Automatic Process Contro| chanical and electrical systems, it. jg place for m' aaa 28 yais is commonp " oe fluid and therm! relatively now for Output variable. e —> Physical diagram Lh fe Block diagram Flo. 2-7, The proportional element. Analysis of processes is made easier through a study of the elements of process dynamics, ‘These clements are 1, Proportional element. 2, Capaeitance element, } 3. Time-eonstant element, | 4. Oscillatory element, Scanned with CamScannerProcess Characteristics 29 ‘Theso aro the “building blocks” of processes and almost all industrial processes are described by arrangements of numbers of these elements in various series and parallel arrangements. ‘The proportional element is described in Fig, 2-7. Consider, for example, the capillary shown in the physical diagram. The flow rate of Tiquid m through the capillary is regarded as the variable being changed and thus is termed the input variable. ‘The head ¢ is the result of the variable flow rate and is regarded as the output variable. ‘A capillary constitutes a laminar resistance and the flow-head equation may be written c=Rm (2-82) where ¢ = output variable (head) R = resistance m = input variable (flow) ‘This relation may be considered in the following form: Output = (system function) (input) (2-33) ‘Thus, the output is determined from the product of the system function and the input, In the example of the capillary the system function is the resistance of the capillary. Note that the system function is a ™ characteristic of the system and is given in terms of the physical characteristics. Other proportional elements are electrical resistance, gas flow resist ance, thermal resistance, and the mechanical spring. ‘The response of a proportional element is also shown in Fig, 2-7. For a unit step change of input flow m, the output repeats this step at the same time but with magnitude R. ‘The capacitance element is illustrated in Fig, 2-8. As one example of a capacitance element, consider the liquid tank shown in the physical diagram. The flow into or out of the tank m is considered the input Variable and the head of liquid in the tank ¢ is the output variable. For a capacitance element, dc ean (2-34) where C = capacitance . wutput variable (head) ‘ime input variable (flow) Scanned with CamScannerAutomatic Process Contro} 40 ° In order to obtain the ayatern function the operational notation of differ. ential equations must be used! (2-35) Block diagram ¥i0, 2-8, The capacitance element. where s = differential operator.’ ‘Then equation 2-34 may be written (Comm. (2-36) on 1 om (é) m 37) 1 ‘Pho differential operator is sornetimes given the symbol D. At this particular time there is no relation other than intentional coincidence between the differential ogeraton 4 and the LaViaco transform complex variable ¢. Scanned with CamScanner31 /Cs and describes symbolically the duct of system function and input ‘Other capacitance elements are Process Characteristics ‘The system function is therefore 1 capacitance element. Again the pr variable gives the output variable. |_ Unit s of m. Time, ¢—> Physical diagram [a Ts+1 Block diagram Fro. 2-9. The time-constant element. illustrated by electric capacitance, gas capacitance, and thermal capac- itance and are characterized by storage. The response of a capacitance element is found by integrating equation 2-34, For a constant inflow Mf and with the tank initially empty, leis ‘M” bas a=-(= 6 ch Ma ()« (2-88) This equation is plotted in Fig. 2-8. For a step change of input flow M, Scanned with CamScanner‘Automatic Process Contro| ® time with a rate of change the output varia inversely proportion® jable increases linearly with J to capacitance. , a rhe time-constant element is shown in Fig. Pea saree i fed by th 7 Viguid tank and resistance. ‘The input ae seni ae and the output variable is the tank head ¢. Cc te emo (2-39) dt where q is the outflow. For the fluid resistance 2, 1-5 (2-40) R Combining equations 2-39 and 2-40 to eliminate outflow g, (2-41) roe + e= Rm The product of resistance and capacitance RC is a time which will be designated as T, Then the operational equation is (esi) oS \te+1 This system function is characteristic of the time-constant element. Any series arrangement of capacitance and resistance in which the rate of change of potential at the capacitance is decreased by increasing outflow through a resistance produces a time-constant element. Com- binations of electrical, liquid, gas, and thermal resistance and capacitance may produce a time constant element. _ The response of the time-constant element is found by solving equa- tion 2-41 for a step change of inflow M with the tank initially empty.! ¢=RM(1 — et!T) (2-43) ‘This equation is plotted in Fig, 2-9. (2-42) *The solution to any differential equation of the form de Attae at By is given by the sum of the particular integral and complementary function. The particular integral is = By ify is a constant, The complementary function is the solution of dr Aqtzn0 Scanned with CamScannerProcess Characteristics 33 The time (7 = RC) is the time constant of the element and is found experimentally when { = T, e=RM ( = ‘) = RM(1 — 0368) = 0.632RM ‘Therefore the time constant is the time required to reach 63.2 per cent of the final value. Times for other magnitudes of change are found from tables of o*: Per cent response Units of 7 50.0 0.69 63.2 1.00 95.0 3.00 98.0 3.90 99.0 4.60 ‘There are other important characteristics of the exponential response of the time constant element. As shown in Fig. 2-9, the final value for ‘a unit step change is proportional to the resistance R. The time con- stant is the intersection time of the initial slope at the final value and the initial slope is inversely proportional to the time constant. The oscillatory clement is shown in Fig. 2-10. Although it is not encountered in ordinary liquid, gas, and thermal processes, it is typical of many measuring instruments such as the Bourdon-tube pressure gage. Consider the mass spring and damping system of Fig. 2-10. Newton’s second law of motion gives @c dc We _ _p®@ _x Moa BG etm (2-44) where the force m is regarded as the input variable and the displacement Tr the mass is considered the output variable, Rewriting equation 2-44 and ia always 2=ce™ Substituting in the equation immediately above, —ACe™ + CoM = 0 and solving for 4, r= VA ‘The complete solution is therefore z= By + Corts ‘The arbitrary constant C is found from initial conditions, Scanned with CamScanner34 Automatic Process Contray in operational form, 1 = (aeemrE)™ (245) jet Physical diagram nm UK c Te 241 Block diagram Fro. 2-10. The oscillatory element, For convenience the following definitions are often employed: fe T= characteristic time (2-48) a = iieaz damping ratio (2-47) Scanned with CamScannerProcess Characteristics Combining the last three equations, there results WK ) -(__ —— (2-48. c= (aarp Te +1)” 48) ‘The system function is typical of oscillatory elements when the damp- ing ratio ¢ is less than one (underdamped). "Che response of an oscillatory clement is shown in Fig. 2-10 for & unit step change of input variable. Solving equation 2-48, under the conditions that the system is initially at rest,! M peter t t =-“/,-4L— eee tT = 9) c ae von™ THF - oT cos z| 2) ‘The solution to any differential ‘equation of the form sftp aZte=cy is given by the sum of the particular integral and complementary function. The particular integral is z=Cy ity is constant. ‘The complementary function is the solution of @z de AGtagt=-° and is found by substituting z=Ke™ in the equation above, AKNE™ — BR + Ke = 0 ‘Solving for \ from An BA+1=0 there resulta from the quadratic formula +B & VB - 44 a = ‘The form of the complementary function depends upon whether BY > 44, BY = 44, or B? < 4A. In the latter case the roots } are complex and the complete solution is 2a Cy + Kiet + Ke Employing Euler's relation, oO w cos M isin the solution may be placed in the form 1 Bt fi BP - bias aS A _ 5 z=Cyt+ Kasin gait + Kecoe wt where Ky and K4 are arbitrary constants which must be evaluated from initial con- ditions. Scanned with CamScannerAutomatic Process Contro} 36 ‘The period of oscillation may be determined from the characteristic time and damping ratio: 1 (2-50) For damping ratios of one half and less, the square-root term approaches unity. ‘The frequency of oscillation is the inverse of the period in cycles er second. Pe vhen the damping rato in equation 2-48 is equal to or greater than one or, if B® > AKA in equation 2-45, the system is no longer an oscil latory element. ‘That is, for a unit step change of the input variable, the response does not overshoot the final value but changes smoothly from initial to final value. Under this condition the system function of ‘ equation 2-45 may be factored: : L Wa — oe (2-51 MPT Bs +R ~ We + 1\Tge #1) (51) where the time constants are given by 1. hh 52) T, Ty (2-52) ‘Therefore a second-order system with overdamped action (B? > 4KM) may be factored into two time-constant elements, critically damped, these two time-constants are equal, The response of an oscillatory element always overshoots the final value and comes to rest practically at a time dependent upon the teristic time. The amount of over- on the damping. The frequency of the characteristic time T. If the system is Liquid Processes Processes involving the flow of liquids through connected pipes and vessels are common examples of industrial processes and are often employed for demonstrating the operation of many different kinds of processes. The single-vessel process of Fig, 2-11 has a constant outflow u but a variable inflow m. ‘The inflow m is assumed to be the manipulated variable, and the vessel head is assumed to be the variable epee trolled, ¢. ‘The continuity relation for the vessel is Comm —y (2-88) Scanned with CamScanner