Atoms, molecule and

Stoichiometry
AS Chemistry
Let’s recall

•What is atom and its components?

•What component of an atom dictates
the identity of the element?
•What is the difference of compounds
and element?
 Learning outcomes:
• 1. define unified atomic mass unit as one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom
• 2. define and use the terms relative atomic mass, isotopic mass and formula mass in terms of
unified atomic mass unit
• 3. define and use the term mole in terms of the Avogadro constant
• 4. write formulae of ionic compounds from ionic charges and oxidation numbers, including:
• >the prediction of ionic charge from the position of an element in the Periodic Table
• >recall of the names and formulae for the ions NO3,CO32-,SO42-,OH-,NH4+,Zn2+,Ag+,HCO3-,
and PO43-
• 5. analyse mass spectra in terms of isotopic abundance
• 6. calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the relative abundances of its isotopes
or its mass spectrum
• 7. find the molecular mass of an organic molecule from the molecular ion peak in a mass
spectrum
• 8. suggest the identity of molecules using information from simple fragmentation patterns in a
given mass spectrum
 Learning outcomes:
• 10. deduce the presence of chlorine and bromine atoms in a
compound using the [M+2] peak
• 11. write and construct balanced equations, including ionic equations
(not including spectator ions)
• 12 use the correct state symbols in equations
• 13 define and use the terms empirical formula and molecular formula
• 14. calculate empirical and molecular formulae using given data
• 15. understand and use the terms anhydrous,hydrated and water of
crystallisation
 Learning outcomes:
• 16. perform calculations, including use of the mole concept involving:
• >reacting masses (from formulae and equations) including
percentage yield calculations
• >volumes of gases
• >volumes and concentrations of solutions
• >limiting reagents and excess reagent
• 17.deduce stoichiometric relationships from calculations involving
reacting masses, volumes of gases and volumes and concentrations of
solutions
 Activity: Tiny Atoms
• Materials: Test weights

• How many units are the other weights relative to the unit
test weight?
 Activity: Tiny Atoms
• This method is actually how scientists come up with a
‘standard’ atom. It is called unified atomic mass unit.
• One twelfth (1/12) of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
1 unified atomic mass unit = 1 u = 1.66x10-27 kg

• Relative atomic mass, Ar =𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕

• What is the atomic mass of Sodium (Na) and Magnesium

(Mg) ?
 Activity: Tiny Atoms
• Relative molecular mass, Mr – sum of all of the relative
atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule.
Example: C2H4 Example: CO2 Calculate:
C = 2 x 12.0 = 24.0 C = 1 x 12.0 = 12.0 NH3
H = 4 x 1.0 = 4.0 O = 2 x 16 = 32.0 HCl
28.0 44.0 C6H12O6

Ar of C = 12.0 Ar of C = 12.0 LET’S TRY

Ar of H = 1.0 Ar of O= 16.0
 Activity: Tiny Atoms
• Relative formula mass, Mr - For compounds containing ions. This is
calculated in the same way as for relative molecular mass
Calculate:
Example: Ca(OH)2 Example: (NH4)2SO4
Ca = 1 x 40.1 = 40.2 N = 2 x 14.0 = 28.0 AgNO3
O = 2 x 16 = 32.0 H = 8 x 1.0 = 8.0 Ca(NO3)
H =2x1 = 2.0 S = 1 x 32.1 = 32.1
74.2 O = 4 x 16.0 = 64.0 CuSO4. 5H2O
132.1
Ar of Ca = 40.1 Ar of N = 14.0
Ar of O= 16.0 Ar of H = 16.0 LET’S TRY
Ar of H = 1.0 Ar of S = 1.0
 Activity: Tiny Atoms
• Relative isotopic mass - Isotopes are atoms that have the
same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
• The mass number (the total number of neutrons plus
protons in an atom) by a number written at the top left-hand
corner of the atom’s symbol or or by a number written after
the atom’s name or symbol
• Example: 20Ne, neon-20 or Ne-20.
 Accurate relative atomic masses
• Mass spectrometry
• used to measure the mass of
each isotope present in an
element.
• It also compares how much of
each isotope is present: the
relative abundance (relative
isotopic abundance).
 Activity: Reading mass spectra
Isotopic mass Relative
abundance/ %

204 2
206 24
207 22
208 52
 Activity: Reading mass spectra

• How would you calculate for the relative atomic mass?

 Activity: Reading mass spectra
• For singly positively charged ions, the (m / e) values give the
nucleon number of the isotopes detected.
• In the case of lead, Table shows that 52% of the lead is the
isotope with an isotopic mass of 208. The rest is lead-204
(2%), lead-206 (24%) and lead-207 (22%)
1. multiply each isotopic mass by its percentage abundance
2. add the figures together
3. divide by 100.
 Activity: Reading mass spectra
Identification of an organic compound using mass
spectrometry
• The main use of mass spectrometry is in the identification of
organic compounds.
• Fingerprinting - identifying by matching the substance
spectrum against the spectra of known substances stored in
a database
• The high energy electrons knock electrons from the
molecules and break covalent bonds, fragmenting the
molecule.
 Reading mass spectra
• M+ - 1 electron removed from the
molecule
• M+ - gives us the relative molecular
mass of the sample; molecular ion
• Practise:
• Calculate the relative molecular
mass of CH3COCH3
• Compare it to the mass spectrum
Mass spectrum of propanone, CH3COCH3
 Reading mass spectra
• There is also a peak in 15 and 43
• Remember that in mass spectrometry,
we bombard the substance with electron
• The bombardment can break covalent
bonds forming fragments

Mass spectrum of propanone, CH3COCH3

 Reading mass spectra
• Remember that fragmentation (breaking apart) of a
compound in a mass spectrometer causes certain bonds to
break.
• You can deduce what the fragment is by adding up the
atomic masses of carbon, hydrogen and / or other atoms.
• So a fragment of m/e 15 is C + 3H = 12 + (3 × 1) which is +CH3
• A fragment of m/e 43 could be +C3H7 or CH3CO+.
 Reading mass spectra

• The breaking of single bonds, such as C─C, C─O or C─N, is the

most common cause of fragmentation.
 Practise: Fragmentation

• Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol)

has a formula of:
C2H6O or CH3CH2OH
• What would be its possible fragmentation?
• Draw the structure to visualise it.
 Reading mass spectra

Major peaks:
46 – [CH3CH2OH]+ : This is the M+
45 - [CH3CH2O]+
31 – [CH2O]+
15 - [CH3] +
M+1 Peak
 M+1 Peak
• A very small peak just beyond the
molecular ion [M+] peak at a mass of
[M + 1].
• This is caused by the Carbon-13
isotope which is 1.1% in any organic
compound
• We can use the M+1 peak to
calculate the number of carbon
atoms by using this equation:
100 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀+1 𝑖𝑜𝑛
n= x +
1.1 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀 𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Using M+1 Peak
100 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀+1 𝑖𝑜𝑛
n= x +
1.1 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀 𝑖𝑜𝑛
100 1.16
n= x 52.0
1.1 52.0
n= 2.03 ~ 2
2 Carbon is present in this
substance
1.16
 Practise: Reading mass spectra
• What is the M+ in the 45

spectrum?
• What is M+1 in the
spectrum? 60.0
46

• How many carbon is

present in this substance? 29

• Deduce what is the 15

fragments in the given

31
peaks of this spectrum? 1.32
 Practise: Reading mass spectra
• What is the M+ in the 31

spectrum?
• What is M+1 in the 74.8
32

spectrum?
• How many carbon is
present in this
substance?
• Deduce what is the 15
fragments in the given
0.82
peaks of this spectrum?
 Practise
• A hydrocarbon has a molecular ion peak at a mass-to-
charge ratio of 84 (relative abundance of 62.0%) and
an [M + 1] peak with a relative abundance of 4.1%.
How many carbon atoms are in the hydrocarbon?
 High resolution mass spectra
• High-resolution mass spectrometers can distinguish between
ions that appear to have the same mass on a low-resolution
mass spectrum.
• It can differentiate masses up to 7 decimal places or higher
• For example, a molecular ion peak at 45 could be caused by
C2H7N or CH3NO in low resolution mass spectrum.
• However, a high-resolution mass spectrum would show the
C2H7N + peak at 45.057846 and the CH3NO+ peak at
45.021462
 M+2
• We can tell whether there is chlorine or bromine in an
organic compound by comparing the relative heights of the
M and [M + 2] peaks.
• [M+] = [M+2] : There is one atom of bromine per molecule
• [M] = 3[M + 2] : There is one atom of chlorine per molecule
 M+

M+2
M+

M+2
 M+2 of bromoethane
•What is the M+ in the 29

spectrum?
•What is M+2 in the 108 110

spectrum?
•What are the
fragments in this
spectrum based on the 15

peaks indicated?
 M+2 of chloroethane 64
•What is the M+ in
the spectrum? 29

•What is M+2 in the

spectrum?
•What are the 66

fragments in this
spectrum based on 15
the peaks indicated?
Any questions?
 Activity: Match the masses
1. Relative isotopic A. 1/12 of the mass of carbon atom
B. ratio of average mass of atoms of an
mass element to u
2. Unified atomic mass C. Mass of a certain formulation of a
mixture
unit D. mass of a particular isotope of an
element which has the Avogadro
3. Relative atomic mass number of atoms
4. Relative formula E. Sum of the relative atomic masses of
all the atoms present in one
mass molecule.
5. Relative molecular F. Sum of the relative atomic masses of
all the atoms present in an ionic
mass compound
 Activity: Match the masses
Mass to charge ratio, m/e Relative abundance
• Calculate the relative atomic mass of 35 75
Chlorine.
37 25
 Mole
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvT51M0ek5c

Avogadro's constant

602,214,076,000,000,000,000,000
or simply
6.02 × 1023
 Avogadro’s constant (L or NA )
• The number of particles equivalent to the relative atomic
mass or relative molecular mass of a substance in grams is
called the Avogadro constant (or Avogadro number)
• Mole - the mass of substance with this (6.02 × 1023) number
of particles.
• Mole - is the amount of substance which contains 6.02 × 1023
specified particle, i.e. atoms, electrons, protons, ions,
molecules
• Example: 1 mole of gold atom is 6.02 × 1023 atoms of gold
2 mole of glucose molecules is 12.04 × 1023 molecules of sugar
3 mole of sulfate ions is 18.06 × 1023 ions of sulfate
 Practise: Avogadro’s constant
• How many ions does 3.6 moles of Chloride ion have?
• What is the mole of a substance containing 28 × 1023
molecules?
• What is the mole of a copper atom containing 14 × 1023
atoms?
• How many atoms does 5.2 moles of sodium have?
 Mole: Carbon and salt

•Weigh 55.85 g of iron filings (Fe)

•Weigh 58.44 g of salt (NaCl)
•Weigh 100.00 g of limestone
(calcium carbonate)
 Mole: Carbon and salt
• Weigh 12.04 g of graphite (C)
• Weigh 58.44 g of salt (NaCl)
• Weigh 100.00 g of limestone (calcium carbonate)
• These weights corresponds to 1 mole of the respective
substance. These weights also corresponds to 6.022
x1023 particles of graphite and salt respectively.
• The mass in grams of 1 mole of a
compound is called molar mass
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔
number of moles (mol) = −
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
or simply mol =
𝑀𝑟
Rearranging the equation:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Looking for molas mass: Mr=
𝑚𝑜𝑙

Looking for mass: Mass = Mr x mol

 Practise: Moles calculations

• Use these Ar values (Fe = 55.8, N = 14.0, O = 16.0, S = 32.1) to

calculate the amount of substance in moles in each of the
following:
• 10.7 g of sulfur atoms
• 64.2 g of sulfur molecules (S8 )
• 60.45 g of anhydrous iron(III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3
 Practise: Mass calculation using
moles
• Use these Ar values: C = 12.0, Fe = 55.8, H = 1.0, O = 16.0, Na = 23.0.
Calculate the mass of the following:
• 20 moles of carbon dioxide, CO2
• 0.050 moles of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
• 5.00 moles of iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2
 Activity: Unknown element
• An unknown element contains 13.1 x 1023 atoms. Weighing
showed that the mass of the sample is 26.12 g. What is the
identity of the element.
• Question 1: How many moles does the element contains?
• Question 2: What is the molar mass of the sample?
• Question 3: What is the element?
 Activity: Unknown element
• An unknown element contains 24.2 x 1023 atoms. Weighing
showed that the mass of the sample is 739.67 g. What is the
identity of the element.
• Question 1: How many moles does the element contains?
• Question 2: What is the molar mass of the sample?
• Question 3: What is the element?
 STOICHIOMETRY: Making a sandwich

Stoichiometry - the ratio of moles of the reactants

and products
 STOICHIOMETRY: Making a sandwich

2 S + 4 T + 2 L + 2 B  S2T4L2B2
A recipe is like a chemical equation that needs to be followed. The
ingredients have to right ratio to produce a meal. Likewise, for chemical
reactions, reactants should have the correct proportion to produce the
product.
 STOICHIOMETRY: Reacting masses

2 S + 4 T + 2 L + 2 B  S2T4L2B2
2 slice of bread, 4 tomato, 2 lettuce and 2 bacon forms 1 S2T4L2B2. The stoichiometry of
this equation is 2:4:2:2:1. Large numbers in the equation (2,4,2,2) are called
stoichiometric numbers.
 Practise: Reacting masses
• Fifteen (15) grams of methane reacts with enough oxygen to create
carbon dioxide and water, what is the amount of carbon dioxide
produced?
• Write the balanced equation
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
• Calculate for the mole of reactant by using molar mass and grams
• Calculate the moles of desired substance by relating it to the chemical
equation ratio
• Convert the mole calculated to grams using molar mass
 Practise: Reacting masses
• Twenty four (24) grams of ammonia, NH3, react with enough oxygen,
what is the amount of water formed in grams?
• Write the balanced equation
4 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 N2 + 6 H2O
• Calculate for the mole of reactant by using molar mass and grams
• Calculate the moles of desired substance by relating it to the chemical
equation ratio
• Convert the mole calculated to grams using molar mass
 Practise: Reacting masses
• If 48 grams of Ba(NO3)2 are produced, how many grams of
Al(NO3)3 were reacted?
3 Ba + 2 Al(NO3)3 → 3 Ba(NO3)2 + 2 Al
• Calculate for the mole of product by using molar mass and grams
• Calculate the moles of desired substance by relating it to the chemical
equation ratio
• Convert the mole calculated to grams using molar mass
 Practise: Reacting masses
• If 141 grams of Mg(OH)2 are produced, how many grams of
Mg3P2 were reacted?
Mg3P2 + 6 H2O → 2 PH3 + 3 Mg(OH)2
• Calculate for the mole of product by using molar mass and grams
• Calculate the moles of desired substance by relating it to the chemical
equation ratio
• Convert the mole calculated to grams using molar mass
 Practise: Reacting masses
• Find out the balanced equation using the masses:
• Ar: K=39, O=16, C=12
• 71 g of KO2 reacts exactly with 22 grams CO2 to produce 69 grams K2CO3 and
24 grams O2

• Calculate the moles of KO2, CO2, K2CO3 and O2

• Deduce the stoichiometry of the reaction by getting the simplest
ratio
• Write a balanced equation of the reaction based on the stoichiometry
 Practise: Reacting masses
• Answers:
• 1 KO2, 0.50 CO2, 0.50 K2CO3, 0.75 O2
• Stoichiometry= 4:2:2:3
• Balanced equation: 4 KO2 + 2 CO2 → 2 K2CO3 + 3 O2
 STOICHIOMETRY: Reacting masses

2 S + 4 T + 2 L + 2 B  S2T4L2B2
In order for us to find the mass of products formed in chemical reaction we use:
• Mass of the reactants
• Molar mass of the reactants
• The balanced equations
 STOICHIOMETRY: Reacting masses

2 S + 4 T + 2 L + 2 B  S2T4L2B2
If you have 5 slices of bread, 5 tomato, 5 lettuce and 2 bacon, how many sandwich will
you make based on the equation above?
If you have 2 slices of bread, 4 tomato, 4 lettuce and 4 bacon, how many sandwich will
you make based on the equation above?
 STOICHIOMETRY: Reacting masses
• The reactant which is NOT in excess is called the limiting reagent.
• The reactant which has the number of moles in excess is called the excess
reagent.
 STOICHIOMETRY: Reactions with limiting reagent or reactant
• Remember that in calculating which reactant is limiting, you must:
• work out the number of moles of the reactant
• take into account the ratio of the reactants shown in the equation (the stoichiometry).

A sample of 79.8 g of iron(III) oxide is mixed

with 9.36 g of carbon and heated. A reaction
occurs.
2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2
(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0, C = 12.0)
What is the limiting reactant?
 STOICHIOMETRY: Reactions with limiting reagent or reactant
A sample of 79.8 g of iron(III) oxide is mixed with 9.36 g of carbon and heated. A reaction occurs.
2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2
(Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0, C = 12.0)
What is the limiting reactant?

Step 1: Calculate the moles of each reagent.

79.8
moles of Fe2O3 = = 0.50 mol Fe2O3
2x55.8 +(3x16.0)
9.36
moles of C = =0.78 mol C
12
Step 2: Refer to the stoichiometry of the equation. Convert or calculate one of the moles to
the other reactant.
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
0.50 mol Fe2O3 x ( ) = 0.75 mol CFe2O3
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Fe2O3
Step 3: Determine which is in excess. (You need to compare the value you get from step 2
with step 1)
The value in step 2, 0.75 mol C (from step 2) is less than 0.78 mol C (from step 1). Since in
step 2 we calculate C from value of Fe2O3, then the limiting reactant is Fe2O3
So C is in excess, 0.78 - 0.75 = 0.03 mol C
 STOICHIOMETRY: Reactions with limiting reagent or reactant

• Why calculating limiting and excess

reactant is important?
• Limiting reactant will be the basis for the amount of
the final product
• The yield or total amount of the produced substance
will always be calculated based on the limiting
substance
• For industries, any excess reactant can cause
additional cost or expense because of wasted
substance
• Reminder: Significant figures
• When we perform chemical calculations it is important that
we give the answer to the number of significant figures that
fits with the data provided (unless stated otherwise).
• The examples here show the number 526.84 rounded up to
varying numbers of significant figures.
• rounded to 4 significant figures = 526.8
• rounded to 3 significant figures = 527
• rounded to 2 significant figures = 530
 Percentage composition by mass
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 x 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
• % by mass = x 100
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

1. Calculate the percentage by mass of iron (Fe) in iron(III) oxide,

Fe2O3 . (Ar values: Fe = 55.8, O = 16.0)
2 x 55.8
% mass Fe = x 100 = 69.9% Fe
2 x 55.8 +(3 x 16.0)

2. Calculate the percentage by mass of carbon (C) in ethanol, C2H5OH.

Ar values: C = 12.0, H = 1.0, O = 16.0
2 x 12.0
% mass C = x 100 = 52.2% C
2 x 12.0 + 6 x 1.0 +(1x16.o)
 Percentage yield
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
• Percentage yield= x 100
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)

• Actual yield is the moles or mass of product obtained by experiment.

• Predicted yield is the moles or mass of product obtained by
calculation if no side products are formed and all of a specific
reactant is converted to a specific product.
Worked example:
A sample of aluminium chloride, AlCl3 , is made by reacting 18 g
of aluminium powder with excess chlorine. The mass of aluminium
chloride produced is 71.0 g. Calculate the percentage yield of
aluminium oxide. (Ar values: Al = 27.0, Cl = 35.5) 2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3
 Percentage yield
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
• Percentage yield= x 100
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)

• Actual yield is the moles or mass of product obtained by experiment.

• Predicted yield is the moles or mass of product obtained by
calculation if no side products are formed and all of a specific
reactant is converted to a specific product.
Worked example:
A sample of aluminium chloride, AlCl3 , is made by reacting 18 g
of aluminium powder with excess chlorine. The mass of aluminium
chloride produced is 71.0 g. Calculate the percentage yield of
aluminium oxide. (Ar values: Al = 27.0, Cl = 35.5) 2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3
 Percentage yield
𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
• Percentage yield= x 100
𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 (𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅)
Worked example:
A sample of aluminium chloride, AlCl3 , is made by reacting 18 g of aluminium powder with
excess chlorine. The mass of aluminium chloride produced is 71.0 g. Calculate the percentage yield of
aluminium chloride. (Ar values: Al = 27.0, Cl = 35.5)
2Al + 3Cl2 → 2AlCl3
• Step 1: i. Find the mole of the aluminium, ii. calculate the stoichiometry ratio based on the chemical
equation and iii. calculate the mass of AlCl3 predicted yield
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
• i. 18 g Al x ( 27 𝑔 𝐴𝑙 ) = 0.667 mol Al
𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍 AlCl
• ii. 0.667 mol Al x ( 𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑨𝒍 3) = 0.667 mol AlCl3
27x1+35.5 x 3 𝑔 𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙3
• iii. 0.667 mol AlCl3 x = 89 g AlCl3
𝑚𝑜𝑙
• Step 2: Calculate the percentage yield
𝟕𝟏 𝒈
Percentage yield = ( ) x 100 = 79.8%
𝟖𝟗 𝒈
 STOICHIOMETRY: Making a sandwich

Molecular formula – shows S 2 T 4 L 2 B2

the exact number of atoms of
each element present in a
molecule or formula.

Empirical formula – shows

the simplest whole number ST2LB
ratio of atoms of each
element present in a molecule
or formula.
 Practise: Molecular to empirical
Compound
• What is the empirical
formula of the
following
compound?
 Practise: Molecular to empirical
Compound
• You need to divide
each of the number
with same number
to achieve the lowest
or simplest
proportion.
 Example calculations: Empirical and molecular formula
• 0.486 g of magnesium is burned with excess oxygen to produce oxide of magnesium, the formed
product is 0.806 g. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound produced. Ar: Mg=24.3
g/mol, O= 16.0 g/mol

Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium Oxygen

• Step 1: Find the mass of oxygen

• Oxygen = oxide of magnesium - Mass of magnesium
• Oxygen = 0.806 g – 0.486 g
• Oxygen = 0.320 g
• Step 2: Find the moles of each of the element by dividing mass with molar mass
0.486 𝑔
• Moles of Magnesium = = 0.0200 mol
24.3 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.320 𝑔
• Moles of oxygen = =0.0200 mol
16 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

• Step 3: Find the ratio, divide all with the smallest amount of mole
• Step 4: if needed, obtain the lowest whole number ratio to get empirical formula
• Mg=1 O=1; MgO
 Example calculations: Empirical and molecular formula
• Additional question: If the molar mass of the compound is 40.3044 g/mol, what is its molecular formula?
• For this, you need to calculate first the molecular formula of the empirical formula and divide it by the given
molar mass.
• MgO is the empirical formula from Step 4 (Mg = 24.3 g/mol; O = 16.0 g/mol).
• Molar mass = 24.3 x 1 + 16 x1 = 40.3 g/mol
𝐆𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 40.3044
• : = 0.99989 ~ 1 (factor)
Empirical formula molar mass 𝟒𝟎.𝟑
• Distribute the factor to the empirical formula by multiplying: (MgO)1

You can also use the table method for this calculations
 Practise: Empirical and molecular formula
• A compound of carbon and hydrogen contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Deduce the
empirical formula of this hydrocarbon. Ar: C=12.0, H=1.0
C H
Step 1: Note the % by mass 85.7 14.3

Step 2: Divide by Ar values 85.7 14.3

= 7.142 = 14.3
(calculate for moles) 12.0 1
Step 3: Divide by the lowest 7.142 14.3
= 1 = 2
figure 7.142 7.142
Empirical formula ratio C:1 H:2
Empirical formula CH2
• What is the molecular formula of this hydrocarbon if the molar mass of the compound is 56 g/mol?
Molar mass of empirical 1x 12.0 + 2 x 1.0 = 14
formula
Ratio 56
=4
14
Molecular formula CH2 x 4 =C4H8
 Chemical formulae and chemical equations
• Ionic compounds – combination
of a metal and non-metal
• The formula of an ionic compound
is determined by the charges on
each of the ions present
• The number of positive charges is
balanced by the number of
negative charges so that the total
charge on the compound is zero
• We can work out the formula for a
compound if we know the charges
For transition metals, the
on the ions.
charge on ions vary
 Chemical formulae and chemical equations
• Rule 1: For simple ions, shown in
right, we do not use Roman
numeral in naming
• Example:
• MgCl2 –Magnesium chloride
• Rule 2: For transition elements,
mostly have more than one
oxidation (charge) number. We
Rule 3: For ionic compounds only, we
use Roman numeral
take the simplest ratio
• Example: Example: Magnesium oxide
• FeCl2 – Iron (II) chloride Mg2O2 is WRONG
MgO is CORRECT (the simplest ratio)
• FeCl3 – Iron (III) chloride
 Chemical formulae and chemical equations
• Rule 4: For simple anions (ions
with negative charge), we change
the end of the element into –ide.
• Example:
• O2- - oxide
• Cl- - chloride
• S2- - sulphide
• N3- - nitride
 Common transition metal ion
• Chromium (II) Cr +2 • Iron (II) Fe +2
• Chromium (III) Cr +3 • Iron (III) Fe +3
• Cobalt (II) Co +2 • Lead (II) Pb +2
• Cobalt (III) Co +3 • Lead (IV) Pb +4
• Copper (I) Cu +1 • Manganese(II) Mn +2
• Copper (II) Cu +2 • Manganese(IV) Mn +4
• Gold (I) Au +1
• Gold (III) Au +3
 Compound Ions
• Ions that
contain
more than
one type of
atom are
called
compound
ions
 Let’s try
• Write the formula for the ionic compound
• Aluminium oxide
• Step 1: Figure out the charges of the ions
• Aluminium ion is Al3+
• Oxygen ion or oxide is O2-
• Step 2: Al3+ O2-
Al2O3
• For electrical neutrality (or zero charge):
• (2 x 3+) + (3 x 2-) = 0
• You need 2 aluminium and 3 oxygen to achieve neutrality or zero charge
 Let’s try
• Write the formula for the ionic compound
• Copper (II) Sulfate
• Step 1: Figure out the charges of the ions
• Copper(II) ion is Cu2+
• Sulfate ion is SO42-
• Step 2: Cu2+ SO42-
Cu2(SO4)2
• For ionic compounds, we need to find the simplest ratio
• CuSO4
 Practise
•Calcium hydroxide
•Zinc phosphate
•Iron (III) sulfate
 Hydrated and anhydrous compounds
• When compounds are formed into crystals, there are times that the water becomes part of their structure. This
is called water crystallisation.
• A compound containing water of crystallisation is called a hydrated compound. e.g. hydrated copper(II)
sulfate or copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate or copper sulfate-5-water, CuSO4 ·5H2O
• A compound which DOES NOT contain water of crystallisation is called an anhydrous compound e.g.
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4
• There can be different degrees of hydration of a compound, e.g. cobalt(II) chloride-6-water CoCl2 ·6H2O and
cobalt(II) chloride-2-water CoCl2 ·2H2O
• When writing chemical formulae for hydrated compounds, we show water of crystallisation separated from
the main formula by a dot.
• Note that the number of moles of water of crystallisation is usually a whole number.
• Anhydrous compounds can be converted to hydrated compounds by adding water:
• e.g. CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4 ·5H2O
• The reaction can be reversed by heating:
• e.g. CuSO4 . 5H2O  CuSO4 + 5H2O
 Complete the table:
General name Formula

Magnesium nitrate-6-water

NiSO4•7H2O

CoCl2 • 9H2O
 Complete the table:
General name Formula

Magnesium nitrate-6-water Mg(NO3)2•7H2O

Nickel(II) Sulfate-7-water NiSO4•7H2O

Cobalt(II) Chloride-9-water CoCl2 • 9H2O

Naming inorganic covalent compounds
• Covalent compounds – normally, non- Prefix Numerical Value
metals to non-metals or metalloids Mono- 1
• Rule 1: Identify the elements present Di- 2
• Rule 2: Use prefixes to specify the Tri- 3
number of atoms of each element in Tetra- 4
the molecule Penta- 5
• Example: N2O5, Dinitrogen pentoxide
Hexa- 6
• Rule 3: Change the ending of the
Hepta- 7
second element into –ide
Octa- 8
• Rule 4: If the first element contain
only 1 atom, remove the mono- prefix Nona- 9
• Example: CO2, carbon dioxide Deca- 10
 Balancing chemical equations
• When chemicals react, atoms cannot be either
created or destroyed.
• Each number of atoms in reactant = Each number of atoms in product
• Remember!!!
When balancing chemical reaction, the last
substance that you will balance in the chemical
equation are elements.
• Example:
CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O : balance oxygen last
Al + HCl  AlCl3 + H2 : balance aluminium and
hydrogen last
 Example: Balancing chemical reaction
•Propane (C3H8) is burned in the presence of
oxygen to produce water and carbon
dioxide
•Step 1: Write down the formula of all
reactants and products
C3H8 + O2 --> H2O + CO2
 Example: Balancing chemical reaction
• Step 2: Write and count the number of atoms
per element in reactant and product.
 Example: Balancing chemical reaction
• Step 3: Balance one of the atoms by placing a number before
the symbol. Keep doing this until you comes up with the
balanced reaction.
Example: Balancing chemical reaction
 Practise: Balancing equations

CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O

Al + HCl  AlCl3 + H2
N2 + H2  NH3
 Balancing chemical equation with compound ions
• Barium nitrate reacts with sodium sulfate solution. A precipitate of
barium sulfate is formed and another compound soluble in water.
• Step 1: Write the chemical equation:
Ba(NO3)2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 +NaNO3

Can you try?

 Balancing chemical equation with compound ions
• Barium nitrate reacts with sodium sulfate solution. A precipitate of
barium sulfate is formed and another compound soluble in water.
• Step 1: Write the chemical equation:
Ba(NO3)2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 +NaNO3
• Step 2: For substances with compound ions, write and count the
compound ions as a whole and not by its individual element
Reactant Product
Ba 1 1
NO3 2 1
Na 2 1
SO4 1 1
 Balancing chemical equation with compound ions
Ba(NO3)2 + Na2SO4  BaSO4 +NaNO3
• Step 3: Balance one of the atoms or ions. Continue doing it if
necessary.
Practise: Balancing chemical equation with compound ions
• Iron (III) Chloride reacts with Copper (II) sulfate to
form Iron (II) sulfate and copper (II) chloride
Practise: Balancing chemical equation with compound ions
• Iron (III) Chloride reacts with Copper (II) sulfate to
form Iron (II) sulfate and copper (II) chloride
 State symbols
• (s) - solid
• (l) - liquid
• (aq) - aqueous or a solution in water
• (g) - gas
• State symbols are written after the formula of
each reactant and product. For example:
• ZnCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g)
 Practise: State symbol and balancing equation
• Solid calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous
hydrochloric acid to form water, carbon dioxide
and an aqueous solution of calcium chloride.
 Balancing ionic equations
• Ionic compounds include salts such as sodium
bromide, magnesium sulfate and ammonium
nitrate. Acids and alkalis also contain ions. For
example, H+(aq) and Cl−(aq) ions are present in
hydrochloric acid and Na+ (aq) and OH−(aq) ions
are present in sodium hydroxide.
 Balancing ionic equations
• Ionic equations only shows the ions that takes part with the
reaction. Spectator ions are omitted or removed.
• Step 1: Write the balanced equation
• Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
• Step 2: Write all the ions present for ion forming compound in
solution (aqueous)
• Zn(s) + Cu2+ SO42−(aq) → Zn2+ SO42−(aq) + Cu(s)
• Step 3: Cancel the ions that appear on both sides
• Zn(s) + Cu2+ SO42−(aq) → Zn2+ SO42−(aq) + Cu(s)
• Step 4: write down the ionic equation with the removed ions:
Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
 Let’s try
• HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl(l)  PbCl2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
• Step 1: Write the balanced equation

• Step 2: Write all the ions present

• Step 3: Cancel the ions that appear on both sides

• Step 4: write down the ionic equation with the removed ions:
 Let’s try
• HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaCl(l)  PbCl2 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
• Step 1: Write the balanced equation

• Step 2: Write all the ions present

• Step 3: Cancel the ions that appear on both sides

• Step 4: write down the ionic equation with the removed ions:
 SOLUTIONS AND CONCENTRATION
• The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a
solvent to make 1 dm3 (one cubic decimetre) of solution.
• Dilute solution – low concentration of solute in the solution
• Concentrated solution- high concentration of solute in the solution

mol of solute

Concentration Volume of
mol dm-3 solution
dm3
SOLUTIONS AND CONCENTRATION
• When performing calculations with
concentrations
• Change mass into moles
• Change the volume of solution
into dm3 (if the given is in cm3
divide it to 1000 to convert to mol of solute
dm3)
• In laboratory, you make the Concentration Volume of
solutions of known concentration by mol dm-3 solution
weighing amount of solute and dm3
dissolving it to a small amount of
solvent first. After that, you
complete the amount of volume by
adding additional water.
SOLUTIONS AND CONCENTRATION
• Calculate the concentration in • Step 3: Calculate concentration
mol dm−3 of sodium hydroxide, 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
• Concentration =
NaOH, if 250 cm3 of a solution 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙
contains 2.0 g of sodium • =
0.25 dm3
hydroxide. (Mr value: NaOH = • = 0.20 mol dm-3
40.0 g mol-)
• Step 1: Change grams to moles
2𝑔
•
40𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙-
= 0.05 mol of NaOH !
Remember: The unit in
• Step 2: (if conversion is concentrations should be grams for
necessary) mass of solute, volume of solution
• 250 cm3  _?_ dm3 is dm3. Convert the given values first
1 𝑑𝑚 3 before proceeding with calculations
• 250 cm3 ( ) = 0.25 dm3
1000 𝑐𝑚3
 Calculate mass of solute using concentration
• Calculate the mass needed to • Step 2: Calculate mass by
prepare 2 dm3 of NaOH with multiplying mole with molar mass
concentration of 3 mol dm−3 of • Mass = 6 mol NaOH (40.0 g mol−)
sodium hydroxide. (Mr value: • =240 g of NaOH
NaOH = 40.0 g mol-)
• Step 1: Calculate moles from mol of
solute
concentration and volume
Volume of
• mol = concentration x volume Concentration solution
mol dm -3
• =3 mol dm−3 (2 dm 3 ) dm3

• = 6 mol NaOH
 Mass of solute

Concentration Molar mass of solute Volume of solution

mol dm-3 dm3
 Finding stoichiometry by titration
• 30 cm3 of 0.05 mol • Step 1: Calculate the moles of each reagent
dm-3 Iron(III) Moles of Fe(OH)3 = volumeFe(OH)3 x concentrationFe(OH)3
1 𝑑𝑚3
hydroxide = 30 cm (3
1000 𝑐𝑚 3)x 0.05 mol dm
-3

completely reacts = 0.0015 mol

with 15 cm3 of 0.30 Moles of HCl = concentrationHCl x volumeHCl
dm-3 hydrochloric 3
= 15 cm (
1 𝑑𝑚3 -3
3) x 0.30 dm
acid. Find out the 1000 𝑐𝑚
balanced chemical = 0.0045 mol
equation of this • Step 2: Deduce the simplest ratio by dividing it with the lowest moles
from step 1
reaction. 0.0015 0.0045
Fe(OH)3 = =1 HCl = =3
• Remember: 0.0015 0.0015

Convert cm3 to
• Step 3: Substitute the value to the equation. Balance the remaining
dm3 substances.
Fe(OH)3 (aq)+ 3 HCl (aq)  FeCl3 + 3H2O
 Calculations using gas volumes
• At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.), the molar gas volume is 24 dm3 or
24 000 cm3.
• This means that at r.t.p., 1 mole of gas = 24 dm3 or 24 000 cm3
• To convert cm3 to dm3, you just need to divide it by 1000.
• Example:
• What is the volume of 2 mol of a gas?
24 𝑑𝑚3
2 mol ( ) = 48 𝑑𝑚3
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
• Gas with a volume of 25 dm3, what is its number of moles
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
25 dm3 ( 3) = 1.04 mol
24 𝑑𝑚
 Gas volume and stoichiometry
• 8 cm3 of Octane, • C8H18+O2→CO2+H2O
C8H18, completely • Step 1: Write the volume of each given
reacts with 100 cm3 C8H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
of oxygen gas to • 8 cm3 100 cm3 64 cm3
produce 64 cm3 of • Step 2: Calculate the simplest ratio
carbon dioxide and 8 100 64
unknown amount of 8 8 8
25
water. What is the (1 8) x 2 [ multiply by 2 remove the fraction]
2
stoichiometry of the Simplest ratio: 2 : 25 : 16
equation? • Step 3: Balance the equation by adding the ratio. Balance
the remaining substance.
• 2C8H18+ 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O
 Gas volume and stoichiometry
• 8 cm3 of Octane, • C8H18+O2→CO2+H2O
C8H18, completely • Step 1: Write the volume of each given
reacts with 100 cm3 C8H18 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
of oxygen gas to • 8 cm3 100 cm3 64 cm3
produce 64 cm3 of • Step 2: Calculate the simplest ratio
carbon dioxide and 8 100 64
unknown amount of 8 8 8
25
water. What is the (1 8) x 2 [ multiply by 2 remove the fraction]
2
stoichiometry of the Simplest ratio: 2 : 25 : 16
equation? • Step 3: Balance the equation by adding the ratio. Balance
the remaining substance.
• 2C8H18+ 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O
 Formula of a compound using
molar gas
• 30 cm3 of Nitrogen (N2) gas and 30 cm3 hydrogen
(H2) gas were placed together in a syringe in a
controlled set-up (Image above). The data on the
right shows the volume of nitrogen used versus the
total volume of the gas. The gas produced is NHy.
• Find the stoichiometry and the identity of the gas

• Step 1: Deduce the volume of gas by analysis of the

graph. • Step 2: Get the ratio of the gases that is involve in the reaction
In the graph, notice that there is a decrease in the total N2 + H2  NHy
volume of a gas. This means that a reaction is on-going 10 cm3 30 cm3 20 cm3
The decrease stopped in 10 cm3 of nitrogen gas, this means 10 1 3 2
cm3 of Nitrogen is used by the reaction. Simplest ratio: 1:3:2
• Step 3: Add the ratio to the equation
Initially, there is 30 cm3 of nitrogen gas, but only 10 cm3 N2 + 3 H2  2 NHy
reacted, therefore, 30-10=20 cm3, this is the excess nitrogen
gas. Since nitrogen is in excess, hydrogen gas is limiting, Step 4: Reactant Product
therefore all 30 cm3 hydrogen gas is used.
N 2 2
Look again in the graph, after the reaction, there is a total of H 3x2 =6 2y
40 cm3 of gas. To calculate the NHy produced:
40cm3 – 20cm3 (from excess nitrogen gas) = 20 cm3 NHy 6
6= 2y; y= 2; y=3: Therefore, the identity of the product is NH3