make more effort to succeed in it. When they consider the activity interesting
or useful, it may be difficult but they still do it as they see some advantages of it.
Expectancies, on the other hand, are the beliefs about their performance on
an upcoming task which may be positive (when a student thinks he or she may
succeed) or negative (when he or she thinks that there is a higher possibility of
failure rather than success). It depends on the belief that one can carry out a task
or attain any success in it and which is called competency belief. They depend on
what an individual has experienced throughout his or her life, how he or she per-
ceived those life situations and how the environment influences their behaviour,
for example gender–role stereotypes or parental impact. Expectations help in
learning if they are positive but they may also interfere if the student predicts he
or she can fail. The more positive the student’s attitude is, the bigger his or her
chance of being successful is.
1.2.6. The concepts of helpless and mastery–oriented students

The previously presented theories have offered different approaches to motiva-

tion in humans. Some of them deal with the general psychological drives which
make people work and the other ones concern the field of education. The Self–
Worth theory shows motivation as a result of high self–evaluation and the need
of feeling competent in undertaken tasks and may be compared to the orientation
towards mastery, but the concept of helplessness is contrary to these ones and
presents students who evade tasks which seem to be difficult and prefer to be
helped.
The concept of l e a r n e d h e l p l e s s n e s s was proposed by Christopher
Peterson, Steven Maier, Martín Seligman in 1993 and firstly researched mostly in
animals and is connected with the learner’s belief that he or she can do the task.
The authors presented several situations in which helplessness may be observed.
On the other hand, they presented three components such as:
– contingency referred to as the relationship between the action and the res-
ult it causes; the most crucial element of contingency is uncontrollability
which takes place when the connection is random,
– cognition which is the way in which the contingency is perceived, ex-
plained and extrapolated,
– behaviour “refers to the observable consequences of (non)contingency and
the person’s cognitions about it” (Peterson, Maier and Seligman 1993: 8).
These elements constitute learned helplessness per se. The researchers stated
that “a pure case of learned helplessness must have all three components: non-
contingency between the person’s actions and outcomes, the expectations that the
outcome will not be contingent in the future, and passive behaviour” (Peterson,
Maier and Seligman 1993: 9) which means that most cases which are perceived
to be learned helplessness are incomplete thus they should not be considered as
such.
Another researches who investigated the concept of learned helplessness
were Carol Dweck and Ellen Leggett (1988) who suggested the existence of two
contrary concepts connected with the methodology of teaching: the helpless pat-
tern and the mastery–oriented pattern. Learners characterized by the former one
avoid challenges and worsen their performance when any difficulties occur while
the mastery–oriented students seek for challenges and are even more motivated
after they fail. The idea of goals which was named “performance goals (in which
individuals are concerned with gaining favourable judgements of their compet-
ence) and learning goals (in which individuals are concerned with increasing
their competence)” was proposed by Dweck and Leggett (1988: 256). The former
one is more likely to cause helplessness while the latter one promotes a higher
degree of mastery–oriented pattern. The authors conducted a study in which the
participants were children in later grades of school who were given a concept
formation task consisting of twelve problems eight of which were adequate to
their age and the last four were too difficult. The study has shown that the help-
less ones displayed negative emotions towards the task and were more likely to
give it up while mastery–oriented students were optimistic, enjoyed the task and
were happy to be given a challenge in which they may gain new knowledge
which may be useful in further education. They did not tend to stop working on
the test even if they had failed. It may be important in the classroom to arouse
positive emotions towards the task and make the students set more learning than
performance goals in order to cause a higher degree of motivation among the stu-
dents who work more eagerly when they are interested in the task and feel that
they have a choice in what they want to do (Dweck, Leggett 1988).
Here, several concepts have been introduced. Learned helplessness pre-
vents learners from undertaking tasks because of fear of failure. Students charac-
terized by this feature give up tasks whenever they meet first obstacles, they do
not try to complete the actions. On the other hand, there are the so called mas-
tery–oriented students who desire to become better. These ones are characterized
by goals which they set: ones are directed towards good outcomes and they aim
at getting high marks while others oriented towards improving their skills and
widening their knowledge which, in turn, drives them to get good marks. stu-
dents who learn only to be praised for their results are more likely to become
helpless as they do not search for solutions to problems and individuals who in-
tend to develop their competence have a greater possibility to succeed.
1.2.7. Willingness to communicate as a crucial factor in learning
English.

The concept of willingness to communicate (WTC) was first defined by James C.

McCroskey and Elaine J. Baer in 1985 (cited in MacIntyre et al. 1998: 546) as
“(…) the probability of engaging in communication when free to do so” which
means that individual try to use the language in social settings as often as pos-
sible. The authors of the concept of WTC (McCroskey, Baer 1985) suggested
also that “(…) it is related to such attributes as communication apprehension,
perceived communication competence, introversion-extraversion, self-esteem,
and so forth” (MacIntyre et al. 1998: 546). According to this definition, willing-
ness to communicate is a personality trait rather than a situation-based variable
and was first used in reference to the mother tongue. Nevertheless, situation may
influence the individual’s WTC and a person whose linguistic level is consider-
ably high, may be unable to speak the language which beginners may feel free
using it.
It is suggested (MacIntyre et al. 1998) that there are many factors that in-
fluence one’s willingness to communicate and they claimed that the immediate
communicative situation as well as the speaker’s personality traits play equally
important roles during the process of conversation. Peter D. MacIntyre, Richard
Clément, Zoltán Dörnyei, Kimberly A.Noels (1998) presented a pyramid consist-
ing of six layers in which they placed different variables that influence commu-
nication. The pyramid has also a more general division: the first three layers from
the top show situation-specific factors which take place at the moment of speak-
ing and the next ones as more stable, personality factors.
Figure 4: Heuristic Model of Variables Influencing WTC (MacIntyre, Clé-

ment, Dörnyei, Noels 1998: 547).

The first level of the pyramid is connected with seeking for communica-
tion opportunities. According to the authors (MacIntyre et al. 1998: 547), the
term C o m m u n i c a t i o n B e h a v i o u r includes such activities as reading news-
papers, taking part in the class, watching TV or using English at work. Teachers
should create situations in which students are able to speak in order to stimulate
their willingness to communicate which the aim of teaching English as a foreign
language. Students who learn English should willingly take part in discourse to
fully acquire the language. Different communication behaviours extend learners’
range of vocabulary and prepare them to free use of the L2 in formal and in-
formal interlocutions (MacIntyre et al.1998).
 On the second level of the pyramid called Behavioural Intention, Willing-
ness to Communicate, which is defined as “(…) readiness to enter into discourse
at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using a L2” (MacIntyre et
al. 1998: 547), may be found. Such willingness is displayed by, for example,
raising hands during the lesson in order to show that one knows the answer. Stu-
dents who are ready to answer are self-confident and want to present their know-
ledge to the teacher and his or her classmates. They are driven by the desire to
satisfy the teacher and get a good grade as well as feel integrated with the target
group. This means that they are motivated by internal (integrative) and control-
based (instrumental) factors.
The next layer of the pyramid, Situated Antecedents of Communication, is
divided into two parts: Desire to Communicate with a Specific Person and State
Communicative Self-Confidence. The former comes from social psychology and
is connected with the desire to converse with a person one finds interesting or at-
tractive or he or she wants to build a close relationship with. It is hard to state
whether L1 or L2 is used in task-related situations. Here, language is used to in-
fluence each other’s behaviour as communication serves to control situation: to
require assistance, cooperation or services. The latter one consists of two con-
structs: perceived competence and a lack of anxiety. Both of these terms were
defined by Spielberger (1983, cited in MacIntyre et al. 1998: 549). Here, state
anxiety is treated as “(…) transient emotional reaction defined by feelings of ten-
sion and apprehension, accompanied by autonomic nervous system arousal” and
it may be intensified by negative experiences, tension among peer group, fear or
the size of the group. Situations which are new for the individual may pernicious
to his or her learning process because of the lack of self-confidence that he or she
is able to produce a correct utterance which should be used at the moment of
speaking. In such situations learners may control themselves too strongly to say a
word because of anxiety.
 Moving down the pyramid one finds a threefold layer named Motivational
Propensities referring to factors which drive people to undertake a language
course. These factors may be situation-specific or long-lasting. The first two,
placed in Boxes 5 and 6, are Interpersonal and Intergroup Motivation similar to
the one presented in Box 3. Both of these factors are similar to each other in the
sense that they consists of affiliation and control motives, the former one refer-
ring to the desire to communicate with a specific individual or with a target group
while the latter one relating to “(…) limiting the cognitive, affective, and behavi-
oural freedom of the communicators” (MacIntyre et al. 1998: 551). Affiliation
with reference to intergroup motivation, “(…) attitudes towards the other group
and integrativeness” (Gardner, 1985 cited in MacIntyre et al. 1998: 551) are cru-
cial to become a member of a group. The third element of this concept is L2 Self-
Confidence consisting of self-evaluation of language skills and the anxiety.
These two constructs play a great role in L2 classrooms as they influence stu-
dents’ performance. A learner who has a low level of anxiety and believes that he
or she is linguistically gifted is more likely to succeed than a person who is very
anxious and finds himself or herself valueless (MacIntyre et al. 1998).
The fifth layer consists of three boxes. The first is called Intergroup Atti-
tudes and is built up of three constructs two of which are quite contrary: integrat-
iveness which lets the person become a part of the target group while fear of as-
similation stops the individual from doing anything what helps integrate because
he or she is afraid they can forget their L1 while acquiring the L2. The last ele-
ment of this group is Motivation to learn the L2 which means developing lan-
guage skills because of interest in this area which may be compared to intrinsic
motivation (Deci, Ryan 1985). If the student likes learning languages, the course
is easier and more pleasurable than for those who have to learn them because of
the school curriculum or because their parents or bosses tell them to do so. The
element of positive attitude plays a great role in the teaching process as it may
highly increase the students’ outcomes. The next section of this level is the Social
Situation in which in which the crucial element is the setting of the communicat-
ive event consisting of such elements as the participants, the setting, the purpose,
the topic and the channel of communication (MacIntyre et al. 1998: 553). The
participants are characterized by their individual traits namely age, gender, or so-
cial class but the relationship between the interlocutors, the level of their intim-
acy and shared knowledge or the social distance play also a very important role
in the communication behaviour. Another significant here is the speaker’s L2 flu-
ency and the fact whether the speaker and his or her interlocutor is a native
speaker or not. MacIntyre et al (1998: 553) state that native speakers talking to
non-native speakers tend to simplify their language and help negotiate meaning.
The setting comprises of time and place of communication. The authors cite
Biber (1994) who identified six groups of location in which it may take place:
business/workplace, education/academic, government/legal, religious, art/enter-
tainment, domestic/personal. McCroskey and Richmond (1991) argue that
private as well as public aspects of communication take place mostly in school,
organizational and social environments. Component connected with the object-
ives of communication is its purpose. The situation may have only one aim but it
very often is multipurpose. The fourth element influencing the comfort of the in-
terlocutors is the topic of the conversation. If the topic is amicable for them, their
dialogue flows smoothly as the speakers feel more self-confident. The last ele-
ment of the social situation is the channel of communication so the means by
which the message is passed. Here, two main types of media by which people
communicate are distinguished: speaking and writing. The third and last box of
this layer is Communicative Competence which consists of five elements
(MacIntyre et al 1998: 554–555) such as:
– linguistic competence – knowledge of syntactic and morphological rules,
lexical resources, and the orthographic systems;
 – discourse competence – the ability to select, sequence and arrange words,
structures and utterances; such elements as cohesion, deixis coherence,
generic and conversational structures;
– actional competence “(…) refers to matching communicative intent with
linguistic form, based on the knowledge of an inventory of verbal
schemata that carry illocutionary force”;
– sociocultural competence – the ability to express messages adequately to
social and cultural context;
– strategic competence – knowledge of communicative strategies such as the
use of verbal and nonverbal methods that supplement shortcomings in lin-
guistic skills.
The last layer of the model is called The Societal and Individual Context
and is again divided into two parts: Intergroup Climate and Personality. Inter-
group Climate refers to one’s attitudes towards the target group, the will of integ-
ration and diminution of social distance between the L1 and L2 groups. Demo-
graphic representation, so the socioeconomic power and the representation in
various institutions, plays a great role in this context as the group whose L1 is
dominative in the society is more authoritative one and tends to extend its use
over the speakers of L2 in this country. Personality, on the other hand, refers to
traits that influence one’s willingness to communicate. Lewis R. Goldberg (1990,
1993) suggests five basic personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, con-
scientiousness, emotional stability and openness to new experience (previously
known as Culture or Intelligence). He also proposes an extended list of adjectives
describing each trait which he presented in the form of a table. Peter D.
MacIntyre and Catherine Charos (1996: 11) one finds a statement that “(…) each
of the Big Five traits may play a role in second language communication,
and specific paths were proposed prior to the study” which means that per-
sonality strongly influences students’ willingness to communicate and their out-
comes in language classes and linguistic competence.
As it has been shown, willingness to communicate is a complex theory
which has a great influence on motivation in second language learning. If a per-
son wants to become a part of the L2 group, he or she is learns its language in or-
der to successfully converse with its members. Teachers should concentrate on
arousing students’ communicative competence as knowledge of grammatical
rules does not let for real communication as such learners do not feel competent
enough to take the opportunity to use the language and the concept of willingness
to communicate is defined as engaging in communication whenever given a
chance (McCroskey, Baer 1985). The objective of language courses should be to
prepare students to talk in different situations of life and not to give them theoret-
ical knowledge of grammar and vocabulary as none of them lets them speak flu-
ently.
1.3. Chapter conclusions

Researchers concerned with motivation have suggested many theories to describe

this phenomenon and they still revise them so that they lead to a higher level of
success in different areas of life such as work or education. The theories shown
in this chapter were chosen with reference to the acquisition of the second lan-
guage and language learning motivation which are the main assumptions of the
thesis. The selection has been made on the basis of Zoltán Dörnyei’s work
(Dörnyei 2001: 10) where the author presents a table with the most well–known
motivation theories and suggests some summaries of them. Language learning
motivation is deeply rooted in psychology as researchers who undertake the
study of factors that drive learners to enrol on a language course and persist in it
often derive their theories from general motivation theories and just adjust them
to fit the field of the second language acquisition.
The pattern in which the theories are presented in the first part is based on
the division of motivation theories into three groups: biological (in which the
pyramid of needs is placed), cognitive (including theories from achievement mo-
tivation to cognitive attributions) and personality (self–determination) and their
accordance to second language learning. Motivation has its roots in psychology
but it has also been researched by scholars in the field of methodology of teach-
ing in order to find out what drives learners to undertake a language course. They
based their theories on general motivation and adjusted them to fit their field of
study. In the part of the chapter devoted to the language learning motivation, the
theories are presented in chronological order as they are interconnected with each
other and it is the most reasonable way to discuss them.
2. Strategies increasing learner’s motivation

In the second chapter the strategies which increase learners’ motivation, namely
learning strategies and learner autonomy are discussed. Both of them have a great
influence on the process of language acquisition as they help the teachers organ-
ize their course in a way which creates a friendly environment for students.
Learners who are shown how to coordinate their work and feel free to choose
what it is what they need and want to learn volunteer in the classes, are more
willing to answer the teacher’s questions and search for the purpose of the task.
To explain the key concepts of the chapter, learner autonomy is “(…) described
as a capacity to take charge of, or take responsibility for, or control over your
own learning” (Benson 2003) so it is connected with giving students a chance to
decide what and how is learnt while learning strategies are defined as “(…) beha-
viours and thoughts in which a learner engages and which are intended to influ-
ence the learners encoding process” (Weinstein, Mayer 1983) so it is a single ac-
tion which aims at improving student’s performance in a language classroom.
What is also important in planning a language course, is the observation of
the learners and their learning styles as this knowledge leads to the correct choice
of learning materials such as visuals, media or tasks. These styles are related to
multiple intelligence types presented by Howard Gardner (first introduced in
1983 and revised since then). He suggests that there is not only one general intel-
ligence but it has different kinds depending on one’s personal traits.
2.1. The definition of a good language learner

The definition of language learning strategies usually starts with the characterist-
ics of a good language learner. Martin Parrott (1993: 43, cited in Michońska–
Stadnik 1996: 18) who defines them as ones who:
Makes decisions connected with:
– areas of language he or she needs to improve,
– actions facilitating learning
– strategies which may be applied to the process of language learning.
Actively seeks for:
– information,
– possibility to improve their skills,
– help from people who fluently know the language,
– general-type publications such as dictionaries, grammar books, tasks.
These characteristics present a good language learner as an information-seeking
and inquisitive person whose aim is to master the language on a native-like level
and who is always willing to take part in activities in which he or she sees any
purpose. Further on, Michońska–Stadnik cites Naiman’s et al. (1978) features
which characterize these students. According to Naiman et al. (1978) good lan-
guage learners:
– find his or her own way of learning, they can adapt each learning situation
to their personal needs and acquire knowledge even if their peers have lost
hope; they choose tasks which they prefer and feel better when they can
take part in such types of lessons;
– actively engage in the language learning process which means that they
seek for additional situations in which they can learn and they try to min-
imize their weak points by extra tasks;
 – single-handedly strive to understand how language works by applying
techniques of pronunciations, grammar and vocabulary;
– know that language is a means of communication so try to develop all lan-
guage skills, productive (speaking and writing) as well as receptive (read-
ing and listening) to effectively communicate;
– behave like good detectives: observe how others speak and then imitate
their behaviour; they often ask questions and accept criticism which helps
them improve themselves;
– try to think in the language they are learning;
– know that learning a language is an arduous and complicated process and
try to overcome the feeling of frustration and lack of self-confidence.
Another division is presented by Hans H. Stern in 1983 who describes a good
language learner on the basis of strategies he or she uses to learn the language:
– a good language learner uses the a c t i v e p l a n n i n g s t r a t e g y so he or
she sets goals and priorities, describes stages of his/her language develop-
ment;
– he or she uses the so called “ a c a d e m i c ” ( e x p l i c i t ) l e a r n i n g
s t r a t e g y which leads to comparison of the first and the second language,
analysis of the language rules, searching for techniques which make learning
easier;
– they employ s o c i a l l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g y connected with seeking for op-
portunities to communicate with target language group as they know it helps
them master the language;
– they try to cope with emotional problems such as frustration or lack of mo-
tivation, which is called the a f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g y .
This division gives an idea that learning strategies are used by good language
learners and increase the chance of achieving success in learning. Language
teachers should take responsibility for teaching their students how to learn and
introducing learning strategies which encourage them to learn by facilitating the
whole process.
Good language learners are characterized by a long list of features but they
do not have to possess all of them in order to be successful. Students who display
signs of being a good learner should be encouraged to develop their aptitudes in
order to achieve a great success. They may constitute an example for other
learners by showing them how to learn and what makes the acquisition of the
language easier. It seems that some of the features are inborn, but many of them
may be acquired by practice. The concept has been widely researched in connec-
tion with language learning and methodology of teaching and it has led to the
formation of learning styles and learning strategies.
2.2. Learning styles and their influence on the choice of learning
strategies

One of the important elements in language learning and teaching is the recogni-
tion of learning styles of the learners which leads to more effective results by ad-
justing teaching materials in a way which helps the students find their own learn-
ing strategies. Such styles depend on multiple intelligences introduced by
Howard Gardner in 1983. Types of intelligence and their descriptions are pre-
sented below:

Intelligences Description
An ability to analyse information and create
Linguistic products involving oral and written language
such as speeches, books, and memos
An ability to develop equations and proofs,
Logical-Mathematical make calculations, and solve abstract
problems
An ability to recognize and manipulate large-
Spatial
scale and fine-grained spatial images
An ability to produce, remember, and make
Musical
meaning of different patterns of sound
An ability to identify and distinguish among
Naturalist types of plants, animals, and weather
formations that are in the natural world
An ability to use one’s own body to create
Bodily-Kinaesthetic
products or solve problems
An ability to recognize and understand other
Interpersonal people’s moods, desires, motivations, and
intentions
An ability to recognize and understand his or
Intrapersonal her own moods, desires, motivations, and
intentions

Table 2: Multiple intelligences by Howard Gardner (Davis, Christodoulou, Seider, Gard-

ner 2012).
This division leads to formation of learning styles which are clearly based on the
types of intelligence and the relationship is as follows (Oxford 2003):
– students with linguistic intelligence learn more effectively through oral-
aural
– activities so they are better at listening and speaking than at other tasks;
they search for a chance to engage in conversation in which they may test
their good points and improve them; they listen to English songs or TV
programmes as it is the best way of acquiring new knowledge;
– learners characterized by visual intelligence are better at reading and writ-
ing, memorize new material when they see it so materials such as pictures,
colour-coded vocabulary charts or posters facilitate their learning process;
they use colourful flashcards, write down new vocabulary or draw dia-
grams for new grammar rules;
– bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence seems to be a characteristic feature of
young learners who acquire knowledge when they move but also older
students learn faster when they are in move and do not stand or sit in one
position; such students learn through movement so they enjoy role playing
games or mimes;
– intrapersonal intelligence characterizes students who work better on their
own and gain higher outcomes when they work individually; such learners
avoid group work and perform better without any help from others and
prefer to learn from their own experience;
– students who prefer working in a group and enjoy cooperation are charac-
terized by interpersonal intelligence and they seek learning situations in
which they may share their knowledge with others as well as learn from
them.
The learning styles or types of intelligence may occur in different variations and
one student may display two or three or even more learning styles depending on
the current situation. Teachers should aim at showing the students find the style
which fits better to their personality and then teach them how to use it so what
strategies they should use in order to achieve better outcomes. There are numer-
ous surveys which help find the best learning style and if the teachers use them,
they have a greater chance of improving their students’ performances and facilit-
ate their own work as a person who knows in what way his or her learners ac-
quire knowledge the most effectively adjusts their teaching materials and meth-
ods so that they fit the students’ needs.

2.3. Learner strategies leading to increase performance in language

learning

Learning process is long and sustained but the teacher’s role is to make it easier
and more manageable. He or she is supposed to teach the learners how to learn as
it is suggested by Anita Wenden (1991: 2). Further on, the author notes that
learning strategies include everything what a student does in order to learn and
regulate their learning (Wenden, Rubin 1987: 19; Wenden 1991: 18). The learn-
ing strategies are divided into two groups: metacognitive, which are connected
with theoretical knowledge about the cognitive processes, and cognitive, refer-
ring to actions that facilitate learning (Wenden, Rubin 1987). If they are correctly
used, they help the students improve their outcomes as they make easier the pro-
cess of acquisition. Rebecca Oxford (1990: 9) states that learning strategies:
– contribute to the main goal, communicative competence,
– allow learners to become more self-directed,
– expand the role of teachers,
– are problem-oriented,
 – are specific actions taken by the learners,
– involve many aspects of the learner not just cognitive,
– support learning both directly and indirectly,
– are not always observable,
– are often conscious,
– can be taught,
– are flexible,
– are influenced by a variety of factors.
According to Oxford (1990), communicative competence should be the main ob-
jective of curricula and learning strategies are to help develop this skill. Taking
language classroom into consideration, teachers should present such strategies in
order to prepare students for self-directed learning. Anita Wenden and Joan Ru-
bin (1987) as well as Rebecca Oxford (1990) present a list of actions that are em-
ployed by learners throughout the language course to alleviate the process of ac-
quisition.
There are several classifications of language learning strategies. The
knowledge of this topic comes from observation of students. Some of the classi-
fications are presented by Anna Michońska–Stadnik (1996), Rebecca L. Oxford
(1990) and Joan Rubin and Anita Wenden (1987) in the chronological order. The
first list comes from Neil Naiman and his colleagues (1978):
– active approach to learning with the use of one’s environment;
– awareness of language as a system;
– language as a means of communication;
– the ability to accept and cope with one’s feelings;
– direction of one’s own language production – monitoring of language,
asking native speakers for help.
This rather general classification leads to the creation of more specific strategies
like the ones described by Joan Rubin (1987). Here, the author distinguishes six
types of cognitive strategies which appear individually or in pairs. They clearly
support the process of learning:
– clarification/verification takes place when the learner tries to clarify his or
her knowledge which has just been gained and then verifies if he or she is
correct, for example they ask question connected with the new word, asks
how to use it in a sentence and then they repeat it to check if they memor-
ized it correctly;
– guessing/inductive inferencing in which the student guesses the meaning
on the basis of previously gained knowledge, pictures, other words or the
context of a bigger part of the text;
– deductive reasoning consists in use of general knowledge or rules in order
to derive a more specific rule them, for example they know a rule of one
tense and then expand it in other tenses which may lead to generalization
if incorrectly used;
– practice “(…) refers to strategies which contribute to the storage and re-
trieval of language while focusing on accuracy of use. Practice involves
such strategies as: repetition, rehearsal, experimentation, application of
rules, imitation, and attention to details” (Rubin 1987);
– memorization in which storage and retrieval of information is crucial;
some of the mnemonic techniques are similar to practice strategies;
– monitoring connected with observing one’s own message is received and
the decides whether it should be corrected or not.
These strategies are helpful for the learners in the process of language learn-
ing or acquisition as they make it more manageable and organize their own
knowledge in order to store and recover it when needed. Students who are
shown how to learn do it faster and more effectively as they do not need to
waste time for collection of information as they know that it is in their mind
 and may be freely used. Joan Rubin (1987) mentions three more groups of
strategies but does not give many examples:
– metacognitive which are “used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language
learning” (Rubin 1987: 25) so they help the students organize their work.
directed attention where it is the student who decides which aspects of lan-
guage are important at the moment and they focus their attention on cer-
tain elements or skills;
– communication strategies which play an important role in language learn-
ing as they let the student take part in conversations and, in turn, increase
the level of motivation if the learners feel successful;
– social strategies the students seek for situations in which they may test
their knowledge so such strategies give the opportunity to practice; Rubin
(1987) quotes Wong-Fillmore (1976) who suggests two social strategies:
“(…) join a group and act as if you understand what is going on, even if
you don’t, and count on your friends for help” (Rubin 1987, in Wenden,
Rubin 1987: 27) so they try to show their competence and exercise their
knowledge.
There are three more groups of strategies presented by Anna Michońska–
Stadnik (1996) who quotes J. Michael O’Malley and Anna Uhl Chamot’s (1990:
46) classification which is similar to the one presented by Joan Rubin (1987) but
more specific.
– The first group of strategies is connected with actions which relate to the
learning process in an indirect way and is called m e t a c o g n i t i v e
s t r a t e g i e s and includes:
 planning which means the organization of speech or essay as well
as the process of preparation to perform during a language task;
 monitoring in which the student focuses on a certain piece of in-
formation or task and controls it in order to achieve a positive out-
 come;
 self-evaluation based on checking if the person has been under-
stood and evaluation of the produced text or utterance;
– the group of strategies which directly relates to the learning process is
called c o g n i t i v e strategies and consists of such actions as:
 practice connected with revising the newly acquired material;
 organization which includes grouping and classification of vocabu-
lary or phrases according to their syntactic or semantic features;
 inference in which a wider context or part of the text is used to de-
rive the meaning of anew word;
 summarizing which consists in recapping of the newly acquired
material in order to make sure if one has learnt it correctly;
 deduction in which the learners use general rules to understand or
explain new material;
 the use of imagination where the students visualize new linguistic
phenomena to memorize it;
 language transfer – the students use their general knowledge about
the language (second or native) in order to facilitate new linguistic
phenomena;
 elaboration which consists in making connections between new
phenomena and previously known information or concept;
– the third and last group of strategies is called s o c i o – a f f e c t i v e
s t r a t e g i e s which are connected with the control over the interaction
with others and one’s own feelings towards their learning process; here,
O’Malley and Chamot enumerated such actions as:
 c o o p e r a t i o n where students compare their notes and solve prob-
lems together;
  e x p l a n a t i o n where the learner seeks for help with a problem and
gains new knowledge;
 “ t a l k i n g t o t h e s e l f ” where the learners persuade and assure
themselves that the task is done correctly which serves to reduce
the anxiety.
This group of strategies differs from the previous ones as the authors (O’Malley,
Chamot 1990) treat learning strategies as cognitive processes and develop the
groups of meta- and cognitive strategies. Students who know how to learn have a
greater chance of being successful as the learning process is easier when one has
techniques which help to acquire new material. A person who uses strategies is
able to plan and organize their work as well as facilitate the whole process. Many
students may use some tricks which they find helpful but they would not call
them strategies as they have worked them themselves. Few teachers show their
students what to do in order to acquire new material faster but it should be a cru-
cial element of language curriculum.
The use of language learning strategies is a domain of good language
learners but if it becomes a part of school curriculum it can help a great number
of poorer students who have more problems while learning as they do not know
how to do it. There is too little teachers who can train learners how to make
learning easier but the discipline has become more popular within last 30 years.
There has been pretty much research presented in Joan Rubin and Anita
Wenden’s (1987) and Anna Michońska–Stadnik’s (1996) books which has led to
the development of these strategies training. Teachers who are aware of the im-
portance of strategy use can really help their students solve their learning prob-
lems and make their class achieve better outcomes. If they find out which learn-
ing style prevails in their group, they can adjust teaching strategies which, in
turn, may constitute the basis for learning strategies among the students.
2.1. Learner autonomy as a key to successful learning

The use of language learning strategies leads to the promotion of learner

autonomy which is a key to success in learning English as a second language as it
motivates students. Since early 1970, the learning process has changed from
teacher-centred to learner-centred which has led to the discussion how learning
and teaching materials can be changed in order to make the learning process
more meaningful. Learners who are shown how to facilitate their learning pro-
cess aim at becoming more autonomous which means that they want to take more
control over what and how they learn. Teachers who allow this process to take
place in their classroom, promote strategies which lead to an increased level of
motivation and better outcomes.
According to Agota Scharle and Anita Schabo (2000: 3), autonomy starts
when the students start to take responsibility for their own learning. They see re-
sponsible learners as ones who:
– know that they have to do their best in order to get good results so they do
their task and homework to learn and not to satisfy the teacher;
– work in groups if they find it profitable but they do not have to act with
accordance to the instructions and may ask numerous questions how to be-
come better;
– search for opportunities to improve themselves and if they do not accom-
plish a task, they know that they have missed a chance to develop their
thorough understanding of language.
These behaviours awake the students’ awareness of their role in the learning pro-
cess. They realize that their efforts lead them to the success which is the perfect
knowledge of the language. It takes a long time to train a responsible learner but
teachers can do that to facilitate their own work as independent, or autonomous
students require less teaching that ones who need to be led through every exer-
cise. It is also highly beneficial for the learners who gain more self-confidence of
they are able to work on their own and do not have to depend on the teacher’s
help.
The process of developing learner’s responsibility is a long process which
is slow and takes place gradually. There are several stages of this process but
they depend on the author who describes them. Gerald O. Grow (1991) identifies
four stages and presents some advice for the teachers how to work with students
who are on the particular levels. The first stage relates to the learners who are not
very autonomous called learners with low self-direction. It is suggested that such
learners do not learn on themselves and prefer “to be taught”. They need a master
who guides them throughout the whole learning process, gives advice and whose
instructions are clear and unequivocal. Grow (1991) implies two distinct ways of
teaching dependent groups. The first one is called c o a c h i n g and is based on the
trust which the students put in the teacher who is their authority. The task in this
method should be planned, well-organized and have precisely set deadlines in or-
der to give the students the security. The evaluation should be objective and
based on clearly set standards which are the same for every student. Here,
choices should be avoided so as not make confuse the learners. Another approach
presented by Grow (1991) consists in letting the students have their own contri-
bution to the curriculum so as to give them the impression that they are in charge
of what they learn and what is the purpose of this process. The starting point for
the students here is finding out who they are and what they need or want to learn.
 The second level is occupied by learners with moderate self-direction who
have a considerably high level of motivation and are commonly known as ‘good
students’. Here, the role of the teacher is to increase their motivation and stimu-
late them to expand their knowledge by showing them how to make the learning
process easier. Students willingly react to the teacher’s communication and they
follow his or her instructions if they find them useful or helpful. Goal setting
should be taught at this stage so the teacher sets goals in the classroom and en-
courages the students to meet the requirements awaking their intrinsic and ex-
trinsic motivation. The former one is roused by making students interested in the
subject while the latter one by praises given by the teacher. If the learners see the
reasons for learning and its results, they start learning on their own outside the
classroom as they want to achieve success.
Learners who are at the third level are known as ones of intermediate self-
direction. They feel more self-confident and brave enough to take more control
over their own learning, “(…) they see themselves participants in their own edu-
cation” (Grow 1991: 133). Students here are willing to work on their own as well
as they develop their interpersonal skills and group work. They start finding out
what the learning strategies are and what to do to facilitate their learning and, in
turn, they start using them while working on a new material. The teacher is a ‘fa-
cilitator’ whose role is to make his or his students’ learning easier and give them
some guidance but only to a degree which does not restrict their feeling of con-
fidence. The learners still need to develop such personality traits as “(…) self-
concept, more confidence, more sense of direction, and a greater ability to work
with (and learn from) others” (Grow 1991: 133) which lets the students become
self-directed. Students start to separate their real language self from ideal or
ought-to self proposed by Dörnyei (2005) which means that they start to distin-
guish between what should take place and what currently takes place. Decisions
at the third stage are shared but it is the learner who possesses the greater re-
sponsibility.
The last group of learners are the ones of high level of self-direction char-
acterized by independence in their tasks but it does not mean that they separate
from other students. They just take care of their own learning and affairs but will-
ingly share their experiences and knowledge with others. They are mature
enough to be responsible for their own learning and may be found autonomous.
They set goals and do their best to achieve them, they organize their work and are
able to evaluate themselves. They put effort in searching for information and can
freely use additional resources. The teacher’s role is to consult some issues with
the learners but he or she does not “(…) teach the subject matter but to cultivate
the student’s ability to learn” (Grow 1991: 135). Teaching learning strategies is
more important that teaching the material itself.
Agota Scharle and Anita Schabo (2000) present the process of raising stu-
dent’s responsibility as threefold:
– r a i s i n g a w a r e n e s s is based on gathering knowledge about the students
in the group, researching their motivation and making them realize that
they have been using strategies but have not named them; later on, the
teacher increases the students’ motivation by developing their skills; an-
other important element is building cooperation among the students; the
last part of this phase is the so called ‘self-monitoring’ connected with
teaching the students how to find their own learning styles or strategies;
– the second phase, c h a n g i n g a t t i t u d e s , repeats four elements (motiva-
tion, learning strategies, community building and self-monitoring) from
the previous one but they are developed step by step; learners going
through this stage need to practice new habits which lead to the develop-
ment of responsibility;
 – the third and last phase is called t r a n s f e r r i n g r o l e s based on changing
the classroom from the teacher-centred to the learner-centred so transfer-
ring the responsibility from the teacher to the learner.
A student who gets through all the stages becomes an autonomous language
learner who knows what he or she wants or needs to learn as well as has some
strategies which can make the learning process easier. Students reach the self-dir-
ection when they approach adulthood as the teenagers start to be more respons-
ible. The teachers play important roles during the process of developing
autonomy because they guide their learners throughout the whole process by giv-
ing instructions, motivating and encouraging.
Autonomy and responsibility strongly influence the students’ motivation
to learn as learners who approach adulthood want to feel independent and be able
to make decisions connected with their learning because it gives them the sense
of being a trustworthy adult who can take control over their own affairs. Teachers
play a significant role as they are guides who show the learners how to become
independent. They may design tasks which lead to stimulate their students to
learn outside the classroom and work out methods which help them develop their
skills. Autonomy training transforms the classroom from teacher-centred to
learner-centred which means that it is the learner who is the most important fig-
ure during the lesson and has a right to decide what he or she learns and in what
way it is done.
2.4. Chapter conclusions

Motivation in language learning is a crucial element influencing the whole pro-

cess. Students are driven by various factors and their level of motivation may be
increased by conscious use of strategies which include learning strategies or
learner autonomy as well as correct identification of learning styles. The role of
the teacher is still important but it has changed from the authority to a guide who
leads the students through the language course and supports the learners when
they have problems or doubts.
The process of language acquisition requires a high level of motivation
which may be increased or decreased by different actions undertaken by the
teacher who strongly influences the process. It depends on him or her how the
classes are perceived by the students and if they willingly participate in them. If
the teacher gives the learners some freedom connected with the teaching materi-
als or tasks, they start feeling responsible for the learning process and look for
some actions which may help them acquire new knowledge which, in turn, leads
to taking responsibility for their own learning. Learners who have been guided
throughout the whole process of learning have a greater chance of becoming
autonomous as they have solid foundations for their development. Teachers, who
train the learners to become responsible, lessen their own work as the students
put more effort in independent studying to show that they are able to take control
over their learning and outcomes.
3. General conclusions

On the basis of the analysis and synthesis of the researched texts it is clear that
there are plenty of factors which drive students to undertake a language course
and persist in it. It is crucial to find such factors in order to achieve success as
certain types of motivation are more effective than others. The level of motiva-
tion is not stable and it changes over the language course so it can also be influ-
enced by external or internal factors as well as by the teachers who teach the
course in English. What is important, internal drives are more desirable as they
lead to a higher degree of motivation through awakening the learners’ interest in
the English language and culture. Positive attitudes towards the target group
stimulate integrative motivation (Gardner 1985) whose aim is to make the person
feel a part of the society. Negative attitudes, on the other hand, stop the learners
from undertaking the course or putting any effort into it. Ryan and Deci (2000:
54) define intrinsic motivation as “(…) reflecting the natural human propensity to
learn and assimilate” while extrinsic motivation “(…) is a construct that pertains
whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome” (Ryan,
Deci 2000: 60). Analysing these concepts, external factors such as pressure from
the teachers or parents, the rise in the salary or passing an exam increase motiva-
tion in a lower degree than the internal ones such as interest or learning for pleas-
ure.
Teachers who teach English as a second language play important roles in
the classroom as they are authorities and guides who show how to learn and be a
good student. The students’ motivation needs to be stimulated and it is the
teacher who can show them some ways to increase their outcomes which, in turn,
increases the level of their motivation. Learners who enjoy the subject are more
willing to participate in conversations and do the tasks if they find them useful or
interesting. They can make use of instructions which are of high importance be-
cause they lead to correct completion of tasks as well as they extend the students’
knowledge. Students who see that their learning brings positive effects and they
gain good marks or start to feel more self-confident in English which lets them
use the language with native-like fluency are marked by a higher degree of mo-
tivation and work with a greater level of engagement. On the other hand, there
are students who learn because they have to but they also get pretty good marks
because they make an effort to become good learners. Notwithstanding, it is more
likely that students driven by external motivation achieve lower outcomes that
the ones who learn for its own sake, just because they like it. Language teachers’
aim should be to awaken the intrinsic type of motivation by encouraging their
learners to find out more about the English-speaking countries and their culture
as it leads to fascination which is an important internal motivational factor.
The participants of language courses vary in many different ways so they
require heterogeneous stimuli to start learning and continue it. Some students
learn more efficiently in a group while others prefer individual learning and this
is the reason why the language schools offer such a wide range of different
courses to fit the learners’ expectations. Teaching methods play an important role
in such a course but what is more essential is showing the students the way how
to make their learning more effective. If they are shown what to do and they want
to apply such a method, they have a greater chance of being successful as they do
not have to make so much effort into the process of acquiring new knowledge or
material. Learner training (so teaching how to learn) is an important element
which should be included in the curriculum of a language course as learning
strategies increase the level of motivation through building the students’ self-con-
fidence which is excited when they get good marks and see their own progress
which is the determinant of success. The use of learning strategies leads to higher
level of motivation as well as to better outcomes of the learners who learn less
but their results become even better. Teachers who apply a such learner training
facilitate their own work as students learn more independently which means that
the teachers make less endeavours but their group is more successful.
Teachers who aim at improving their students’ outcomes need to apply
some methods which help acquire new material. Good language learners strive
for success so they try to facilitate their learning process by using strategies
which support their memory so that learning does not take such a long time. If
they are given some freedom during the language course, they decide what is the
reason why they learn English, what they want and need to learn and what are
their ways of learning which makes the process more enjoyable and encourages
to continue. Not only adults but also children and teenagers need stimulation and
help as well as positive reinforcement which lead to high level of motivation and
persevering which contribute to the final success.
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Streszczenie
Głównym założeniem pracy jest zbadanie wpływu strategii uczenia się i
autonomii ucznia na poziom motywacji wśród osób uczących się języka
angielskiego jako obcego. Selekcja materiałów została dokonana poprzez metodę
analizy i syntezy tekstów napisanych na przestrzeni dwudziestego i dwudziestego
pierwszego wieku przez znanych badaczy zarówno z dziedziny psychologii jak i
metodyki nauczania języków obcych.
Rozdział pierwszy poświęcony jest teoriom motywacji, które zostały
wybrane tak, aby można było odnieść je do dziedziny nauczania. Teorie ściśle
związane z uczeniem się języków obcych wyjaśniają, dlaczego ludzie podejmują
kursy językowe i co sprawia, że są w stanie w nich wytrwać. Drugi rozdział
opisuje czynniki wywierające wpływ na poziom motywacji wśród uczniów, takie
jak strategie uczenia się języków obcych czy autonomia ucznia. Zaprezentowana
jest również charakterystyka dobrego ucznia jako osoby świadomie stosującej
wspomniane strategie w celu ułatwienia sobie procesu uczenia się.
Celem pracy jest wskazanie związku między wykorzystaniem strategii
uczenia się i wprowadzeniem na lekcjach autonomii a wzrostem poziomu
motywacji wśród uczniów, którym wskazano jak się uczyć. Sukcesy odnoszone
w trakcie kursu skutkują większą pewnością siebie. Uczniowie, którym wskaże
się sposób uczenia się, podejmują się tego chętniej niż uczniowie, którzy nie
znają strategii uczenia się i mają problem z przyswajaniem materiału. Autonomia
daje uczniom poczucie kontroli nad własną nauką, co również wpływa na
pozytywne wyniki kursu językowego i wyższy poziom motywacji do dalszego
rozwoju i zdobywania wiedzy.