Practical Physics It 102

PRACTICAL PHYSICS II
PHY 102
Prof. Dr. Ali Mohamed Hussein
Head of Basic Science Department
Misr University for Science and Technology
Dr. Rabab Ahmed Ramadan
Dr. Mohamed Ali Sayed
Dr. Mohamed Saleh Ismaiel
Lecturer at Basic Science Department

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS II
PHY 102
Prof. Dr. Ali Hussein

Head of Basic Science Department
Misr University for Science and Technology
Dr. Rabab Ahmed Ramadan
Dr. Mohamed Ali Sayed
Dr. Mohamed Saleh Ismaiel
Lecturer at Basic Science Department
Student Name Id Faculty

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 5
SAFETY LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS .............................................. 7
MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS .................................. 8
EXPERIMENT (1) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFERE ...............15
EXPERIMENT (2) ENERGY GAP ......................................................25
EXPERIMENT (3) THERMOCOUPLE .............................................33
EXP (4) THE DIODE CHARACTERISTIC ......................................41
EXP (5) RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 1 (HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER)47
EXP (6) RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 2 (FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER)55
EXP (7) THE ZENER REGULATOR .................................................63
EXP (8) COMMON EMITTER NPN TRANSISTOR

CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................................69
EXP (9) COMMON BASE PNP TRANSISTOR

EXP (10) COMMON COLLECTOR NPN TRANSISTOR

3
4
INTRODUCTION
At the request of my students, this laboratory copybook was

written. The main purpose of this work is to augment the
laboratory skills of the university junior students in practical
laboratory work while introducing to them new laboratory
instruments and techniques. Since standardized laboratory
report facilitates the evaluation of the student by the
instruction, a laboratory report is provided for each
experiment. And each experiment is subdivided to the
following parts:
I. Objectives.
II. Apparatus.
III. Theory.
IV. Experimental procedure.
V. Laboratory report.
VI. Post laboratory questions.
To upgrade of the university junior students, the following

system will be adapted:
Students often come to the laboratory unprepared even

though they should have read the experiment before the
laboratory period to familiarize themselves with it. to solve
this problem an advanced test assignment proceeds each
experiment, which consists of a set of questions asked orally
5
by the instructor to each group of students performing the
same experiment. These questions are drawn from the theory
and experimental procedure parts of the experiment. To
answer the questions students must read the experiment
before the laboratory period and as a result are better
prepared. Since a standardized laboratory report greatly
facilities our task as instructors for evaluating students it will
be required for the students on the same experiment to work
as a team and present only one report that means that the
whole team performing the same experiment will get the
same mark. For this reason the maximum number of students
in one team will be three.
The laboratory report and post-laboratory questions

that follow need to be submitted for evaluation preferably at
the end of each laboratory period. Black parentheses are
included to remind the students to include the unit of the
measured physical parameter.
6
SAFETY LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS
The most important thing in the laboratory is your safety and

the safety of others for that reason all the experiments in our
physics laboratories are designed to be done safety, but
caution should always be exercised .For this purpose we have
implemented five necessary safety rules in our physics
laboratory.
Rule No. 1
Upon entering the Physics Lab., restrain your curiosity and
do not play with the equipment you may hurt yourself and/or
the equipment. Wait until the laboratory assistant has
explained or has given permission to group to begin the
experiment.
Rule No.2
If you have any questions about the safety of a procedure in
your experiment, ask your laboratory assistant before doing
it. (He is here to help you, and solve your safety problems.
Rule No.3
Equipment provided for your laboratory experiment ore often
expensive and also delicate so if used improperly the
apparatus may be damage. It is recommended to ask for the
laboratory assistant permission before putting it into
operation.
7
Rule No .4
After you complete your experiment, the experimental set up
must be disconnected and left neatly as you found them at the
beginning of the experiment.
Rule No.5
If an instrument is damaged during your performance to the
experiment you have to report the damage to your laboratory
assistant.
MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS
"It is better to be roughly right than precisely wrong." —

Alan Greenspan
The Uncertainty of Measurements

Some numerical statements are exact: Mary has 3 brothers,
and 2 + 2 = 4. However, all measurements have some
degree of uncertainty that may come from a variety of
sources. The process of evaluating the uncertainty associated
with a measurement result is often called uncertainty
analysis or error analysis. The complete statement of a
measured value should include an estimate of the level of
confidence associated with the value. Properly reporting an
experimental result along with its uncertainty allows other
people to make judgments about the quality of the
experiment, and it facilitates meaningful comparisons with
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other similar values or a theoretical prediction. Without an
uncertainty estimate, it is impossible to answer the basic
scientific question: "Does my result agree with a theoretical
prediction or results from other experiments?" This question
is fundamental for deciding if a scientific hypothesis is
confirmed or refuted. When we make a measurement, we
generally assume that some exact or true value exists based
on how we define what is being measured. While we may
never know this true value exactly, we attempt to find this
ideal quantity to the best of our ability with the time and
resources available. As we make measurements by different
methods, or even when making multiple measurements using
the same method, we may obtain slightly different results. So
how do we report our findings for our best estimate of this
elusive true value? The most common way to show the
range of values that we believe includes the true value is:
Measurement = (best estimate ± uncertainty) units
Let's take an example. Suppose you want to find the mass of

a gold ring that you would like to sell to a friend. You do not
want to jeopardize your friendship, so you want to get an
accurate mass of the ring in order to charge a fair market
price. You estimate the mass to be between 10 and 20 grams
from how heavy it feels in your hand, but this is not a very
precise estimate. After some searching, you find an
electronic balance that gives a mass reading of 17.43 grams.
While this measurement is much more precise than the
original estimate, how do you know that it is accurate, and
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how confident are you that this measurement represents the
true value of the ring's mass? Since the digital display of the
balance is limited to 2 decimal places, you could report the
mass as
m = 17.43 ± 0.01 g.
Suppose you use the same electronic balance and obtain

several more readings: 17.46 g, 17.42 g, 17.44 g, so that the
average mass appears to be in the range of
17.44 ± 0.02 g.
By now you may feel confident that you know the mass of
this ring to the nearest hundredth of a gram, but how do you
know that the true value definitely lies between 17.43 g and
17.45 g? Since you want to be honest, you decide to use
another balance that gives a reading of 17.22 g. This value is
clearly below the range of values found on the first balance,
and under normal circumstances, you might not care, but you
want to be fair to your friend. So what do you do now? The
answer lies in knowing something about the accuracy of each
instrument. To help answer these questions, we should first
define the terms accuracy and precision:
Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured

value and a true or accepted value. Measurement error is the
amount of inaccuracy.
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Precision is a measure of how well a result can be
determined (without reference to a theoretical or true value).
It is the degree of consistency and agreement among
independent measurements of the same quantity; also the
reliability or reproducibility of the result.
The uncertainty estimate associated with a measurement

should account for both the accuracy and precision of the
measurement.
Note: Unfortunately the terms error and uncertainty are

often used interchangeably to describe both imprecision and
inaccuracy. This usage is so common that it is impossible to
avoid entirely. Whenever you encounter these terms, make
sure you understand whether they refer to accuracy or
precision, or both. Notice that in order to determine the
accuracy of a particular measurement, we have to know the
ideal, true value. Sometimes we have a "textbook" measured
value, which is well known, and we assume that this is our
"ideal" value, and use it to estimate the accuracy of our
result. Other times we know a theoretical value, which is
calculated from basic principles, and this also may be taken
as an "ideal" value. But physics is an empirical science,
which means that the theory must be validated by
experiment, and not the other way around. We can escape
these difficulties and retain a useful definition of accuracy
by assuming that, even when we do not know the true value,
we can rely on the best available accepted value with which
to compare our experimental value. For our example with the
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gold ring, there is no accepted value with which to compare,
and both measured values have the same precision, so we
have no reason to believe one more than the other. We could
look up the accuracy specifications for each balance as
provided by the manufacturer (the Appendix at the end of
this lab manual contains accuracy data for most instruments
you will use), but the best way to assess the accuracy of a
measurement is to compare with a known standard. For this
situation, it may be possible to calibrate the balances with a
standard mass that is accurate within a narrow tolerance and
is traceable to a primary mass standard at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Calibrating
the balances should eliminate the discrepancy between the
readings and provide a more accurate mass measurement.
Precision is often reported quantitatively by using relative or
fractional uncertainty:
Uncertainity
Relative Uncertainty =
measured quantity
Example:
m = 75.5 ± 0.5 g
has a fractional uncertainty of:
0.5
= = 0.006 = 0.7%.
75.5
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Accuracy is often reported quantitatively by using relative
error:
measured value − expected value

Relative Error =
expected value
If the expected value for m is 80.0 g, then the relative error

is:
75.5 − 80.0
= −0.056 = −5.6%
80.0
Note: The minus sign indicates that the measured value is

less than the expected value. When analyzing experimental
data, it is important that you understand the difference
between precision and accuracy. Precision indicates the
quality of the measurement, without any guarantee that the
measurement is "correct." Accuracy, on the other hand,
assumes that there is an ideal value, and tells how far your
answer is from that ideal, "right" answer. These concepts are
directly related to random and systematic measurement
errors.
Significant Figures
The number of significant figures in a value can be defined
as all the digits between and including the first non-zero digit
from the left, through the last digit. For instance, 0.44 has
two significant figures, and the number 66.770 has 5
significant figures. Zeroes are significant except when used
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to locate the decimal point, as in the number 0.00030, which
has 2 significant figures. Zeroes may or may not be
significant for numbers like 1200, where it is not clear
whether two, three, or four significant figures are indicated.
To avoid this ambiguity, such numbers should be expressed
in scientific notation to (e.g. 1.20 × 103 clearly indicates three
significant figures).When using a calculator, the display will
often show many digits, only some of which are meaningful
(significant in a different sense). For example, if you want to
estimate the area of a circular playing field, you might pace
off the radius to be 9 meters and use the formula: A = πr2.
When you compute this area, the calculator might report a
value of 254.4690049 m2. It would be extremely misleading
to report this number as the area of the field, because it
would suggest that you know the area to an absurd degree of
precision—to within a fraction of a square millimeter! Since
the radius is only known to one significant figure, the final
answer should also contain only one significant figure: Area
= 3 × 102 m2.From this example, we can see that the number
of significant figures reported for a value implies a certain
degree of precision. In fact, the number of significant figures
suggests a rough estimate of the relative uncertainty:
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EXPERIMENT (1) MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFERE
Object :
1- To Verify the maximum power transfer practically.
Theory:
Electromotive force
A battery is called either a source of electromotive force or,
more commonly, a source of emf. (The phrase electromotive
force is an unfortunate historical term, describing not a force,
but rather a potential difference in volts.) The emf ε of a
battery is the maximum possible voltage the battery can
provide between its terminals. You can think of a source of
emf as a “charge pump.” When an electric potential
difference exists between two points, the source moves
charges “uphill” from the lower potential to the higher.
from the lower potential to the higher.
We shall generally assume the connecting wires in a circuit
have no resistance. The positive terminal of a battery is at a
higher potential than the negative terminal. Because a real
battery is made of matter, there is resistance to the flow of
charge within the battery. This resistance is called internal
resistance r. For an idealized battery with zero internal
resistance, the potential difference across the battery (called
its terminal voltage) equals its emf ε. For a real battery,
however, the terminal voltage is not equal to the emf ε for a
15
battery in a circuit in which there is a current. To understand
why, consider the circuit
diagram in Figure1a.
The battery in this diagram is

represented by the dashed
rectangle containing an ideal,
resistance-free emf ε in series
with an internal resistance r.
A resistor of resistance R is
connected across the
terminals of the battery. Now
imagine moving through the
battery from a to d and
measuring the electric
potential at various locations.
Passing from the negative
terminal to the positive
terminal, the potential
increases by an amount ε. As
we move through the
resistance r, however, the
potential decreases by an
amount Ir, where I is the
current in the circuit.
Therefore, the terminal voltage of the battery ∆V is
∆V= ε - Ir (1)
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Figure 1a shows that the terminal voltage ∆V must equal the
potential difference across the external resistance R, often
called the load resistance. The load resistor might be a
simple resistive circuit element as in Figure 1a, or it could be
the resistance of some electrical device (such as a toaster,
electric heater, or lightbulb) connected to the battery (or, in
the case of household devices, to the wall outlet). The
resistor represents a load on the battery because the battery
must supply energy to operate the device containing the
resistance. The potential difference across the load resistance
is ∆V = IR. Combining this expression with Equation 1, we
see that
ε = IR + Ir (2)
Solving for the current gives
ε
I = (3)
R +r
Equation 3 shows that the current in this simple circuit
depends on both the load resistance R external to the battery
and the internal resistance r. If R is much greater than r, as it
is in many real-world circuits, we can neglect r. Multiplying
Equation 2 by the current I in the circuit gives
P = Iε = I2R + I2r (4)
Equation 4 indicates that because power P = I∆V, the total

power output Iε of the battery is delivered to the external
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load resistance in the amount I2R and to the internal
resistance in the amount I2r.
Maximum power transfer theory

The power transferred from a supply source to a load is at its
maximum when the resistance of the load is equal to the
internal resistance of the source. To prove that, we Find the
load resistance R for which the maximum power is delivered
to the load resistance in Figure 1a.
When R is large, there is very little current, so the power I2R

delivered to the load resistor is small.
When R is small, the current is large and there is significant

loss of power I2r as energy is delivered to the internal
resistance. Therefore, the power delivered to the load resistor
is small again. For some intermediate value of the resistance
R, the power must maximize.
The power delivered to the load resistance:
ε 2R
=
P I=
R 2
(R + r )
2
Differentiate the power with respect to the load resistance R

and set the derivative equal to zero to maximize the power:
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dP d  ε 2R  d  2
ε R ( R + r=
)  0
−2
=  = 2
dR dR  ( R + r )  dR  
ε 2 ( R + r )−2  + ε 2 R ( −2 )( R + r )−3  =
0
   
ε 2 ( R + r )−2  + ε 2 R ( −2 )( R + r )−3  =
0
   
( R + r ) ε 2 ( R + r ) + ε 2R ( −2 ) =
−3
0
( R + r ) ε 2 ( r − R ) =
−3
0
ε 2 (r − R )
=0
(R + r )
−3
Solving for R: R=r

To check this result, let’s plot P versus R as in Figure 2. The
graph shows that P reaches a maximum value at R = r.
Equation (1) shows that this maximum value is Pmax = ε 2 4r .
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On the other words" A resistive load will be consumptive
maximum power from the supply when the load resister is
equal to the equivalent (Thevenin) network resistor",
RL = Rth ……. For maximum power transfer.
=I L V th ( R L + Rth )
= V th ( Rth + Rth )
=V th ( 2Rth )
Where,
=
Pmax I=
2 2
L R L V th 4R th
A graph of RL against P is shown in Fig.(1), the maximum

value of power which occurs when RL = Rth
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Apparatus
1. Resistance box RL
2. Set of wires.
3. DC Power supply
4. Digital A.V.O. meter
5. resistance 100 Ω
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit shown in figure Above. From the
circuit, we can note that Rth =100 Ω and V = 5V.
2. Change the value of RL in steps as shown in table.
3. Measure the current "I " and record it in the table.
4. Plot the curve of the power against the load resistance and
determine the maximum power.
5. Find RL for the maximum power transfer in the circuit

shown.
6. Compare between the theoretical and practical results.
7. Comment on your results.
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LABORATORY REPORT
RESULTS:
RL ( ) I( ) P( )
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
Calculations:
Pmax = ……………………………………. ( )
RL = …………………………..…….….... ( )
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‫رﺳﻢ ﺑﯿﺎﻧﻲ‬
‫‪23‬‬
1- What is meant by the electromotive force?
Answer:
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………....
2- what is meant by the internal resistance?
Answer:
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3- State Ohm’s law.
Answer
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
3- State the maximum power transfer theory.
Answer
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
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EXPERIMENT (2) ENERGY GAP
Object:
- To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor material.
Theory:
In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be

classified into three groups: conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators. When atoms combine to form a solid, crystalline
material, they arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern.
The atoms within the crystal structure are held together by
covalent bonds, which are created by the interaction of the
valence electrons of the atoms. Silicon is a crystalline
material.
Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors

All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms
contribute to the electrical properties of a material, including
its ability to conduct electrical current.
Insulators
An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical

current. There are very few free electrons in an insulator.
Conductors
A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical
current. In a conductive material, the free electrons are
valence electrons.
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Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and

insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current. A
semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is neither a good
conductor nor a good insulator.
Band Gap
Recall that the valence shell of an atom represents a
band of energy levels and that the valence electrons are
confined to that band. When an electron acquires enough
additional energy, it can leave the valence shell, become a
free electron, and exist in what is known as the conduction
band.
The difference in energy between the valence band and the

conduction band is called an energy gap or band gap. This is
the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in
order to jump from the valence band to the conduction band.
Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move
throughout the material and is not tied to any given atom.
Figure1 shows energy diagrams for insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors. In semiconductors, the band
gap is smaller than insulators, allowing an electron in the
valence band to jump into the conduction band if it absorbs a
photon. The band gap depends on the semiconductor
material.
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FIGURE 1 Energy diagrams for three types of materials.
Effect of Temperature on energy gap

The following relationship applies:
RT = R 0 e
E g 2 kT
Eg: energy gap

RT: electric resistance
k: 1.38×10-23 J.K-1 (Boltzmann constant)
T: Absolute temperature
The specific resistance of a semiconductor falls with
temperature. The lower the band space between the valence
and conduction bands in the band model, the lower the
resistance. The greater the ratio of to the thermal energy k.T
of the electrons, the fewer the electrons which can be moved
from the valence band to the conduction band.
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The number of thermally generated pairs of electrons and
holes depends exponentially on E g 2 kT .
The following equation applies

− E g kT
n .p α e
where n: Electron concentration in the conduction band
p: Concentration of the holes in the valence band

since, n=p in the case of intrinsic conduction,
it follows for the electric resistance that

1
RT α αe g
E 2 kT
n
Eg
ln=
RT ln R 0 +
2kT
If ln RT is plotted against 1/T on a coordinate system, we
obtain a straight line with the gradient
Eg
slope =
2k
It is thus possible to determine the band space Eg form the
temperature dependence of the semiconductor resistor:
E=
g 2k × slope
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Apparatus:
Semiconductor resistor
Electric Oven
Thermometer
Beaker filled with water
Connecting wires
Multimeter
Power supply
Procedure
1. Put a beaker filled with water on the electric oven.
2. Wait until the water boils at T = 100 oC.
3. Put the semiconductor resistance and the thermometer

inside the beaker and move it away from the oven to let
the system cools down.
4. Record the resistance of the semiconductor RT as the

temperature T falls as shown in table
5. Convert the temperature from Celsius to Kelvin
6. Plot the relation of ln RT against 1/T on a coordinate

system, we obtain a straight line.
7. Calculate the slope of the straight line
8. determine the energy gap Eg form: E=

g 2k × slope
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LABORATORY REPORT
RESULTS:
TC (oC) RT ( ) T (K) 1/T ( ) ln RT
100
90
80
70
60
50
Calculations:
Eg Eg
 ln=
RT ln R 0 + ⇒ slope =
2kT 2k
Slop = ∆y/∆x
Slope =………………….
∴ E=
g 2k × slope = …………… ( )
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‫‪31‬‬
1- What is the basic difference between conductors and
insulators?
Answer
……………………………………………………………..…
….………………………………………………………….…
2- How do semiconductors differ from conductors and

insulators?
Answer
……………………………………………………………..…
….………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………..
3- Why does a semiconductor have fewer free electrons than

a conductor?
Answer
……………………………………………………………..…
….………………………………………………………….…
4- Define the conduction band, the valence band and the

energy gap.
Answer
……………………………………………………………..…
….………………………………………………………….…
………………………………………………………………..
32
EXPERIMENT (3) THERMOCOUPLE
Object :
1- To calibrate a thermocouple and plot the standard curve.
2- To determine the room temperature and the value of

unknown temperature at give reading of emf.
Theory:
Everyone knows electricity can create heat, especially

because our electrical appliances tend to warm up when
turned on. But wouldn't it be cool to do the reverse —
generate electricity from heat? In this experiment, you will
study why it happens and measure the effect, by using a
device called thermocouple that will enable you to convert
heat into electrical energy.
thermocouples
The thermocouples are based on the Seebeck effect. The
Seebeck effect states when two dissimilar metal wire are
connected with each other in a loop to form two junctions,
maintained at two different temperatures, a voltage potential
or electromotive force (E=emf) will be generated and the
current will flow through the loop circuit. The higher the
temperature difference, the higher is the electromotive force
33
(emf) and the current flow in the loop. Let's explore the
Seebeck effect in some more detail.
The Seebeck Effect

In 1821 Thomas Seebeck discovered the continuous current
flow in the thermoelectric circuit when two wires of
dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends
is heated.
The Seebeck effect does express how a temperature

difference created by adding thermal energy to one end of a
conductor creates a potential difference (or electrical energy)
across the conductor.
To measure the electrical potential difference (or the

electrical energy created) , we need to put a voltmeter in the
circuit — this will create connections (or junctions) between
conductors. Let us first examine what happens to the average
free energy per electron when we connect conductors
together. Figure 1 shows this free energy per electron at the
contact, or junction, between two conductors with different
work functions. Any idea what would happen?
When such a contact is formed, some of the electrons in

conductor 2 (the conductor where the electrons are less
tightly bound — Metal 2 in Figure 1) will "roll down the
hill" to conductor 1 because their average free energy is
lower there; in other words, they feel more attraction by the
34
framework of conductor 1. The electrons that roll over
contribute an excess negative electric charge to conductor 1
that can be measured as an electrical potential difference over
the junction. Once enough of the electrons have moved to
conductor 1, the electrical potential they create prevents any
more electrons coming down the hill, resulting in an
equilibrium.
Figure 1. The average energy of free electrons depends on their

host material. Inside conducting metals, the electrons have a lower
free energy per electron than in free space because part of the
energy is stored as potential energy, due to the attraction of the host
atomic framework. The electrons may have different average free
energies in different metals. This figure shows the average free
energy per electron at a junction of two metals.
Now — let us get back to heat. What would happen if we

raise the temperature of a junction? Would more electrons
now have enough energy to cross over and roll down the
energy hill, creating a larger electrical potential difference?
In most cases, yes! And how many more electrons roll over
(or how much electrical potential is created) depends on the
35
difference between the Seebeck coefficients of the
conductors in the junction.
Figure 2 shows a setup of a thermocouple. It consists of a

junction of two different metals, here aluminum (Al) and iron
(Fe), can be connected to a voltmeter to form a thermocouple
thermometer. In the example, the voltmeter connectors are
made of copper (Cu). To use the thermocouple thermometer,
the voltmeter and its connections need to be maintained at a
known temperature (here room temperature). The
temperature at the probe thermocouple junction is the
unknown temperature to be measured.
36
Apparatus:
1- Glass beaker
2- Thermometer with scale
3- Thermocouple
4- Multimeter
5- Plate heater
Fig.(3)
Procedure:
1. Put suitable amount of water in a glass beaker and put them on a
plate heater.
2. Connect the ends of the thermocouple to the digital multimeter

(MM) and set the multimeter to read in millivolts DC.
3. Dip one junction of the thermocouple in the water together with the
glass thermometer.
4. Turn on the heater and wait until the water boils (T = 100 oC).
5. Remove the beaker from the heater to cool down and record the
reading of the digital MM reading in millivolts the emf (E) every 10
degrees.
6. Tabulate your results and plot the standard curve which is the
relation between the temperature T on x-axis and the emf (E) on y-
axis.
7. From the intersection of the straight line determine the room

temperature Trm.
8. From the standard curve, find the value of the unknown temperature
TE at the corresponding given emf (E).
37
LABORATORY REPORT
RESULTS:
T (oC) E( )
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
E (mV)
Calculations:
Trm = ……........... ( )
Given E = ..……. ( )
TE = ………….... ( )
o
T ( C)
38
‫‪39‬‬
1- Describe the thermocouple.
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
2- What is meant by seebeck effect?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
2- What is the reverse process to seebeck effect?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
40
EXP (4) THE DIODE CHARACTERISTIC
Object :
1. Measure and plot the forward- and reverse-biased V-I

characteristics for a diode.
2. Perform a diode test with an ohmmeter.
Theory:
When a p-type material and n-type material are made on the

same crystal base, a diode is formed from the pn junction.
When pn junction is formed, electrons and holes diffuse
across the junction, creating a barrier potential, which
prevents further current without an external voltage source. If
the negative terminal of the source is connected to the n-type
material and the positive terminal is connected to p-type
material, the diode is said to be forward-biased and it
conducts. If the positive terminal of the source is connected
to the n-type material and the negative terminal is connected
to the p-type material, the diode is said to be reverse-biased
and the diode is a poor conductor.
Diode can be simplified with three basic models, we are
considering only two here. The ideal model considers the
diode as a one-way valve or as an open or closed switch. If it
forward biased, the switch is closed; if it is reverse-biased the
switch is open. The second practical model, adds the
forward- biased “diode drop” needed to overcome the barrier
potential. For a silicon diode, this is approximately 0.7V; for
germanium, the drop is approximately 0.3V.
41
Apparatus:
- Power Supply
- Digital multimeter
- Project board
- Resistors: one 220 Ω, and one 1.0 MΩ
- Diode: one signal diode 1N4001
Procedure:
1- Forward Biasing
Figure 1-1
1- Construct the forward biased circuit shown in Figure 1-1.

The line on the diode indicates the cathode side of the
diode. Set the power supply for zero volts.
2- Monitor the forward voltage drop, VF, across the diode.

Slowly increase Vs to establish 0.45V across the diode.
3- Measure the diode forward current, IF, and enter its value
in Table 1.
4- Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each voltage listed in Table 1.
42
2- Reverse Biasing
Figure 2
5- Connect the reverse-biased circuit shown in Figure 2. Set

the power supply to each voltage listed in Table 2.
6- Measure the reverse current in each case. Enter the

measured current in Table 2.
43
LABORATORY REPORT
RESULTS:
Table 1 Table 2
VF (V) IF (mA) VR (V) IR (𝛍𝛍A)
0.45 5.0 V
0.50 10.0 V
0.55 15.0 V
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
Calculations:
VF = ……........... ( )
44
‫‪45‬‬
1- Which side of the diode should be connected to the
positive voltage supply to make it conduct current?.
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
2- When the diode polarities were changed was the

current …
a. Slightly smaller or
b. Much smaller or
c. Too small to measure?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
2- compare between the depletion region in both forward

and reverse biasing?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
46
EXP (5) RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 1 (HALF-WAVE
RECTIFIER)
Object :
1. Construct half-wave rectifier circuits and compare the

input and output voltage.
2. Connect a filter capacitor to the above circuit and

measure the ripple voltage and ripple frequency.
Theory:
Rectifiers are diodes used to change ac into dc. As you saw

in experiment 3, diodes work like a one way valve, allowing
current in only one direction. When ac is applied to a diode,
the diode is forward biased for one-half of the cycle and
reverse biased for the other half cycle. The output waveform
is a pulsating dc waveform (or half-wave rectified) as
illustrated in figure 1. This pulsating dc waveform can be
then be filtered to convert it to constant dc.
Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies to provide the

dc voltage necessary for almost all active devices to work.
47
The three basic rectifier circuits are the ha1f-wave, the
center-tapped full-wave, and the full-wave bridge rectifier
circuits. The most important parameters for choosing diodes
for these circuits are the maximum forward current, IF, and
the peak inverse voltage rating (PlV) of the diode. The peak
inverse voltage is the maximum voltage the diode can
withstand when it is reverse-biased. The amount of reverse
voltage that appears across a diode depends on the type of
circuit in which it is connected. Some characteristics of the
first two rectifier circuits will be investigated in this and next
experiment.
Capacitor-Input Filter
A half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter is shown in

Figure 2. The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the
rectifier output to ground. RL represents the equivalent
resistance of a load.
Figure 2
48
Ripple Factor
The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of

the filter and is defined as
where Vr( pp) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and VDC is the
dc (average) value of the filter’s output voltage, as illustrated
in Figure 2. The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter.
The ripple factor can be lowered by increasing the value of
the filter capacitor or increasing the load resistance.
Figure 3
49
Apparatus:
- Oscilloscope
- Project board
- Resistors: two 2.2kΩ
- Diode: one signal diode 1N4001
- One ac center-tapped transformer.
- One 100µF capacitor.
Procedure:
1- Connect the half-wave rectifier circuit shown in Figure 3.

(Safety note -the ac line voltage must not be exposed; the
transformer should be fused as shown.) Notice the
polarity of the diode. The line indicates the cathode side
(the negative side when forward- biased).
2- Connect the oscilloscope so that channel 1 is across the

transformer secondary and channel 2 is across the output
(load) resistor. The oscilloscope should be set for LINE
triggering as the waveforms to be viewed in this
experiment are synchronized with the ac line voltage.
View the input voltage, Vin, and output voltage, Vout,
waveforms for this circuit and sketch them on the plot.
Label voltage and time on your sketch.
3- Measure the secondary rms voltage and the output peak

voltage. Remember to convert the oscilloscope reading to
rms voltage. Record the data in Table.
50
4- The output isn't very useful as a dc voltage source because
of the pulsating output. Connect a 100 µF filter capacitor
in parallel with the load resistor (RJ. Check the polarity of
the capacitor, the negative side goes toward ground.
5- Measure the dc load voltage, Vout(DC), and the peak-to-

peak ripple voltage, Vr(pp) in the output. To measure the
ripple voltage, switch the oscilloscope to AC
COUPLING. This allows you to magnify the small ac
ripple voltage without including the much larger dc level.
6- Calculate the ripple factor. Record all data in Table.
51
LABORATORY REPORT
RESULTS:
Without Filter capacitor With filter capacitor

Computed Measured Computed Measured Measured
Vsec(rms) Vsec(rms) Vp(out) Vp(out) Vout(DC) Vr(pp) Ripple

Factor
52
‫‪53‬‬
1- What causes the ripple voltage on the output of a
capacitor-input filter?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
2- If the load resistance connected to a filtered power

supply is decreased, what happens to the ripple voltage?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
3- Define ripple factor.
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
54
EXP (6) RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 2 (FULL-WAVE
RECTIFIER)
Object :
1. Construct full-wave rectifier circuits and compare the

input and output voltage.
2. Connect a filter capacitor to the above circuit and

measure the ripple voltage and ripple factor.
Theory:
Rectifiers are diodes used to change ac into dc. As you saw

in experiment 3, diodes work like a one way valve, allowing
current in only one direction. When ac is applied to a diode,
the diode is forward biased for one-half of the cycle and
reverse biased for the other half cycle. The output waveform
is a pulsating dc waveform as illustrated in figure 1. This
pulsating dc waveform can be then be filtered to convert it to
constant dc.
Figure 1
55
Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies to provide the
dc voltage necessary for almost all active devices to work.
The three basic rectifier circuits are the ha1f-wave, the
center-tapped full-wave, and the full-wave bridge rectifier
circuits. The most important parameters for choosing diodes
for these circuits are the maximum forward current, IF, and
the peak inverse voltage rating (PlV) of the diode. The peak
inverse voltage is the maximum voltage the diode can
withstand when it is reverse-biased. The amount of reverse
voltage that appears across a diode depends on the type of
circuit in which it is connected.
Capacitor-Input Filter
A half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter is shown in

Figure 2. The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the
rectifier output to ground. RL represents the equivalent
resistance of a load.
Figure 2
56
Ripple Factor
The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of

the filter and is defined as
where Vr( pp) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and VDC is the
dc (average) value of the filter’s output voltage, as illustrated
in Figure 3. The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter.
The ripple factor can be lowered by increasing the value of
the filter capacitor or increasing the load resistance.
Figure 3
57
Apparatus:
- Oscilloscope
- Project board
- Resistors: two 2.2kΩ
- Diode: two signal diode 1N4001
- One ac center-tapped transformer.
- One 100µF capacitor.
Procedure:
1- Connect the full-wave rectifier circuit shown in Figure 4.

(Safety note -the ac line voltage must not be exposed; the
transformer should be fused as shown.) Notice the
polarity of the diode. The line indicates the cathode side
(the negative side when forward- biased).
2- Connect the oscilloscope so that channel 1 is across the

transformer secondary and channel 2 is across the output
(load) resistor. The oscilloscope should be set for LINE
triggering as the waveforms to be viewed in this
experiment are synchronized with the ac line voltage.
View the input voltage, Vin, and output voltage, Vout,
waveforms for this circuit and sketch them on the plot.
Label voltage and time on your sketch.
3- Measure the secondary rms voltage and the output peak

voltage. Remember to convert the oscilloscope reading to
rms voltage. Record the data in Table.
58
4- The output isn't very useful as a dc voltage source because
of the pulsating output. Connect a 100 µF filter capacitor
in parallel with the load resistor (RJ. Check the polarity of
the capacitor, the negative side goes toward ground.
5- Measure the dc load voltage, Vout(DC), and the peak-to-

peak ripple voltage, Vr(pp) in the output. To measure the
ripple voltage, switch the oscilloscope to AC
COUPLING. This allows you to magnify the small ac
ripple voltage without including the much larger dc level.
6- Calculate the ripple factor. Record all data in Table.
59
LABORATORY REPORT
RESULTS:
Without Filter capacitor With filter capacitor

Computed Measured Computed Measured Measured
Vsec(rms) Vsec(rms) Vp(out) Vp(out) Vout(DC) Vr(pp) Ripple

Factor
60
‫‪61‬‬
1- What causes the ripple voltage on the output of a
capacitor-input filter?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
2- If the load resistance connected to a filtered power

supply is decreased, what happens to the ripple voltage?
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
3- Define ripple factor.
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62
EXP (7) THE ZENER REGULATOR
Object :
1. Measure and plot the characteristic curve of a zener

diode.
2. Test a zener regulator circuit for the effect of a changing

source and a changing load.
Theory:
When a sufficiently large reverse bias voltage is applied to a

zener diode, the reverse current will suddenly increase. This
sudden increase happens at a voltage called the zener
voltage, VZ. A zener diode is a special diode designed to
operate in this break down region.
The zener voltage is a precise voltage that varies according to

the type of zener; typically, it is a few volts but can be
several hundred volts. Zener is used in applications that
require a constant voltage such as voltage regulators and in
certain meters where they are used as a reference voltage for
comparison. Ideally, the zener breakdown characteristic is a
straight vertical line, but in practice, a small ac resistance is
present. The ac resistance is found by dividing a change in
voltage by a change in current measured in the vertical
breakdown region. The ac resistance is typically from 10Ω to
100 Ω.
63
Apparatus:
- Oscilloscope
- Project board
- Resistors: one 220 Ω, one 1.0 k Ω one 2.2 k Ω
- Potentiometer: one 1.0 k Ω.
- Zener diode: one 5V 1N4733 (or equivalent)
Procedure:
1- A common application of zener diodes is in regulators. In

this step, you will investigate a zener regulator as the
source voltage is varied. Connect the circuit shown in
Figure 1. Set Vs to each voltage listed in the Table and
measured the output (load) voltage, Vout.
Is
IZ IL
Figure 1
2- From the measurements in step1, complete the Table.

Apply Ohm’s law to compute the load current, IL, for each
setting of the source voltage.
64
IL = Vout/RL
3- Calculate the voltage across R1(VR1) by applying

Kirchhoff’s Law (KVL) to the outside loop. It is the
difference between the source voltage, Vs, and the output
voltage, Vout.
VR1 = Vs - Vout
4- Calculate the current IS through R1 by using Ohm’s law
Is = VR1/R1
5- Find the zener current, IZ, by applying Kirchhoff’s

Current Law (KCL) to the junction at the top of the zener
diode.
IZ = Is - IL
6- Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each voltage listed in Table.
7- Draw the relation between Iz and Vz = Vout to obtain the

characteristic curve of zener.
8- From the curve calculate the impedance of zener Zz using
∆V Z
Zz =
∆I Z
65
LABORATORY REPORT
RESULTS:
IL = Vout/RL VR1=Vs-Vout Is = VR1/R1 Iz=Is-IL

Vs (V) Vout (V) (mA) (V) (mA) (mA)
2
4
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
10
15
20
Calculations:
∆V Z
Zz = = …………………………........…........... ( )
∆I Z
66
‫‪67‬‬
1- From your plot, describe the characteristics in your
own words.
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..................................................................................................
2- In what region of their characteristic curve are zener

diodes operated?
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3- How does the zener impedance affect the voltage across

the terminals of the device?
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68
EXP (8) Common Emitter npn Transistor
Characteristics
Object:
Study of the characteristics of npn transistor in common

emitter configuration and to evaluate :
1. Input resistance
2. Output resistance
3. Current gain
Theory:
Transistor characteristics are the curves, which represent the

relationship between different DC currents and voltages of a
transistor. These are helpful in studying the operation of a
transistor when connected in a circuit. The three important
characteristics of a transistor are:
1. Input characteristic.
2. Output characteristic.
3. Constant current transfer characteristic
Input Characteristics:
In common emitter configuration, it is the curve plotted
between the input current (IB) verses input voltage (VBE) for
various constant values of the output voltage (VCE). The
approximated plot for input characteristic is shown in figure
1.
This characteristic reveals that for fixed value of output
voltage VCE, as the base to emitter voltage increases, the
69
emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles
the diode characteristics
Fig. 1.
Output Characteristic:
This is the curve plotted between the output current IC verses
output voltage VCE for various constant values of input
current IB. The output characteristic has three basic regions
of interest as indicated in figure 2 the active region, cutoff
region, and saturation region. In the active region, the
collector base junction is reverse biased while the base
emitter junction if forward biased. This region is normally
employed for the linear (undistorted) amplifier. In the cutoff
region, the collector base junction and base emitter junction
of the transistor both is reverse biased. In this region, the
transistor acts as an ‘Off’ switch. In saturation region, the
collector base junction and base emitter junction of the
transistor both are forward biased. In this region, the
transistor acts as an on switch.
70
Fig.2.
Constant current transfer Characteristics :
This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC
versus input base current IB for a constant value of output
voltage VCE. The approximated plot for this characteristic is
shown in figure 3.
Fig. 3.
71
Apparatus
1) Analog board of AB04.

2) DC power supplies +12V, +5V from an external
source or ST2612 Analog Lab.
3) Digital Multimeter (3 numbers).
4) 2 mm patch cords.
Fig. 4.
Procedure :
· Connect +5V and +12V DC power supplies at their
indicated position from
external source or ST2612 Analog Lab.
· To plot input characteristics proceed as follows :
1) Rotate both the potentiometer P1 and P2 fully in CCW
(counter clockwise
2) direction).
3) Connect Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to measure
input base current
72
4) IB(µA).
5) Short or connect a 2mm patch cord between test point 4
and 5.
6) Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground
to measure input voltage VBE another voltmeter between
test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.
7) Switch ‘On’ the power supply.
8) Vary potentiometer P2 and set a value of output voltage
VCE at some constant value (1V, 3V...)
9) Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value of
input voltage VBE from zero to 0.8V in step and measure
the corresponding values of input current IB for the
different constant value of output voltage VCE in an
observation Table 1.
10) Rotate potentiometer P1 fully in CCW direction.
11) Repeat the procedure from step 6 for different sets of
output voltage VCE.
12) Plot a curve between input voltage VBE and input
current IB as shown in figure 1 using a suitable scale
with the help of Observation Table l. This curve is the
13) required input characteristic.
73
To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:
1) Switch ‘Off’ the power supply.
(counter clockwise direction).
3) Connect voltmeter between test point 6 and ground to
measure output voltage VCE.
4) Connect one Ammeter between test point 2 and 3 to
measure input current IB(µA) and other Ammeter between
test point 4 and 5 to measure the output current IC(µA).
6) Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IB
at some constant value (0µA, 10µA......100µA)
output voltage VCE from zero to maximum value in step
74
and measure the corresponding values of output current IC
for the different constant value of input current IB in an
observation table2.
input current IB.
10) Plot a curve between output voltage VCE and output
current IC as shown in figure 2 using a suitable scale with
the help of Observation Table 2. This curve is the required
output characteristic.
75
To plot constant current transfer characteristics proceed as
follows:
measure input current IB (µA) and other Ammeter
between test point 4 and 5 to measure the output
current IC (µA).
VCE at maximum value.
7) Vary the potentiometer P1 so as to increase the value
of input current IB from zero to 10µA in step and
measure the corresponding values of output current IC
in an Observation Table 3.
8) Plot a curve between output current IC and input
current IB as shown in figure 3 using a suitable scale
with the help of observation Table 3. This curve is the
required Transfer characteristic.
76
Calculations :
1. Input resistance :
It is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBE to change in
the input current IB at a constant value of output voltage VCE
or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.
Mathematically:
∆V BE
R in =
∆I B
To calculate input resistance determine the slope of the input

characteristic curve obtained from observation Table 1.
Reciprocal of this slope will give the required input
resistance.
77
2. Output resistance :
It is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCE to change
in the output current IC at a constant value of input current
IB or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the
Mathematically:
∆V CE
R out =
∆I C
3. Current gain :
It is the ratio of change in the output current IC to change
in the input current IB at a constant value of output voltage
VCE or it is the slope obtained from the constant current
transfer characteristic. It is denoted by βac
Mathematically:
∆I C
βac =
∆I B
Results :
Input resistance Rin = ……………………..( )
Output resistance Rout =……………………..( )
Current Gain βac = ……………………..( )
78
‫‪79‬‬
own words.
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80
Exp (9) Common Base pnp Transistor
Characteristics
Object:
Study of the characteristics of pnp transistor in common base
configuration and to evaluate:
1. Input resistance
3. Current gain
Theory:
Input Characteristic:
In common base configuration, it is the curve plotted
between the input current (IE) verses input voltage (VEB) for
various constant values of output voltage (VBC). The
1. This characteristic reveals that for fixed value of output
voltage VBC, as the base to emitter voltage increases, the
81
emitter current increases in a manner that closely resembles
the diode characteristics.
Fig. 1.
Output Characteristic:
This is the curve plotted between the output current IC verses
output voltage VBC for various constant values of input
current IE. The output characteristic has three basic region of
interest as indicated in Figure.2 the active region, cutoff
region and saturation region. In active region the collector
base junction is reverse biased while the base emitter
junction if forward biased.
82
Fig. 2.
This region is normally employed for linear (undistorted)

amplifier. In cutoff region the collector base junction and
base emitter junction of the transistor both are reverse biased.
In this region transistor acts as an ‘Off’ switch. In saturation
region the collector base junction and base emitter junction
of the transistor both are forward biased. In this region
transistor acts as an ‘On’ switch.
Constant current transfer Characteristic:

This is the curve plotted between output collector current IC
verses input emitter current IE for constant value of output
voltage VBC. The approximated plot for this characteristic is
shown in figure 3.
83
Fig. 3.
Apparatus

84
Procedure :
· Connect +5V and -12V DC power supplies at their
indicated position from
external source or ST2612 Analog Lab.
· To plot input characteristics proceed as follows:
input emitter current IE(µA).
and 2
4) Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to
measure input voltage VEB other voltmeter between test
point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VBC.
VBC at some constant value (1V, 2V)
input voltage VEB from zero to 0.9V in step and measure
the corresponding values of input current IE for different
constant value of output voltage VBC in an observation
Table 1.
output voltage VBC.
10) Plot a curve between input voltages VEB and input
current IE as shown in Figure.1 using suitable scale with
85
the help of observation Table l. This curve is the required
input characteristic.
· To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

(counterclockwise direction).
measure output voltage VBC.
measure input current IE(µA) and other Ammeter
between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current
IC(µA).
86
6) Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IE
at some constant value (0mA, 1mA...)
output voltage VBC from zero to maximum value in step
and measure the corresponding values of output current
IC for different constant value of input current IE in an
8) Rotate potentiometer P2 fully in CCW direction
input current IE.
10) Plot a curve between output voltages VBC and output
current IC as shown in figure 2 using suitable scale with
the help of observation Table 2. This curve is the
required output characteristic.
87
follows:
measure output voltage VBC.
measure input current IE (mA) and other Ammeter between
test point 4 and 5 to measure output current IC (mA).
VBC at maximum value.
input current IE from zero to 10 mA in step and measure
the corresponding values of output current IC in an
8) Plot a curve between output current IC and input current IE
as shown in figure 3 using suitable scale with the help of
observation Table 3. This curve is the required Transfer
characteristic.
88
Calculations :
It is the ratio of change in the input voltage VBE to change
VCE or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the
input characteristic.
Mathematically:
∆V EB
R in =
∆I E
To calculate input resistance determine the slope of the input

characteristic curve obtained from observation Table 1.
resistance.
89
It is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCE to change
in the output current IC at a constant value of input current
IB or it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the
Mathematically:
∆V BC
R out =
∆I C
6. Current gain :
It is the ratio of change in the output current IC to change
VCE or it is the slope obtained from the constant current
transfer characteristic. It is denoted by βac
Mathematically:
∆I C
α ac =
∆I E
Results :
Current Gain αac = ……………………..( )
90
‫‪91‬‬
own words.
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92
Exp (10) Common Collector npn Transistor
Characteristics
Object:
Study of the characteristics of npn transistor in common

collector configuration and to evaluate:
1. Input resistance
3. Current gain
Theory:
Input Characteristic :
In common emitter configuration, it is the curve plotted
between the input current (IB) versus input voltage (VCB) for
various constant values of output voltage (VCE). This
characteristic reveals that for fixed value of output voltage
VCE, It is quite different from CB and CE configuration. This
different is due to the fact that input voltage VCB is largely
determined by the value of VCE. As the collector to base
93
voltage increases, VBE is reduced thereby reducing IB. The
1.
Fig. 1.
Output Characteristic :
This is the curve plotted between the output current IE versus
output voltage VCE for various constant values of input
current IB. The output characteristic has three basic region of
interest as indicated in figure 2 the active region, cutoff
region and saturation region. In active region the collector
base junction is reverse biased while the base emitter
junction if forward biased. This region is normally employed
for linear (undistorted) amplifier. In cutoff region the
collector base junction and base emitter junction of the
transistor both are reverse biased. In this region transistor
94
acts as an ‘Off’ switch. In saturation region the collector base
junction and base emitter junction of the transistor both are
forward biased. In this region transistor acts as an ‘On’
switch.
Fig. 2.
Constant current transfer Characteristic :

This is the curve plotted between output emitter current IE
versus input base current IB for constant value of output
voltage VCE. The approximated plot for this characteristic is
shown in figure 3.
95
Fig. 3.
Apparatus

96
Procedure :
· Connect +5V and -12V DC power supplies at their
indicated position from external source or ST2612 Analog
Lab.
· To plot input characteristics proceed as follows:
input base current IB (µA).
and 5
4) Connect one voltmeter between test point 1 and ground to
measure input voltage VCB and another voltmeter between
test point 6 and ground to measure output voltage VCE.
97
VCE at some constant value (4.5V, 5V, 5.5...)
input voltage VCB in step and measure the corresponding
values of input current IB for different constant value of
output voltage VCE in an observation Table 1.
output voltage VCE.
10) Plot a curve between input voltages VCB and input
current IB as shown in figure 1 using suitable scale with
the help of observation Table l. This curve is the
required input characteristic.
To plot output characteristics proceed as follows:

98
measure input current IB(µA) and another Ammeter
between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current
IE(mA).
6) Vary potentiometer P1 and set a value of input current IB
at some constant value (0uA, i.e. input open
circuit/remove ammeter between test point 2 and 3,
10µA, 20 µA...)
output voltage VCE from zero to maximum value in step
and measure the corresponding values of output current
IE for different constant value of input current IB in an
observation table 2.
input current IB.
10) Plot a curve between output voltages VCE and output
current IE as shown in figure 2 using suitable scale with
the help of observation table 2. This curve is the required
99
follows:
measure input current IB (mA) and other Ammeter
between test point 4 and 5 to measure output current IE
(mA).
VCE at constant value of 3V.
input current IB in step and measure the corresponding
values of output current IE in an observation Table 3.
100
8) Plot a curve between output current IE and input current
IB as shown in figure 3 using suitable scale with the help
of observation Table 3. This curve is the required Transfer
characteristic.
Calculations :
It is the ratio of change in the input voltage VCB to change
in
the input current IB at constant value of output voltage VCE or
it is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the input
characteristic.
Mathematically :
∆V CB
R in =
∆I B
To calculate input resistance determine the slope from the
input characteristic curve obtained from observation Table 1.
resistance.
101
It is the ratio of change in the output voltage VCE to change in
the output current IC at constant value of input current IB or it
is the reciprocal of the slope obtained from the output
characteristic.
∆V CE
R out =
∆I E
To calculate output resistance determine the slope from the
output characteristic curve obtained from observation Table
2. Reciprocal of this slope will give the required output
resistance.
3. Current gain :
It is the ratio of change in the output current IE to change in
the input current IB at constant value of output voltage VCE
or it is the slope obtained from the constant current transfer
characteristic. It is denoted by γac
∆I E
γ ac =
∆I B
To calculate current gain, determine the slope from the
constant current transfer characteristic curve obtained from
observation Table 3. This slope is the required current gain.
Results :
Current Gain γac = ……………………..( )
102
‫‪103‬‬
own words.
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104

Practical Physics It 102

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Practical Physics It 102

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS II

Misr University for Science and Technology

Dr. Rabab Ahmed Ramadan

Dr. Mohamed Ali Sayed

Dr. Mohamed Saleh Ismaiel

Lecturer at Basic Science Department

Prof. Dr. Ali Hussein

Misr University for Science and Technology

Dr. Rabab Ahmed Ramadan

Dr. Mohamed Ali Sayed

Dr. Mohamed Saleh Ismaiel

Lecturer at Basic Science Department

Student Name Id Faculty

SAFETY LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS .............................................. 7

MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS .................................. 8

EXPERIMENT (1) MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFERE ...............15

EXPERIMENT (2) ENERGY GAP ......................................................25

EXPERIMENT (3) THERMOCOUPLE .............................................33

EXP (4) THE DIODE CHARACTERISTIC ......................................41

EXP (5) RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 1 (HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER)47

EXP (6) RECTIFIER CIRCUITS 2 (FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER)55

EXP (7) THE ZENER REGULATOR .................................................63

EXP (8) COMMON EMITTER NPN TRANSISTOR

EXP (9) COMMON BASE PNP TRANSISTOR

EXP (10) COMMON COLLECTOR NPN TRANSISTOR

At the request of my students, this laboratory copybook was

IV. Experimental procedure.

VI. Post laboratory questions.

To upgrade of the university junior students, the following

Students often come to the laboratory unprepared even

The laboratory report and post-laboratory questions

The most important thing in the laboratory is your safety and

MEASUREMENTS AND ERROR ANALYSIS

"It is better to be roughly right than precisely wrong." —

The Uncertainty of Measurements

Measurement = (best estimate ± uncertainty) units

Let's take an example. Suppose you want to find the mass of

Suppose you use the same electronic balance and obtain

Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured

The uncertainty estimate associated with a measurement

Note: Unfortunately the terms error and uncertainty are

has a fractional uncertainty of:

measured value − expected value

If the expected value for m is 80.0 g, then the relative error

Note: The minus sign indicates that the measured value is

The battery in this diagram is

Solving for the current gives

P = Iε = I2R + I2r (4)

Equation 4 indicates that because power P = I∆V, the total

Maximum power transfer theory

When R is large, there is very little current, so the power I2R

When R is small, the current is large and there is significant

The power delivered to the load resistance:

Differentiate the power with respect to the load resistance R

Solving for R: R=r

RL = Rth ……. For maximum power transfer.

A graph of RL against P is shown in Fig.(1), the maximum

4. Digital A.V.O. meter

2. Change the value of RL in steps as shown in table.

3. Measure the current "I " and record it in the table.

5. Find RL for the maximum power transfer in the circuit

6. Compare between the theoretical and practical results.

7. Comment on your results.

2- what is meant by the internal resistance?