Procoss Charaotoristion Ms and for IInoar realatanoo Ry, om lth whore Cy = onpacitanoe of loft-hand ‘vouwol Ry = roalatanco bolwoon voasols Cy = capacltance of right-hand versal Combining the four equations to ollminato bond Ay andl flow dey DDS te (Tr te Ta RaCy)d be Kym hero 1 = RyCy and 1's = Rix, Comparing thln rovult to oquation 2-08, tho difference fs that the faotor Cy Tn addod to tho second torm of the equa tion, Employing the quadratio olution wo may dofino bwo now timo constants: T, and 1's 80 that ie iF ae MGs = MT and write tho abovo equation in tho now form: TaPeh + (Mab Us)d bo = Ram ‘Thus the two process time constants aro 7's and 1's. Gas Processes Processes involving the flow of gas through conneoted pipe lines and pressure vessels aro common in industrial practice. {nm os wy cs Fro, 2-17, Bingle timo-constant-typo gas PFO 8, ‘As an example consider the pressure vessel of Fig, 2-17. Pressure ¢ jn the vessel is the variable to be controlled. The stem position or ‘opening m of the inlot valve, not the inflow yo; must bertaken as the Scanned with CamScanner44 Automatic Process Contro} i i haracteristics of the throttling manipulatod variable, becauso tho ol the thrott yalvo ontor into tho response of the process. The continuity relation for tho vessol is er) Ce = w; — Wo whero C = gas capacitance of vessel wz = inflow wy = outflow ‘Tho vessol outflow ws is « function of two variables if the pressure differ- ential is not large, so that acoustic velocity is not obtained: Wy = fc, uo) (2-72) where tu is the downstream pressure. ‘The total differential for a func- tion of two variables is ‘aw, are, _ dw, = (®), de+ (2), dug (2-73) ‘This situation is illustrated by Fig. 2-18 in which the flow rate is plotted for an actual valve, first with downstream pressure to constant, and second, with upstream pressure ¢ constant. The partial derivatives of equation 2-73 are shown as slopes of the pressure-flow curve. Because the right-hand partial derivative is negative, a negative sign is used in equation 2-73. If the pressure ratio is less than critical (0.53 critical Pressure ratio for air), the flow rate does not depend upon downstream pressure and the second term of equation 2-73 is zero. We will assume that the outlet valve is operated near the horizontal and vertical dotted lines of Fig. 2-18. In a small operating region, the slopes may be con- sidered constant and equation 2-73 may be integrated: 0) = (%)- + &) Wo + Mo (2-74) where Mo is a constant of integration. The inflow (1;) is a function of three variables, the stem position m of the inlet valve, the upstream pressure u;, and the vessel pressure ¢ so that wy = f(m, w1, ¢) (2-75) ‘The total differential is aw," i ‘aw; a & ™ de (2-76) The partial derivatives may be evaluated as for the outlet valve with the addition of one more plot of flow rate against valve stem Position Scanned with CamScannerProcess Characteristics 5 at constant pressure differential. in the first partial derivative above an 50) ‘The slope of the latter curve din termed the valve sensitivity Ky. Valve upstream pressure, ¢, psi gage Valve downstream pressure, up, psi gage Fic, 2-18, Throttling-valve resistances. Considering these slopes constant in the operating region, 1 1 wekns(h)at(Betae en where Mg, is a constant of integration, Scanned with CamScanner46 Automatic Proven ¢ Anh, Combining the equations 2-71, 2-74, and 2-77 the WAS Up bOM i Té +o = Kym + Ky + Kyy On, or in operational form = (A _Ka__ Ge“ ° Gitta) m+ (GEG) w+ Th 4 qJ4 BI) where c Ke PR + 17h’ 4” Tit Mi 1 1 "Tithe, = ™ "RTE The block diagram is shown in Fig. 2-17. The process reapomiae is fired, order with a time constant 7, Compare the response of thin process te the response of the liquid-level Process in Fig. 2-13, Example 2-12. A pressure vessel connected an in Fig, 2-17 has a mnpply Pressure w1 of 45 psig, a vessel pressure of 15 paig, and an air exhaust to ation Phere. The average flow rate is 1.0 Ib per minute and the vessel volume ie 10 cu ft. Calculate the system function. First, the critical pressure ratios give: 14.7 agg 7 273, Since 27.8 — 14.7 = 13.1 psi < 15 psig véewel pressure the outlet valve han critical (acoustic) flow. Also because 56.0 — 14.7 = 41.2 <45 paix, the inlet valve has critical flow. Therefore Ro—> and Ry—> ~, and thereby Kz = 0 in equation 2-79. The time constant is 15 x 144 10 Fee 10 X 533 29 = 56.0 Ki = RK Re Ki= Ry 2.0 ‘The system function is, therefore, — (eke ) ( 2 ) om (arti ™+ (o7espi) le 2-13. The single capacitance pressure proceas shown in the gure i supplied with a constant How lb por see Tee canted variable is the vessel pressure c psi gage. The stem position of the outlet valve m is the manipulated variable. The outlet valve downstream pressure is less than critical. Derive the process equation. Scanned with CamScannerProcess Characteristics AT The continuity relation is Ce =U — ty ‘The outflow does not depend upon downstream pressure, 80 A106 At06 w= (n+ (GE) wa, = Kem + (ie + Mo or The process equation is Té-+o = —RKym + Ru— RMo and the operational equation is RK, Rg Ma) = — (co eee G+ RM) =~ (ae ) = + (weea)* {m i Lil where T= RC. The resistance R of the outlet valvo is the slope of the Upstream pressure versus flow curve at constant valve stem position and iPSowaly obtained by test. In drawing the block diagram, constants (euch as RM) are usually omitted because they do not directly influence process dynamics. Flow Processes ‘The automatic control of fluid flow in pipelines would at first appear to be a simple problem of manipulating a throttling valve so as to maintain the flow rate at the desired value, In practice, the analysis Javolves a large number of factors related to flow characteristics, and a separate consideration of flow-rate processes is necessary. Tho analysis Of flow-rate processes will be made by assuming no effect due to inertia of flowing fluid. ‘This assumption is quite close to reality, because in practical applications the changes in variables occur relatively slowly. Tn addition it is assumed that the eapacitance of pipelines is negligible, Liquid-flow problems will be discussed first, and then gas-flow problems will be reviewed. Liquid flow rate is assumed to be measured by some type of metering device such as an orifice, nozzle, or Venturi as shown in Fig. 2-19. The flow rate through the metering device is given by o = JyAyV 29 (vo — 4) (2-80) Scanned with CamScannerAutomatic Process Control 48 iqui rate . we = Ee aient (including yelocity-of-approach factor) A = area of restriction up = upstream head tu, = downstream head a @ = gravitational constant, ft/sec’ Fie. 2-19. A flow-rate process. The coefficients J, and area A; may be considered constant in some operating region of flow and head differential. Then, since flow is @ function of two variables (uo and 1), the total differential is defined as de = () dug + (2) du (2-81) aug, au; The partial derivatives are equal, so ac dc JA, ( 2g y" ec Ky=— = -— eK = a Guo du; 2 \uo — uy 2(uo — uw) (2-82) Equation 2-81 may be integrated provided the flow is approximately constant: c= Ki(uo ~ 4) + My (2-83) where M is the constant of integration, The flow also passes through the throttling valve and the flow rate is given by 6 = JaAamV2g(u; — wa) (2-84) where J2 = flow coefficient Az = maximum valve Port area, m = fraction of valve port opening ug = downstream head Scanned with CamScannerProcess Characteristics 49 ‘The coefficient Jy and the area Ay may be considered constant in some operating region vf flow rate, head, and valve opening, Then, since flow is a function of three variables (m, 1, ug), the total differential is defined as ac dc de : dc = () dm + () du + (2) dug (2-85) ‘The partial derivatives may be calculated from equation 2-84: 2 a Ait =) =F (2-86) where K, is the valve sensitivity. Also, J x 4 c ok (OR) -me oO ‘The throttling-valve flow equation is now written e= Kan + Kalu ~ ia) + Be @-88) by integrating equation 2-85 with Mz as a constant of integration, ‘The “process equation” ean be found by eliminating variable between equations 2-83 and 2-88: KK; ke) n+( 1Ka_) (yy — ug) + Ms (2-89) O° K+ Ka Ki + Ke where Ms is a constant. Simplifying, / c= (Ka)m + (Kp)uo — (Ko)u2 + Ma (2-90) _ KK (2) (# = *2) where Ka = 54 Ka \m/\uo = to Kika ¢ K, = = > OF OS Kit Kz 20-2) * Thus the “process” is a simple algebraic one and constitutes a propor- tional element as shown. in Fig, 2-19. The response of the process is direct; that is, any change in the position of the throttling valve m results immediately in the same change in flow rate modified by the rocess sensitivity Kg. Changes in upstream head (uo) and down- ream head (ug) act similarly. Gas flow-rate processes may be analyzed by the same procedure as that employed for liquid flow-rate processes. However, the flow rate depends upon three variables rather than two because the weight flow of gas through a restriction depends upon upstream temperature, up- stream pressure, and downstream pressure. Also, the flow throygh the Scanned with CamScannerFP Automatic Process Contro} i imi iables. In order to eliminate throttling valve depends upon similar varial : two of the variables, the energy equation (first law of thermodynamics) must be employed. Thus the analysis becomes rather complex even when simplifying assumptions are made. Consequently, we rely upon the previous analysis to write = (Ka)m + (Ko)uo + (Ki)t — (Ka)ua2+M (2-91) where ¢ = gas flow rate — lb/sec K, = constant, lb/sec m = position of throttling valve Ko = constant, Ib/see (deg R)! upstream temperature, deg R K, = constant, ft?/sec t = upstream pressure, Ib/ft? _ constant, ft?/sec U2 = valve downstream pressure, Ib/ft? M = constant of integration The constant coefficients (R's Tate c versus the four variabl at the throttling valve is upon downstream Pl 's) must be evaluated from graphs of flow les m, uo, v1, and Ug. If the pressure ratio greater than critical, the flow does not depend ressure uz and the factor Ke is zero. Thermal Processes All thermal, processes (epecific heat and weigh: are clearly distinguished Possess characteristic: 8 attributed to capacitance t) and resistance. T) ‘hermal Processes, however, : bs ‘Process elements that are characterized mainly by capacitance (agitated fluids) and by resistance (insulation), . Process. Heat flow m into the system is provided by an electrical heater (usually rated in watts electrical input). Since all of the electrical energy must be transferred to the air Cé = m+ QPu ~ QPe where C = thermal capacitance = WP, Btu/deg W = weight of air contained in heater, Ib ¢ = heater outlet temperature, deg m = heat input, Btu/sec Q = weight flow of air through heater, Ib/sec P = specific heat of air, Btu/lb deg! u = inlet air temperature, deg (2-92) Scanned with CamScannerProcess Characteristics 51 The heat losses and the capacitance of metal parts in the heater are aseumed to be negligib a ; tras (a be negligible, Rewriting equation 2-92, the process equs- “G)Ga)"* Ga oP) \rei)™ + nr)" es where T = C/QP = W/Q is the time constant of the T Q process. The block diagram is shown in Fig. 2-20. The process representa a time- yer Electric heater Fro. 2-20, Time-constant-type thermal process. constant element with time constant T. It is interesting to note that the dynamic characteristics of this process are the same as for the liquid-vessel pgpcess of Fig. 2-13 and the gas process of Fig. 2-17, because they“Kre all time-constant elements characterized by # single time constant. ‘The thermal time constant of most simple thermal processes is given by the storage and throughput rate. ‘Thus, the time constant is cal- culated from W weight of fluid contained T = = ‘weight rate of throughput ‘This time is the inverse of the rate at which the fluid substance is changed. ‘The thermal process of Fig. 2-21 consists of a heating furnace such as might be used in continuous heat treating. A gas-air mixture is burned in the furnace and represents a specified rate of heat addition, m. We shall suppose that the main heating load is the metal boxes con- Scanned with CamScanner