00:00

We continue our discussion of FCTCR system in this lecture. In the last lecture we addressed the problem
of excessive harmonic currents drawn by TCR and we looked at two solutions.

00:22

The first solution was to put the TCR units in a three phase configuration in delta. This will get rid of the
third harmonic current in the individual phase leg of the TCR unit. The third harmonic current drawn by
the three single phase units sitting in the delta will circulate in the delta.

00:49

Therefore, the line currents drawn by the 3 phase TCR will contain only harmonics starting from 5th. In
particular, it will contain 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, 19th, etc.

01:10

If these harmonics, the remaining harmonics produce problems, we can use the second solution along
with the first solution, that is to use passive filters.

01:26

Today we look at two more approaches aimed at reducing the harmonic current taken by the TCR. They
are use segmented TCR and the next one is use TCR in a 12 pulse arrangement. In segmented TCR what
we do is the total required TCR rating is constructed.

01:56

in the form of n smaller units instead of a single unit. So suppose Q is the rating. Q is the rating of the
TCR that we need. So many Qpu of reactive power. We can construct, for example, in this example, we
can construct four smaller units, each having Q by 4 rating.

02:26

In this case, we don't have to face control all the units.

02:34

Let's say the demand on this TCR unit is 1 pu. 1 pu means its full rated capacity. In that case, you can
switch on all the thyristors permanently. Then the four units together will consume 1 pu, which means
100% of its rating.

02:56

But suppose you need only 75% of its rating, then you can afford to switch off one unit completely. That
means give alpha is equal to 90 degree for let's say the fourth unit. And then the other three units will
receive alpha is equal to 90. So the other three units will be functioning completely without any phase
control. The thyristors will be permanently switched on.

03:23

when a reactor is operated in this mode, that is, either it is switched on or it is switched off using a pair
of thyristors. In that case, you will call it a thyristor switched reactor, TSR. So if you need only 75% rating,
then three thyristors are working as, sorry, three TCR units are working as TSR. And the fourth one is a
TSR with off condition.

03:53

Similarly, if you need only 50% rating, two of them may be kept on completely and the remaining two
can be kept off completely. 25% one of them will be kept on completely, other three will be off. But if you
need reactive power consumption,

04:14

which is other than these four values. For example, suppose you need 0.3, then you'll have to keep the
first unit completely on. Alpha is zero for the first unit. The other two units are switched off, and the
fourth unit is worked as a TCR. It will be alpha controlled. It will be alpha controlled such that it will
deliver 0.05, so that the total will be 0.3 pu current.

04:43

similarly if you need 0.6 you will keep these two on completely with alpha 0 this will be kept off and this
will be controlled such that it delivers 0.1 and if you need 0.8 you will keep all the three on alpha will be
0 for this this this and for this suitable alpha will be used so that will take 0.05

05:13

which is one fifth of its rating, because its rating is 0.25.

05:20

So in short only the fourth unit or in particular any one unit, let us say it is the fourth unit, only the
fourth unit will be alpha controlled always. Other three units will be worked as TSR. They are either
completely on or completely off.

05:40

Since the other three units are either on or off, either they conduct fully, in which case the current they
conduct will be fully sinusoidal or they do not conduct at all. So you see the gist of the matter is only one
fourth of the TCR is producing harmonic current. The other three either produce pure sinusoidal current
or they do not produce anything at all.

06:09

This results in an overall harmonic reduction. This picture taken from Hingarani's book illustrates how the
various units adapt to a varying reactive current demand from the TCR. Initially the current demand is
100 percent. Then all the four units are completely on initially.

06:38

demand is coming down. So after some time, the first unit goes completely off. Second unit and third
unit are working completely and the fourth unit is being phase controlled. This way you can see the
sequence of action which will essentially consist of switching off or switching on the three units, the first
three units.

07:07

controlling alpha of the fourth unit.

07:13

thereby resulting in this gradually decreasing amplitude sinusoidal reactive current the bold curve you
see the amplitude is decreasing gradually this way you can follow varying demand by operating three
units in TSR mode and the fourth unit in TCR mode

07:40

Now I have to make an observation regarding this set of curves given by Hingarani in his Test Book. I
think in the previous lecture or the lecture before that I mentioned that we do not want any even
harmonics in power system.

08:01

Therefore, the alpha value that you are using for one thyristor in one half cycle and the other thyristor in
the next half cycle, positive and negative half cycle, the alpha values must be equal. Otherwise, over a
cycle, the wave shape, positive half cycle wave shape will be different from negative half cycle wave
shape in the inductor current. If the wave shapes are different in two half cycles,

08:31

over the same cycle, then even harmonics will come into the current. Also DC component will come into
the current. The disadvantage of having DC component was explained in the last lecture. Therefore I
mentioned that the alpha control strategy must be such that the alpha used during the positive half cycle
and the negative half cycle of a full cycle will have to be the same.

08:59

If alpha needs to be changed, it has to be changed in the next cycle. Within a cycle, both the iris cells
should get the same alpha, otherwise even harmonics and DC component may come into the current.
That was my observation. But here, in this picture, you can see that the alpha is being buried over half
cycles. For example, the fourth TCR unit

09:29

is conducting this much in the positive half cycle and in the immediately following negative half cycle it is
conducting this much. Area is less. So over this cycle you have excess positive area indicating a positive
DC current flowing in the system. Similarly here also you can see that. So this other seems to be
assuming that.

09:57

it is okay to have different firing angles within the same cycle for the anti-parallel pair of thyristors. So he
seems to be okay with introducing even harmonics and DC component during transient conditions or
dynamic conditions. Of course, during steady state, by which I mean when the demand stabilizes at a
particular value, the positive half cycle and negative half cycle shape will become

10:27

same but during dynamic conditions these authors are permitting different areas for the positive half
cycle current and negative half cycle current.

10:40

Whether it's okay to introduce even harmonics and DC component during such dynamic tracking
conditions or whether it is not okay, that depends upon the design of the equipment. It may be okay in
some power systems, it may not be okay in some power systems. If you ask me how is it really done in
practice?

11:04

in the practically installed TCRs all around the world, how is it really done? The answer is I don't know,
because these kind of details are very difficult to get even from journal papers. You need detailed
technical documentation of that TCR unit, which will be very difficult to come by. But I want you to be
aware of both possibilities. That is, if you are allowing the alpha to change within a half cycle,

11:31

so that positive half cycle current and negative half cycle current have different shape and different areas
then you will be introducing even harmonics and DC component in the current.

11:44
If that is okay, well and good. If that is not okay, then even under dynamic conditions, you will have to
ensure that within a cycle, the positive half cycle thyristor and negative half cycle thyristor will get the
same alpha only. An immediate consequence of that kind of a constraint will be that your TCR will be
able to take command or obey your command to change alpha.

12:13

only once in a cycle, not twice in a cycle. Which means that if you ask the TCR unit to use a different
value of alpha, then it may obey you only in the next cycle. So the maximum delay in obeying a
command will be a full cycle time in that case. Earlier in last lecture

12:44

maximum time delay between issuing a command and obeying the command is T by 2. When I said that,
I was assuming that it is permissible to change alpha within a half, within a cycle for the two thyristors.
That is the situation given in this picture was assumed. So if the situation is like as given in this picture,
okay, the maximum time delay in obeying a command will be T by 2.

13:14

but if the situation is the other way, that is, your control system is ensuring that alpha given for T1 will be
same as alpha given for T2, okay, within a cycle. If alpha is to change, it will be changed in the next cycle,
there also equal alphas will be given for T1 and T2. This way you will be maintaining even harmonics and
DC component at zero levels even when the demand on the TCR current is changing.

13:43

If that is the kind of design you are doing, then you may face a maximum of T seconds delay between
your issuing a command to change Alpha and the T's here really changing it. So the maximum time delay
between command and obedience will be T in this case and T by 2 in the other case. That has to be kept
in mind.

14:11

Now coming to the fourth solution for the harmonics problem. The fourth solution is also a hardware
oriented solution. You need a special transformer for this. It is called use the TCR in a 12 pulse
arrangement. That raises the question, what was the number of pulses in the TCR before this? The TCR
we were discussing.

14:37

in the TCR where you put three single phase units in a Delta configuration what is the pulse number?
well it is six pulse that TCR is called the six pulse TCR whereas the TCR we are going to discuss now is a
twelve pulse arrangement in this twelve pulse arrangement the harmonic currents which will go to zero
in the line will be given by six into two k minus one

15:06

plus or minus 1, k running from 1, 2, 3 etc. If you put k is equal to 1, you will see that it is 5 and 7. So 5th
harmonic and 7th harmonic will be eliminated in the input current or the line current. 17th and 19th will
go, 29th and 31th will go. And remember, 3rd harmonic is already gone and even harmonics are not
there.

15:35

triplets are not there. That means if 5 and 7 also goes, then the first one to be present will be 11th. So
the first dominant harmonic that will be present in the line current will be 11th and then 13th and then
23rd and 25th etc. 11th and 13th harmonic may not have noticeable amplitude. Therefore in a 12 pulse
arrangement, the line currents taken by the 12 pulse TCR may be

16:04

appear to be very nearly sinusoidal with very low total harmonic distortion and therefore no additional
steps will be needed to control the harmonics after this. Now what is this 12 pulse arrangement? In 12
pulse arrangement you need a transformer with two secondaries and one primary. The primary is shown
here. Primary is star connected. One of the secondaries is also star connected.

16:34

delta connected so these two are the secondaries and this is the primary the turns ratio of the star star
portion is one is to one that is this turns and this turns will be same but in the delta connected
secondary the branch turns will be root three times this many turns so if this is n turns this will be n turn
but this will be root three n turns and will be connected in
17:04

Delta. Okay. Now, half the... Suppose you need a TCR with rating QPU. Then you need two TCR designs,
both delta connected. Each with Q by 2PU rating. Okay. So segmentation is into two. So half the rating is
available in this and half the rating is available in this.

17:32

Both are identical, delta connected DCRs.

17:37

Now let's look at the voltages driving one leg of the TCR. For convenience, let us label the lines as R, Y, B.
So this is R, Y, and B. And here it is R here, Y here, B here, which means that this winding couples with
this winding. And this winding couples with this winding. And here, this line is R.

18:07

and this line is Y and this line is B which means that this winding couples with this and this winding
couples with this and this winding couples with this. Now let's say the RY line voltage in the primary side
is our reference phasor V angle

18:34

That is the voltage of R line with respect to Y line. That's the meaning of this arrow. It is V angle 0. Then
you can immediately conclude that the voltage of R line with respect to neutral, the phase voltage, is V
by root 3 angle minus 30. That is because we know that in a positive phase sequence system, the first
line voltage will lead

19:02

the first phase voltage by 30 degree. So if you are taking the first line voltage as angle 0, then the first
phase voltage will be minus 30, because it is 30 degree lead for line compared to phase. So this phase
voltage must then be V by root 3 minus 30 degree. Now this V by root 3 minus 30 degree gets reflected
one each to one. Let us assume one each to one. So it comes here.
19:32

and by that time it becomes RY voltage which is used to excite this branch it will be again V angle zero
because it is a star star connection RY voltage and RY voltage here will be co-phase cell so you get V
angle zero across this branch of the TCR ok now lets go to this connection

19:59

This winding will induce Rho 3 times V across this winding, because this winding is coupling with this
winding. So Rho 3 times, because turns ratio is Rho 3 here. So Rho 3 times V will come here. And what
about the angle?

20:22

Sorry, my mistake. This winding is coupling with this winding and that winding is getting a voltage V by
root three angle minus 30. So that into root three, it becomes V. So the RMS magnitude will be V in this
winding. Angle, again minus 30 will be reflected there, right? So it will be V angle minus 30 for this
branch. And that branch is driving this branch of TCR.

20:51

because it's RY voltage. So the line to line voltage RY voltage in the delta connected secondary is V angle
minus 30 whereas the line to line voltage in the star connected secondary is V angle zero only. Therefore
this branch of TCR is getting same RMS voltage or amplitude but it is getting it at a 30 degree lag.

21:20

So the voltage applied to this thyristor and inductor unit is 30 degree lagging with respect to the voltage
applied to a similarly located DCR unit here.

21:34

This 30 degree lag will register as 150 degree lag in the 5th harmonic current in this unit compared to 5th
harmonic current in this unit. Because 30 degree lag corresponds to 1 12th of the cycle period delay. T
by 12 second delay. T by 12 second delay corresponds to
22:04

150 degree delay in the fifth harmonic because period of fifth harmonic is T by 5. So on a period of T by
5...

22:20

T by 12 will appear to be 150 degree that is why 5th harmonic in this branch and 5th harmonic in this
branch will have 150 degree and this branch current will be delayed 150 degree delay so 5th harmonic in
I am calling this current I2 current flowing from R to Y I2 here I am calling the current I1

22:48

again current flowing from R to Y connected branch so I2 will have a 5th harmonic which is same as I3
what is I3? this one this is delta connected and this is also delta connected so this current will be
duplicated here so I2 and I3 will have 5th harmonic current which will have extra lag of 150 degree
compared to I1

23:18

Right.

23:21

Now coming to...

23:25

Now coming to the current I4. I4 is the current that will flow in this winding and that will get reflected to
the primary winding. I3 is the current that will flow in this winding and that will get reflected to this
primary winding. So here I4 has to be found out. I4 is the line current of a delta connection. So I4 is going
to be I1.

23:54
minus whatever current that is flowing in this line two three phase currents you know there will be a
root three value when you add them vectorially also you know that there will be a thirty degree between
this current and this current

24:13

But which 30 lead or lag? The answer is I4 leads the fifth harmonic in I1 by 30 degree. Why is it a lead?
The answer is it is fifth harmonic is a negative phase sequence system. So when you subtract IBR from
IRY in order to find IR, you will get 30 degree lead. b

24:44

Therefore, in I4 there will be a fifth harmonic which leads by 30 degree.

24:54

So finally, I4 has a 30 degree lead and I3 has a 150 degree lag as far as 5th harmonic is concerned. So the
net angle gap between them is 30 and minus 150 which is 180. So when this current is reflected to this
primary and when this current is also reflected to this primary, the two reflected versions will add in the
primary and since there is a 180 degree between them for 5th harmonic,

25:23

Fifth harmonic components will get cancelled. Similarly, coming to seventh harmonic, instead of this
number 150, it will be 210. 30 into 7, 210. And out of that 210, 30 will disappear because the seventh
harmonic system is a positive phase sequence system. And when you add or when you subtract the
second branch current from the first branch current,

25:52

the angle you get is going to be a lag of 30 in a positive sequence system so 7th harmonic in I4 will have
a lag angle of 30 and 7th harmonic of I3 and I2 will have a lag of 210 so a lag of 30 and lag of 210
between them there is a 180 degree again 7th harmonic will get cancelled similarly

26:21
these harmonics also will get cancelled. So this is the mechanism of cancellation. Right?

26:30

So finally you will have only 11th, 13th, 23rd and 25th etc. which will be present in the line current here
I5 and IY, IB. So the harmonic behaviour will be excellent.

26:52

No, what about the fundamental? In the case of fundamental, I2 and I3 will have 30 degree lag.

27:04

I-1 fundamental will be

27:09

No, 30 degree extra lag. I1 will not have any extra lag because it is coming from B angle 0. But then I4 will
have a 30 degree.

27:21

Is it a 30 degree lag or lead? Fundamental system is positive phase sequence, so it is going to be lag. So
in I4 and I3, in both of them, there will be an extra 30 degree lag. What do I mean by extra? The current
is already lagging by 90 degree because of inductive behaviour. So extra 30 degree lag will be there for I4
and I3. But they are equal. Extra lag is equal. So there is no relative lag.

27:50

Relative angle between I4 and I3 is zero. So by the time you get reflected, these currents are reflected
back into this line. There is no cancellation, okay? No subtraction, nothing, it is straight addition. So
fundamental is not affected. So fundamental component of this TCR current and fundamental
component of this TCR current will appear to be collinear when they come to the primary and they will
simply add.
28:16

So you don't lose any rating, that is if you have 50% rating here and 50% rating here, you will get 100%
rating, not less than 100% rating. There is no phase angle between this rating and this rating for
fundamental. But for fifth, seventh, etc. there is a cancellation because of 180 degree appearance. This is
the working principle of 12 pulse arrangement for harmonic reduction. With that we close the topic of

28:46

harmonic control. So there are four distinct ways of harmonic control. The first is a kind of bonus. You
put them in delta, you will get some control. Second is extra equipment, filter. Third is a design change.
You have to design four or as many number of units you want instead of making a big unit and the
control becomes more complex. And the fourth one is again a power hardware change.

29:14

but control complexity is not there you just need a special transformer with two windings two secondary
windings connect in a particular way

29:26

The next topic is…

29:29

a study of reactive power capability of the TCR and power loss behavior of FCTCR static war generator
unit the FC fixed capacitor thyristor controlled reactor static war generator unit is shown here you put a
fixed capacitor and the TCR unit in parallel the susceptance of the fixed capacitor is

29:57

written as J into BC remember a capacitive has a positive susceptance positive reactive susceptance so
BC is omega C J omega C is the susceptance susceptance of the inductance is written as minus JBL we
know that it is negative so instead of calling BL negative let's call BL positive but put a minus and the BL
value is 1 by omega
30:26

minus 1 by pi sine 2 alpha. This I had explained before. This is the susceptance of alpha control to TCR.
The maximum value available is 1 by omega L. The current that will be taken by this capacitor will be V
into omega C, where V is, if V is the peak amplitude, then this is the amplitude of current, V into omega
C. If V is RMS value, then it is RMS value of current.

30:57

the value of fundamental current taken by this unit depends upon the value of alpha but the maximum
value is going to be V by omega L. It will take only lesser than that. Now in practical design this number 1
by omega L is usually greater than omega C.

31:17

so that the maximum current that the inductor may take is more than the current that will be taken by
the capacitor. Because only then you will be able to supply, or you will be able to take lagging reactive
power. Sometimes you may need reactor compensation instead of capacitor compensation. So FCTCR
unit is designed in such a manner that it will be able to take some amount of lagging reactive power.

31:46

Remember you cannot disconnect the capacitor. So capacitor takes its own fixed amount of leading
reactive power Therefore the maximum reactive power taken by the inductor must be more than the
capacitor reactive power only then the overall reactive power can become Lagging and this is why 1 by
omega L is usually taken as greater than omega C So that when alpha is equal to 0 FCTCR takes a lagging
reactive power of value You can find out the value

32:16

I squared.

32:19

I squared XL is the reactive power. I is V by omega L and V into omega C. So it is 1 by omega L minus
omega C, that is inductive minus capacitive, into V. That gives you the reactive power. That is the lagging
reactive power, maximum lagging reactive power that the system can take.
32:48

you get that when alpha is zero. And when alpha is 90, this path goes open, only capacitor. So you get
the maximum leading reactive power taken by the unit. And that is going to be V squared omega C,
where V is the system voltage in PU. Now, when you rate a system, when you put a rating stamp, this
rating is calculated based on the nominal voltage of the system.

33:15

and in power system terminology nominal voltage is usually taken as 1Pu though there is no golden rule
like that but then if your 1Pu has to have some meaning at all then it should be nominal right? so
nominal voltage is usually taken as 1Pu or 1Pu is the nominal voltage so the rating of equipment is
usually assumed or understood to be the rating it has

33:45

applied across the equipment is 1 pu. Therefore the maximum inductive reactive power the system will
take is V squared by omega L minus omega C. Put V is equal to 1, then it will be 1 by omega L minus
omega C. Omega L is XL, so it is 1 by XL.

34:11

and omega c is 1 by xc so it is 1 by xl minus 1 by xc where xl and xc are in pu this number is the ql max in
pu maximum reactive power lagging reactive power that the unit can take in per unit under normal
voltage condition or nominal voltage condition similarly qc max is the maximum capacity of reactive
power it can take under

34:45

The rating of capacitor therefore has to be, we will call it QCR, rating of the capacitor is QCR. Obviously it
has to be the QC max you want. So QCR is QC max and rating of inductor has to be QC max plus QL max
because inductor reactive power has to cancel the capacitive reactive power and then supply this much.
Therefore QC max plus QL max.

35:13
should be the rated value of the inductor. Rating of C means the reactive power that will be taken by the
capacitance. That is the rating of a capacitance in power system and that too in Pu and that too assuming
one Pu voltage. Rating of inductor is same. A reactor is rated by providing the mega volt ampere it will
consume when it is connected to nominal voltage.

35:43

working in PU nominal voltage is 1PU and the mega volt ampere is expressed in PU. So it is PU reactive
power it will consume from 1PU voltage that is QLR and that has to be equal to the PU maximum leading
reactive power you want from the unit plus PU maximum lagging reactive power the equipment should
be able to take the sum of the two.

36:12

Now with these definitions, look at this curve, reactive capability curve at nominal voltage of 1pu. A
capability curve is a curve showing what the unit is capable of giving you when you ask for something. So
in the x-axis, you will plot the demanded value of q, which you are asking the unit to deliver. And in the
vertical axis, you will plot what the unit is giving you, or what it can give you.

36:42

ask some number between QL max and QC max, it will be able to give you that. Therefore, this line has a
slope of 1. Because you are asking something between this number and this number. Okay. You are
asking QL max rated value. What is QL max rated value? The inductor reactive power rating minus
capacitive reactive power rating. That is QL max rated value.

37:13

And similarly, what is QC max rated value? It is QCR. And what is QCR? That's the rating of capacitor at 1
pu. And since you are drawing the graph for 1 pu, QL max rated, if you ask, you will get QL max rated,
which is incidentally equal to rating of inductor minus rating of capacitor. And if you ask for QC max
rated, you will get QCR. Leading reactive power is written, I mean, given a

37:42

sign of negative. But if you ask for more than QL max rated, suppose you are asking this number, well the
unit is not able to give you that. So it will give you whatever is the maximum possible. And what is the
maximum possible? QL max rated. So there is saturation. Maybe I should mention the alpha value also.

38:06

So alpha will be 0 here from here onwards and alpha will be 90 this direction. Similarly here also alpha is
0.

38:25

Alpha is 90.

38:29

Okay, so if you ask something between QL max rated and QC max rated you will get it. If you ask for more
than that in two directions, both directions you don't get it. Rather you get the maximum the unit is
capable of giving you. You have gone out of the control range. So the output saturates. While this is
happening, what is happening to the active power loss incurred within the system?

38:59

But that raises the question, why is there an active power loss? I didn't talk about it till now. After all I
said, the unit takes only pure reactive power. Well, not really. That is only an approximation. Now let's
come to reality. The thyristors will dissipate power when they are conducting. On loss, switch on the
conduction loss. And of course, every time you switch on a thyristor,

39:27

there is some switching on loss involved there gate loss and all that so thyristors consume power small
but they consume power inductor the inductor is usually an air-cored inductor in this application so
there may not be any core loss involved in this but copper loss will be there winding copper loss will be
there capacitor

39:56

which is small of course and then dielectric losses there. But the more serious losses will be thyristor loss
and the inductor loss. You may neglect the capacitor power loss for this discussion. So when will the unit
incur larger amount of losses? Answer is when the thyristor unit is conducting. So if the thyristor unit
and the inductor unit is conducting then there will be copper loss and thyristor loss.

40:26

and when will this conduct for a maximum duration when alpha is zero. So if you are working close to
alpha, the power loss in the unit will be the highest. When you are working close to 90 degree, the
power loss will be minimum. If you are working close to 90 degree, then power loss should be zero,
right? Well, not zero. There is a little dielectric loss in the capacitor. And of course, this graph is only

40:54

representative not quantitative, it's only qualitative. This value may be small but it's not zero. So the
power loss in FCTCR system increases with alpha going towards zero. But if alpha is zero, then you are
taking lagging reactive power. You are not doing capacitive compensation at all.

41:20

What is the situation like when you are doing maximum capacitive compensation? Well, then the unit is
relatively loss free because the thyristor and the inductor are not conducting. So there is no loss, very
small loss. So doesn't it amount to saying that FCTCR unit is best applied in those situations where you
want predominantly capacitive compensation for most of the time during the day.

41:51

Yes, it means that. So, FCTCR is suitable when the average capacitive demand is high. Occasionally you
may demand inductive reactive power or you may demand small amount of capacitive, but the average
capacitive demand over a day is close to rating, close to QC max. In that case, FCTCR is suitable.

42:19

But FCTCR is not suitable if the average daily demand from this unit is either inductive or small capacitive
or close to zero. But that raises the question, why do you want to put an FCTCR and then demand only
near zero reactive power from that?

42:40
The answer is, well, maybe you are reserving it for some other purpose.

42:47

So this is suitable when average capacity demand is high. An example application will be in power factor
correction in the industry, or even in a power system. So if you are using this FCTCR as an SVC at a bus,
which is customarily at a low voltage throughout the day, so the FCTCR will be working as a capacitive
compensator close to rating throughout the day.

43:15

to support the bus voltage, then it's okay. So for bus voltage regulation, it may be okay. For power factor
correction of an industrial load, it may be okay. But then, SVCs, fast-acting SVCs can be used for other
purposes as well. For example, maybe you are using it for mid-point compensation of a long transmission
line to enhance its power transfer capability.

43:45

But you want this midpoint compensation to come in only when there is a transient stability event. So
based upon control signals, you decide that the system is swinging because of some transient
somewhere. Now let me bring in the power transfer capability enhancement equipment. Because maybe
I don't need that equipment when things are under steady state.

44:14

But I need that equipment to jack up the power transfer capability during transient stability swings. So
the express aim of that installation is to help transient stability swings to get dammed down.

44:31

If that is the aim of that equipment, you see it can be designed for short duration rating. So the
equipment can be made very compact because it is going to work occasionally for a few seconds. So you
don't have to continuously rate it. It's not a continuous rated equipment. So for short term duty you can
construct it. The design becomes simpler, cost becomes lower, size of the equipment becomes smaller,
etc.
45:00

For such applications, FCTCR doesn't seem to be suitable. Because most of the time, you will be
cancelling the capacitive reactive power with inductive reactive power. And then inductive. Sorry, I'm
contradicting myself here. OK. So let's go back. Your idea is to use the equipment only during emergency
conditions or only during those dynamic.

45:28

conditions when you want the help of the equipment. You don't need it otherwise. So you can
theoretically, you can design it for short term duty rating. And thereby simplify the design, reduce the
weight size, cost volume, et cetera. But if it is an FCTCR, you won't be able to make use of that
advantage. Because if it is an FCTCR,

45:54

to keep the equipment in reserve, you need to cancel the capacitive reactive power by inductive reactive
power. Then it will be always working. I mean the inductive path will be continuously conducting. Right?
So you need continuous rating, not short-term duty rating. So you are unnecessarily incurring power,
power loss in the equipment, because you have a fixed capacitor which is consuming leading reactive
power and you have to cancel it by a lagging reactive power.

46:23

so that the system is ready to move up and down when the demand comes. So for that kind of
application, FCTS here is not suitable. Later on we will study another unit which is suitable for that kind
of application. But here understand that for dynamic compensation applications where the system will
be normally working with zero demand.

46:47

and it will go to full demanded condition whenever there is a dynamic compensation problem like
stability enhancement or damping the power oscillations etc. For such applications because of this kind
of loss characteristic FCTCR is not suitable. So FCTCR is a work horse. But it's not a sophisticated stability
enhancer.

47:15
can be used, but then you will be incurring lot of power loss unnecessarily.

47:22

Now we move on to the next topic. The next topic is how to control an FCTCR internal control. In my
lecture on SVC and STATCOM, I mentioned that an SVC system will contain a static war generator unit
and an internal controller which will ensure that the static war generator unit will generate the
demanded reactive current.

47:50

and then it will contain lot of signal acquisition and signal processing units. And finally it will contain
external controller which will take care of some external control objective. So the external controller
after receiving the external control objective reference will calculate the reference to be given for
internal controller. This reference I am assuming that it comes as a value of current.

48:19

So the input to the internal controller is the value of fundamental component of inductive current
desired. But then if it is an FCTCR system, what is the current demand you are placing on FCTCR system?
It is the current that the system should take from the bus. External controller will calculate that current
and give that as the information. It may give current or reactive power.

48:48

I am assuming that it gives current information. But it is the current to be taken by the fixed capacitor
and TCR in parallel. So from that current information, we'll have to calculate what is the current to be
taken by TCR unit. I'm assuming that that also is done by the external controller. So external controller
finally gives the information about how much fundamental current the TCR unit should draw.

49:16

from the bus. That is the reference input for internal control.

49:22
We are assuming that nominal voltage is represented by 1 pu. I mean people haven't defined 1.05 pu as
nominal. Nominal usually means 1 pu. That is our assumption. Now how is this ILF reference, that is the
reference value for the fundamental current to be drawn by TCR? This information comes from external
control.

49:51

it comes as an input to our control system now how is it coming in what form is it coming it comes in the
form of a DC voltage usually after all you use DC voltages or DC currents to represent control system
references right so I'm saying that some reference voltage VR for fixity I will say it is 5V

50:17

So some reference voltage Br, which I am using 5V in my discussion here, will be used to stand for or to
represent the maximum lagging current that you can draw from DCR. And when will you get it? When
alpha is equal to zero. And what is the value? 1 pu voltage by omega ln pu. That number, if you want to
ask for that number, how will you ask?

50:48

you will ask by providing a control voltage equal to Vr. So a control voltage, reference voltage Vr will
stand for full capacity current from TCR. That's a correspondence or proportionality we are establishing.
The full current that is available from TCR in Pu will be same as the rating of TCR in Pu.

51:18

or rating of inductor in Pu. So numerically these quantities will be equal. Okay. So we are going to
represent rating of TCR in Pu by a DC voltage of value VR. Which if you want a number I will suggest 5.
Nothing special about 5 but typically 5 or 10 or 12 or 3.3 or some standard voltage.

51:48

the external controller has given us how much current the TCR should draw. I mean how much
fundamental current it should draw. It has given us the information by providing a DC voltage. If that DC
voltage is equal to some value called VR, then we know that external controller is asking for the full
current flow in the TCR. If the external controller is giving
52:17

we are by two to us, then the external controller is asking for half the rated current and so on. From this
information, we need to calculate alpha and then issue firing angle, issue firing signals. So the problem is
how to get alpha from the desired reference current. The relationship between fundamental current and
alpha is a nonlinear one. We need that.

52:47

We know that relationship. We know the relationship as 1 by omega L into 1 minus this one. 1 minus
alpha by 2 pi minus 1 by pi sine alpha. This equation has to be solved to get alpha. This is the problem.
Okay. For every given IL reference, ILF reference in the form of a DC voltage which varies from 0 to 5 or 0
to VR. So for every such value given

53:14

I should be able to calculate alpha first from equation. Which equation? Vm by omega L or V by omega L
but V is 1P, 1 by omega L into this number. How do I know omega L? I know it from the rating. 1 by
omega L will be numerically same as the TCR rating. How to solve the equation and get alpha?

53:42

the method to solve, the strategy to solve the equation is...

53:47

locate this kind of a pulse, the red pulse here, right at the centre of the sine wave. At 90 degree position,
the signal VFT suddenly jumps from zero to some number VR. I have explained what is the meaning of
VR, reference voltage. Suddenly jumps and from there goes down exponentially.

54:14

It is an exponential waveform. But it is expected to be the shape of this function, the shape of this
function we have noted before.
54:25

this shape. Doesn't it look like an exponentially decreasing wave? Okay, it looks like that, but not exactly.
So we are going to approximate that function shape by a suitably constructed exponential discharge,
which starts discharge from Vr every time 90 degree position comes. You need electronics for that. Let us
say that that kind of a thing is available.

54:50

and this discharging pulse goes practically to zero by the time the sine wave crosses zero then remains at
zero till the next 90 degree position

55:03

Let us say that this exponential wave very closely approximate the shape of this function.

55:11

We can manipulate the time constant and exponential and make a kind of curve fitting, right, and closely
match this function. Now, if you intersect the red curve with the control voltage curve, what is this Vct?
Control voltage. What is the role of control voltage? That represents the ILF reference. That is the current
that should be drawn by the inductor, TCR unit.

55:39

that current is converted to a voltage. Conversion rule is ILF required by ILF rated into VR. Why? Because
VR is the voltage which will stand for rated current. So this much voltage is given, that signal is VCT, that
is the reference signal ILF reference. VCT or ILF reference, two names are synonymous.

56:08

control voltage if you want to call it that way or current reference voltage calculated in this manner.

56:18

Now this will intersect this curve. So when you make an intersection of one curve with another curve,
you are solving equality between them. You are setting up an equation and solving it. And that is how
you find alpha. So this is the alpha position, intersection point, provided this curve is exactly same as this
curve. It won't be exactly the same, but approximately the same if you

56:46

fit a proper exponential curve. So at the intersection, maybe I should...

56:56

I should write that this is alpha. This gap is alpha.

57:07

This is how you get the firing angle. So this intersection has to be converted to a rectangular signal.
Electronics will help you to do that. And this can be given to the thyristor for switching. Okay.

57:23

The pulse width for thyristor switching needs to be a small pulse width only, just enough pulse width to
ensure that the thyristor latches up. Because it's an inductive circuit, current won't rise immediately, so
current should rise sufficiently and latching threshold should be exceeded, only then you should
withdraw the gate pulse. Typically 0.5 millisecond, 1 millisecond, etc. should be enough. But there's a
problem in this scheme. The problem is...

57:52

If the terminal voltage or the system voltage to which you have connected this equipment is not 1 pu,
then this strategy will produce a current which is V times I LF required. Why?

58:13

this solution alpha will produce the correct value of current only if the voltage is nominal if the voltage is
not nominal 1pu instead it is vpu then naturally the current will be down in or current will change in that
proportion so if the voltage is greater than 1pu you will get more than ilf required if the voltage is less
than 1pu you will get less than ilf required
58:41

because the current is proportional to voltage, proportional scaling. Therefore, the actual current you
receive is only V into I LF required, V in P U. So if V is 1 P U, you will get I LF required. If V is more than 1 P
U, you will get more. If V is less than 1 P U, you will get less. Well, a partial solution to this problem is
don't keep this constant.

59:10

I mean the peak of VFT, the sudden jump takes it to peak, that peak, don't keep it fixed at VR. You keep it
fixed at VR into V, that is this peak is made proportional to the system voltage. When the system voltage
is 1PU, this will be VR, where VR may be 10 or 5 or whatever it is. But when the system voltage is 0.9,
then it will be 4.5, 0.9 into 5.

59:40

like that in proportion to system voltage which means that you must construct this voltage this obviously
comes from some power supply right? that power supply should be constructed from the system voltage
when the system voltage is 1 pu that power supply should be equal to 5 volt when the system voltage
changes this power supply will change and therefore this height also will change in proportion if you do
that

01:00:09

It's an exponential curve then the alpha will automatically increase The voltage has increased but this
height has gone up therefore alpha increases So when the voltage increases if alpha also increases the
overall current will tend to remain Wherever you want it to remain. I'm not saying that it will reduce the
error completely but Most of the error will be successfully removed by this strategy Okay

01:00:37

Let us see how we will do that, how we will make this peak change in proportion to system voltage, we
will see that soon. But now the problem is if we do that. Now suppose.

01:00:53
Suppose the system voltage has gone down. Therefore, the peak of this wave VFT will automatically
become less than VR.

01:01:06

but the external control system will demand, maybe it will demand for some reason it is demanding full
capacity. How will it demand full capacity from you? By issuing VR. So the external controller which is
issuing this green signal to you, when it wants full capacity it will issue VR to you. But you have made this
peak.

01:01:32

less than Vr because the system voltage is less. You wanted to correct for that. So if the external
controller is asking for full capacity under that circumstance this green line will go above the red curve
and there won't be any intersection. So SCR will not get fired at all. That means the system will go off.
FCTCR will not take any or sorry TCR will not take any current.

01:02:01

leading the active pore, maloperation. We don't want that to happen. We don't ever want this green line
to go above the peak of the red wave. That means we want the green line voltage to saturate at
whatever is the peak voltage here. Otherwise, you will miss a trigger.

01:02:26

So, you will have to automatically saturate the demand coming from the external controller by passing it
through a saturating block, which will ensure that it will always saturate at the peak value of this wave.

01:02:40

that has to be done. Now let's see how to generate this VFT function. The technique is to produce a very
short duration rectangular pulse whose amplitude is decided by the voltage

01:03:04

Okay, we will see how such a DC voltage can be created soon, but right now let's say we have that kind of
a voltage available. Don't take it as product of two voltages and unit volts square and all that. What I
mean is, it's a DC voltage whose value is equal to VR when the system voltage is 1 pu. If the system
voltage is 0.9 pu, then this voltage will be 4.5. If the system voltage is 1.1 pu, this will be 5.5, like that.

01:03:34

The tau is a very small number. Now this rectangular pulse is constructed at the peak of sine wave, 90
degree position. Now I am exciting an RC circuit by this rectangular pulse. And I assume that the time
constant RC is very, very large compared to tau. In that case, I may model this as an impulse, an impulse
of magnitude VrV into tau.

01:04:04

and then I may draw the impulse response ok the impulse response will be vr v into tau p that's the
impulse content by rc e to the power minus t by rc an exponential

01:04:20

not doing the maths you have done circuit theory you know impulse response of RC circuit I am talking
about impulse response of an RC circuit across the capacitor when it is hit by an impulse of magnitude
VRB into tau this portion is the impulse response

01:04:40

I multiply this waveform by a gain block, Rc by tau p, amplifier of gain Rc by tau p, then I will get this
height as Vr into V and that is what I want here. But I want only this portion, the right portion of the
pulse, not the rising portion.

01:05:03

Not only that, I want this peak to register right at 90 degree, which means that I should issue this pulse
slightly before 90 degree so that the falling pulse will start at 90 degree position.

01:05:23

Now what is the time that I have selected? It is 0.1 millisecond. On a basis of 20 millisecond, what angle
will be covered by 0.1 millisecond? Answer is 1.8 degree. So where should I locate this pulse? At 88.2
degrees from the zero crossing. That is, this pulse should start at 88.2 degree.

01:05:50

then it should last for 1.8 degree, then it will be 90 degree position and that is the edge at which this
curve will start falling, right? And therefore, I need a 88.2 degree phase shifting unit to locate that 88.2
degree position, okay?

01:06:17

Now let us assemble all these ideas together and try to explain this diagram. Oh by the way, I am
suggesting a particular internal controller. There is no claim that this internal controller is actually used
by anybody in the world. No. I am just showing how it can be done using analog techniques. But I don't
think nowadays people do anything with analog technique.

01:06:42

If you have a powerful computer, which you will have anyway, to control and monitor and supervise such
a complicated equipment like an FCTCR, definitely you will be using a computer, powerful industrial
computer. Well, if you have a powerful industrial computer, there is no reason why you should meddle
with analog systems anymore. It will all be done by digital calculations. If you can do control by digital,
then why bother about solving that equation? Why don't we simply store a lookup table?

01:07:12

ILF versus alpha lookup table can be consulted and you can take alpha and then issue firing signal. I guess
that is the way it will be getting done nowadays. But then I just want to show how it can be done using
standard components. So the first thing you do is you have a potential transformer stepping down the
grid voltage.

01:07:39

and the potential divider such that the R voltage will come out as exactly Vr V sin omega t. That is when
the grid voltage is 1 pu it will be Vr sin omega t, 5 sin omega t. That is how the potential transformer
ratio and potential divider ratio is arranged. When the grid voltage is 0.9 pu naturally this will become
4.5 volt sin omega t.
01:08:04

Now this sine wave from the grid is full bridge rectified with a capacitor filter. Therefore the DC voltage at
the output of the rectifier will be VVR which is the amplitude of the sine wave. This is how you construct
VVR DC voltage. That DC voltage is given to a switching unit here. The idea is this switch will be closed for
0.1 millisecond while this will be kept open.

01:08:31

So you will be applying this DC voltage for 0.1 millisecond across an RC circuit with the time constant of 1
millisecond. Therefore it is like giving an impulse. And then the exponential waveform is multiplied by RC
by tau p. The need for that was explained. Okay. If you do that, the voltage here will be a decreasing
exponential starting from a height of this number, BBR.

01:09:01

and that is compared with a reference signal the received reference from external controller is available
here so this reference is actually a 0 to VR volt DC voltage 0 to VR or 0 to 5 but we don't we want to
saturate it at whatever is the peak appearing here therefore we use an op-amp

01:09:31

Rail to rail op-amp means it can move from rail to rail which means it can go down to zero and go up to
supply voltage and the supply voltage of that op-amp is this DC voltage. Therefore the output is limited
to zero to VVR volt slightly less than VVR and the voltage peak here is VVR. These points are illustrated in
the waveform here.

01:10:00

So the number 5 waveform, green waveform, will be automatically saturated at VBR by this arrangement
of a CMOS rail-to-rail op-amp in voltage follower configuration. As long as this voltage is below
saturation, it will simply pass it on to this. This is the comparator. This is where the comparison is taking
place. Comparator output is used to construct the trigger signal for the resistors.

01:10:26
T1 is the thyristor which will work in the positive half cycle, T2 is the thyristor which will work in the
negative half cycle. Now let's see how the processing happens. The sine wave that we have here, the
step down version of the grid voltage, is phase shifted by 88.2 degree delay. 1.8 degree is given for 0.1
millisecond width pulse. So at 88.2 degrees...

01:10:54

from the zero crossing of this iron wave, you will have a zero crossing here. That zero crossing is caught
by a zero crossing detector. So let us see the waveform 1. I am showing the positive half cycle events.
Positive half cycle. 90 degree position. 88.2 degree position. 1.8 degree gap. So the second waveform,
which is a zero crossing detector output, will go high.

01:11:24

That is this zero crossing point will be shifted to this point. So this zero crossing detector will go high
there. And then you have a monostable which will trigger on rising edge. So the monostable output will
be a pulse of 0.1 millisecond. The height of monostable pulse will depend upon what is the power supply
voltage you are giving. You may generate a regulated power supply from this.

01:11:51

and you may be giving that whatever it is the height doesn't matter for that waveform this monostable
output is passed on through an R gate to switch S1 so switch S1 will be closed by that electronic switch
and complement of that is given to switch S2 so whenever S1 is closed S2 will be open and when S1
becomes open S2 will be closed

01:12:17

Because for an RC circuit to discharge, it should be shorted, right? That is why. So essentially, S1 and S2
will simulate an impulse application. Now, what about this line? Well, this line is for the negative half
cycle. So I'm just following the positive half cycle line. Right?

01:12:37

So S1 is closed for 0.1 millisecond, so the RC circuit is charged and then this is opened and this is closed,
so it discharges and you have the waveform which is given here. Okay, fourth point you have this
waveform and that is compared with fifth point voltage, reference voltage indicating the required
amount of reactive current. As a result of comparison, comparator output goes high at this edge. Okay.

01:13:06

and a rising edge triggered monostable works there. Typically the width is 0.5 to 1 millisecond. The width
is sufficient width to ensure that SCR will latch or thyristor will latch. Now this signal is passed on to T1
provided you are on the positive half cycle. Otherwise it will be passed on to T2 in the negative half
cycle. So to see whether it is positive half cycle, you are taking this signal. Okay.

01:13:35

ending. This will work only in the positive half cycle and this will work only in the negative half cycle. So
T1 is channelizing. I don't have space here otherwise I could have shown the negative half cycle but it is
similar. So this way this is one viable technically feasible way of controlling the internal control of a
FCTCR.

01:13:59

This is something which we can use in a lab easily in case you are doing some experiment or some
project. But of course, if you are part of a design engineering team in a big power industry, this won't be
the way you do it. Nowadays, you don't touch any analog components in industry, except when it is
unavoidable. Things are done in digital mode and in computational mode.

01:14:25

Okay, so with this we have come to the end of the topic FCTCR. The next lecture on what we'll be taking
up another static war generator, okay. Tyroster switched capacitor and Tyroster controlled capacitor, et
cetera.