LOAD & LOAD TORQUE

Module 1
Types of Load, Classification of Load Torque
 LOADS
• Electromagnetic forces or torques developed in the driving motor tend to
propagate motion of the drive system.
• The motion may be uniform or non-uniform.
• In the case of translational motion the motion is uniform if the linear velocity
is constant and in the case of rotational motion the motion is uniform if the
angular velocity is constant.
• While selecting a motor for driving a load, it is necessary to consider the
variation of load torque with both speed and time.
• The torque- speed curve normally decides the type of motor and the
variation of load with time decides the rating of the motor.
• Loads that occur in industrial applications can be classified depending upon
the variation of load with time.
• Loads may also be classified depending upon the duty they have to
perform.
 LOADS-Types
• Load torque that depend on the path or position taken by load during
it’s motion
- present in hoisting mechanisms & transport systems
- eg:- resistance to the motion of a train during it’s upward
movement
• Load torque that vary with the angle of displacement of the shaft
- machines having crankshafts have a load torque which is a
function of the angular displacement of the shaft.
- eg:- reciprocating pumps, compressors etc.
• Load torque that vary with time
- this torque is more important in the selection of motor
 CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUE
• Classification of loads:-
- those which can provide active torques called active loads &
- those which can provide passive torques called passive loads
• Active load torque:-
- due to either gravitational force or deformation in elastic bodies.
- i.e., torque due to the force of gravity and torques due to tension, compression and
torsion undergone by an elastic body come under this category.
- are the load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium
conditions.
- these torques retain their sign when the direction of drive is changed.
- obtained in hoists, lifts or elevators & railway locomotives operating on gradients
- developed during compression or release of springs
- the function of hoists, operation of locomotives on gradients, compression or
release of springs are all associated with a change in potential energy of the drive. Thus
active torques are also connected to potential energy.

4
 CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)
• Passive load torques:-
- load torques which always oppose the motion and change their
sign on the reversal of motion
- due to friction or due to shear & deformation in inelastic bodies
- always oppose motion- thus retards the rotation of the driven
machine.
- when there is a change in the direction of motion, the direction
of torque also changes.
Eg:- when a weight is lifted, the friction torque gets added up to the
useful torque and when the weight is lowered the friction torque gets
subtracted from the useful torque.
5
 CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)

- when a load is moved upward or a spring is compressed (there is

a vertical movement, therefore increase in PE), the stored potential
energy increases. The active torque developed opposes the action that
takes place. i.e., the torque is directed against the upward movement or
compression.
- when a load is brought downward or a spring is released, the
stored potential energy decreases and the developed torque aids this
action. Thus the torque continue to act in the same direction even after
the direction of the drive is reversed.

6
 TYPES OF LOADS (Contd…)
• Classification of loads:-
1. Continuous constant loads:-
- loads that occur over a long time under the same operating conditions
- eg:- centrifugal pumps, fans etc.
2. Continuous variable loads:-
- loads that are variable in nature over a period of time but occurs repetitively
for a longer duration
- eg:- metal cutting lathes, conveyors etc.
3.Pulsating loads:-
- loads having a torque behaviour which can be considered as a constant
torque superimposed by pulsations
- eg:- reciprocating pumps, machines having crank-shafts, textile looms etc.
 TYPES OF LOADS (Contd…)
4. Impact loads:-
- these are peak loads that occur at regular intervals of time
- motors driving these type of loads are equipped with heavy flywheels for
load equalisation.
- eg:- rolling mills, forging hammers etc.
5. Short time loads:-
- this type of load is a constant load that appears on a drive for a short period
and the system rests for the remaining period.
- eg:- battery charging, house hold equipment etc.
6. Short time intermittent loads:-
- this type of load appear periodically in identical duty cycles
- each duty cycle consists of a period of running of load and a period of rest
- eg:- cranes, hoists etc.
 TYPES OF DUTY CYCLES
Types of duty cycles:-
• Continuous duty loads
- denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque for a duration long
enough for the motor temperature to reach steady state value
- characterized by constant motor loss
- eg:- paper mill drives, conveyors, centrifugal pumps, fans etc.
• Short time duty loads
- here the time of drive operation is considerably less than the heating time
constant
- the machine is allowed to cool to ambient temperature before the motor is
operated again
- the machine can be overloaded until the temperature at the end of loading
period reaches the permissible limit
- eg:- drive for house hold appliances, machine tool drives for position control.
 TYPES OF DUTY CYCLES(Contd….)
• Intermittent loads
- consists of periodic duty cycles
- each consisting of a period of running and a period of rest
- the period of running is not sufficient to raise the temperature to a
steady state value
- the period of rest is not long enough for the machine to cool off
to ambient temperature
- eg:- pressing, cutting, drilling machines.
 CLASSES
• Classes of duty and selection of motor:-
OF DUTY
• Three classes of duty TL vs t – load diagram
1. Continuous duty θ vs t – temperature rise diagram
2. Short time duty loads
3. Intermittent loads
1. Continuous duty constant loads
- denotes operation at constant load
- in this type the load torque remain constant for a
sufficiently longer period
- the drive is loaded for a sufficient amount of time
continuously, till it attains thermal equilibrium.
- the motor driving such a load should have a rating
sufficient to drive it without exceeding the specified temperature.
- the rating of the motor selected for this duty is called
continuous rating
- Continuous rating – is the maximum load that the motor can give continuously over a
period of time, without exceeding the temperature rise.
 CLASSES OF DUTY (Contd…)
Continuous duty variable loads:-
- in this type, the load is not constant but has several steps in one cycle.
- if the load variation is slight the motor of continuous rating of highest load may be
chosen from the available ratings.
- if the load variation is large the machine undergoes
a continuous change of temperature and after several cycles
of operation the motor selected may attain a steady state
temperature.
- the choice of motor for this type of load is based
on the average power or average current. But this method does not
consider the variation of losses.
- these loads may have increased temperature due to
overloads, where the losses increase.
 CLASSES OF DUTY (Contd…)
2. Short time duty loads:-
- denotes operation at constant load during a given time, less than
required to reach thermal equilibrium.
- followed by a rest of sufficient duration to re-establish equality of
temperature with the cooling medium
- in this type, the load requires a constant power for a short interval of
time and rests for a sufficiently long time.
- for these kind of loads a motor with smaller
power rating is selected so that the temperature rise during
the working period may reach the permissible value.
 CLASSES OF DUTY (Contd…)
Short time duty loads:- (Contd…)
- if a motor is selected having a rating equal to the amplitude of
the power pulse represented by the load diagram, the temperature rise will
follow curve (1) as shown in the diagram.
- if a motor of smaller capacity is chosen , when loaded to give an
output corresponding to power pulse of load diagram, it is overloaded
and has a temperature rise shown by curve (2).
- the temperature of the motor rises
rapidly towards another maximum value,
as decided by the increased loss of the motor ,
in doing so it attains the permissible
temperature at the end of period T1.
- at T1 the motor is switched off.
- the rating of motor is called short
time rating.
 CLASSES OF DUTY (Contd…)
Short time duty loads:- (Contd…)
Short time rating of a motor:- is defined as the extrapolated
overload rating of the motor which it can supply for the specified short
time without getting overheated.
 CLASSES OF DUTY (Contd…)
3. Intermittent loads
- denotes a sequence of identical duty cycles, each consisting of a
period of operation at constant load and a rest period.
- these periods are too short to attain thermal equilibrium during
one duty cycle.
 COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE

• Load torque(𝑇𝑙) can be further divided into:-

- friction torque – 𝑇𝐹
- windage torque – 𝑇𝑤
- torque required to do useful mechanical work- 𝑇𝐿

17
 COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)
• Friction torque – TF :-
- friction will be present at the motor shaft & various parts of the load.
- is the equivalent value of various friction torques referred to the motor
shaft.
- 3 components – Tv , Tc and Ts.
- viscous friction Tv - varies linearly with speed is called viscous friction
and Tv = Bωm , ……………(3)
where B= viscous friction coefficient.
- Coulomb friction – Tc – independent of speed
- Ts , Static friction– is the additional torque present at standstill – it is
present only at standstill condition- so not taken into account for dynamic analysis.
- Friction at zero speed is called static friction or stiction.
- For a drive to start, the motor torque should at least exceed static friction.
18
 COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)
• Windage torque – 𝑻𝒘 :-
- it is the opposition offered by air to the motion.
- when a motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the
motion
- proportional to square of the speed.
- 𝑇𝑤 = Cωm2. ……………..(4)
where C is a constant.

19
 COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)
• Torque required to do useful mechanical work- 𝑻𝑳
- nature of this torque depends on the type of the load.
- may be constant and independent of speed or may be some
function of speed.
- may depend on the position or path followed by load.
- may be time invariant or time variant.
- may vary cyclically.
- may change with the load’s mode of operation.

20
COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)

21
 COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)
𝑑ωm
• From eqn (2) 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑙 + 𝐽
𝑑𝑡
substituting eqn (6) , we get
𝑑ωm
𝑇=𝐽 + 𝑇𝐿 + [𝐵ω𝑚] ………………(7)
𝑑𝑡
• If there is torsional elasticity in shaft coupling, an additional torque called
coupling torque, 𝑇𝑒 will be present.
• 𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒θ𝑒
where 𝐾𝑒 is the rotational stiffness of the shaft; Nm/rad
and θ𝑒 is the torsion angle of coupling; radians
• In most applications shaft torque can be assumed to be perfectly stiff and
therefore 𝑇𝑒 can be neglected.
• Presence of 𝑇𝑒 in appreciable magnitude has adverse effects on the motor.
22
 COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUE(Contd…)
• Potential energy is associated with coupling torque, 𝑇𝑒 and kinetic energy
𝑑ωm
is associated with dynamic torque, 𝐽
𝑑𝑡
• These two torques act as energy sources.
• Energy exchange between these two storages tend to produce oscillations
• These oscillations are damped by viscous friction torque 𝐵ω𝑚.
• When B is small, oscillations occur which may produce noise. These
oscillations may break the shaft when the drive is started.

23