S282 - 1.

2 The Working Sun page 1 of 8

S282 - Astronomy

Book 1 - The Sun and Stars

2. The Working Sun
2.1. Introduction.

Solar models are constructed to try to explain the way the Sun works
internals eg., how it is possible for it to continually give out so much
energy without cooling down. All models are based on our
understanding of physics and give variations for temperature, pressure
and density throughout the radius of the Sun.

Models predict that temperature, pressure and density all change very
rapidly near the photosphere. The is particularly important when
considering convection within the Sun, since this form of energy transfer
requires a large enough temperature gradient to drive it.

2.2. The internal composition of the Sun.

The elemental composition is discussed with three categories : hydrogen, helium and ‘the rest’ (referred
to as heavy elements and sometimes as metallicity).

mass of hydrogen
mass fraction of hydrogen = X = sample mass

mass of helium
mass fraction of helium = Y = sample mass

mass of heavy elements

mass fraction of heavy elements = Z = sample mass

The nuclear processes that power the Sun convert hydrogen into helium, hence X and Y change with
time, while Z ( 2 mass%) is assumed to remain constant throughout the Sun. Solar models need to take
these changes (with time) into account. For example, one model has, for the majority of the Sun, X =
73%, Y = 25% and Z = 2%. Within the central 30% of its radius however, the percentage of helium is
increased at the expense of hydrogen. Also note that the Sun is very hot and as such, the material is in the
form of a plasma – a gas of ionised particles.

The solar models predict that the amount of hydrogen in the core is around 50% of what it would have
been when the Sun was formed – indicating the Sun is half way through its life.

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2.3. The Sun’s Fusion.
2.3.1. Background. Fusion is the name of the process whereby nuclei merge together to form heavier
nuclei. In order to do this, the nuclei must get very close to each other and this is problem because they
are ions and so, are electrically repelled from each other – this is why a high temperature is needed – to
give them enough kinetic energy so that two approaching nuclei, although slowing down, will be able to
reach each other.

Why fusion actually happens is unknown to us – our explanation is that they do this in order to reduce
their potential energy. This seems to be a law of the universe – everything will try to have as small a
potential energy as possible. Like all the law of the universe (or, laws of physics), they are based on
observation and as such, cannot be proven. They are considered to be correct until some observation
shows us they are not.

A graph can be plotted of the potential energy against mass number for all the stable nuclei that exist and
we see that Iron-56 (Fe-56 or 56
26Fe) is the most stable nucleus. This is why all nuclei lighter than Fe-56

would like to become heavier (through fusion) and all nuclei heavier than Fe-56 would like to become
lighter (through fission).

Since the average speed of particles is tied to the temperature, then fusion can only occur when the
temperature is higher enough - the location of the nuclear processes is at the hottest (central) part of the
Sun, defined as the solar core. Since the nuclear reaction rates are very sensitive to temperature, the outer
limit of the core size is sharply defined.

The fusion which occurs in the core of the Sun is due to hydrogen. This is called
2.3.2. Hydrogen Burning.
hydrogen burning and occurs for two reasons:

 The majority of the material in the core is hydrogen.

 The electric repulsion between ions increases with their charge. Since the nucleus of a
hydrogen atom if a single proton, this has the smallest charge and therefore, the smallest
amount of electric repulsion. For helium to fuse (or burn) the repulsion will be greater and
so, a higher temperature will be needed.

Hydrogen burning can happen in a number of different

ways. In the Sun, the ppI chain dominates (although the
ppII and ppIII chains also occur). The basic equation for
the chain is given below.

4 11H  42He + 2e+ + 2 e + 2

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The two positrons annihilate with electrons to produce more rays.

Note:
e+ : Positrons are the anti-matter of electrons. They have very similar properties but their charge is
opposite to the electron. If matter and anti-matter meet, they annihilate – their mass-energy is changed
into other forms – usually electromagnetic ().
e : Neutrinos are particles which have a very small mass (so are largely unaffected by gravity) and no
charge (so are unaffected by the electric force). As such, they are difficult to interact with. There are
three kinds
 Electron neutrinos, e
 Muon neutrinos, 
 Tauon neutrinos, 
and they are able to change themselves from one type into another.
 : Gamma rays are high-frequency (low wavelength) electromagnetic energy.

The  rays are the source of most of the Sun’s electromagnetic radiation.

Note : If initial and final kinetic energies are the same (ie., KE = 0), the energy of the two neutrinos is
neglected and the two positrons are assumed to collide with two electrons producing complete
annihilation (with the further release of -rays), the energy released (in the form of  -rays) is given by

Resultant Energy = (mass energy)initial - (mass energy)final positron energy

+ annihilation

 4.4 x 10-12 J  1.8 x 1019 kg of 11H per year

Note that the neutrinos carry about 2% of the energy released in the ppI chain.

The ppI -rays can not easily reach the Sun's surface.
2.4. Energy Transport from the Core to the Surface.
Since photons take part in the electromagnetic force and the solar density (of ions) is high, significant
scattering/absorption - re-emission occurs (tending to spread the energy through less energetic photons) -
thermalisation. Movement then, tends to
be via a random walk. In this way, it is
estimated to take about a million years
(rather than 2.3 s for the neutrinos) to
travel through the solar radius.

The random walk produces local thermal

equilibrium and so, the energy takes on the
shape of a black body curve – ie., moving
to higher wavelengths as you move
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outwards from the core.

Detailed calculations indicate that energy transfer for the first 70% of the distance from core to
photosphere is via radiation – due to the low thermal gradient. The final 30% is largely due to
convection.

The outermost convection cells account for the solar

granulation. Super-granulation is predicted beneath the
layers (evidence coming from magnetic field
measurements).

The Sun's core is not convective. This is because the

temperature gradient is not high enough. The average
solar temperature gradient is

T 1.5 x 107 - 6000

r =  10-2 Km-1 = 10 Kkm-1
1.4 x 109

In fact, the predicted gradient through the Sun indicates that much of the temperature gradient occurs
near, and through, the photosphere - the temperature gradient through the core region is
approximately 10-5 Kkm-1. This means that the core remains effectively separate from the outer material.

2.5. The Solar interior.

The solar surface is known to oscillate. It has been shown that the
2.5.1. Solar oscillations (Helioseismology).
oscillations are made of many simple global oscillations (or 'modes') which have order and the
superposition of these simple oscillations produces the net surface movement. Since the global
oscillations may go deep into the solar interior, they are a method of investigating this region.

Two interesting results of extended observation of the solar oscillations are:

 Measurements of the speed of sound through the solar interior allow us to predict
temperature and this is in good agreement with the predictions of solar models.
 Differential rotation of the Sun seems to occur only in the convective part (ie., the outer
30%). The radiative zone seems to rotate more like a solid.

2.5.2. Solar neutrinos.The electron-type neutrinos (created in the ppI chain) can easily escape from the
solar interior. This is because, unlike photons, neutrinos do not feel the electromagnetic force. They
react via the 'weak' force and this has little significance on their ability to escape from the solar interior.
Hence, monitoring these particles provides direct tests of the present nuclear reaction rates.
Unfortunately, the low interaction rate makes them hard to detect.

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Measurements have taken place at various labs throughout the world and indicate that reaction rates are
similar to those predicted by solar models.

The results have also shown that neutrinos can change type as they move from the Sun to the Earth. The
importance of this result is that it means that neutrinos must be travelling at a speed less than (although
close to) the speed of light and therefore have mass (although it is very small).

2.6. Solar Activity

2.6.1. Background. The activity of the Sun seems to be an indication of the
magnetic state of the Sun. The Sun produces a magnetic field because it is a
moving plasma. At low activity, the field starts as a simple dipole field (like that
of a bar magnet). Differential rotation makes the magnetic field lines within the
photosphere to wind up to themselves and this process creates magnetic field
changes which result in the plasma becoming more violent – the Sun becomes more active. Eventually,
this process produces another simple dipole field and the Sun is quiet again.

This process switches the dipole field around and as such, it takes two such
changes to get back to the original state – this makes the 11 year activity cycle
actually, a 22 year one.

Sunspots occur as a result of magnetic fields

2.6.1. Sunspots and active regions.
leaving the photosphere with a greater strength than normal. There is a
suggestion that the high magnetic field suppresses convection and this creates a
cooler region. Every sunspot is either North (as in the diagram) or South,
indicating the direction of the magnetic field coming out of the photosphere.

Magnetic field lines must be continuous and as such, sunspots are

usually formed in North-South pairs, with the magnetic field lines
breaking free of the photosphere plasma and looping between them.

The winding of the magnetic field lines slowly pulls them towards
the equator and this is seen in Sunspot activity, which starts at high
latitudes and slowly move towards the equator.

These active regions seem to be created by magnetic field variations in the

Faculae and Plages.
photosphere (Faculae) and the above chromosphere (Plages). Plages occur directly above Faculae and
appear before Sunspots and continue after the Sunspot has disappeared.

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Filaments and Prominences. These terms mean the same thing – a strand of plasma
held above the photosphere by magnetic field lines. They occur at quiet times
(lasting for weeks or months) and active times (lasting for hours or days).

Coronal Loops.These occur in active regions and are extended magnetic field loops (stretching into the
corona) which confine a plasma, heating it above 106 K. The temperature is sufficient for the material to
give out UV and x-rays.

Flares are rapid (a few minutes) bursts of electromagnetic radiation, often coming from
2.6.2. Solar Flares.
between sunspot pairs. The production usually takes the following form:

 Rapid and short lived burst of high energy (hard) x-rays

and some microwave output. This output comes from
near the photosphere when plasma, initially held by the
magnetic field, rapidly descends to the photosphere.
The output comes as the plasma hits the photosphere.

This is then followed by

 Emission of lower energy (soft) x-rays and UV rays. These emission are from above the
photosphere and slowly die away.

The mechanism for generating a solar flare is possible magnetic reconnection. One
possible explanation is that an extended magnetic loop has its field lines forced
close together (possibly by a fast moving plasma jet). When magnet field lines are
close together (which means the strength is high) and running in opposite directions,
it will cause the plasma to flow between the lines and heat up. It is also possible for
the lines to break and reconnect. Once this happens, the field lines will behave like
elastic bands and two things happen:

 The lower part of the loop will pull down towards the photosphere
rapidly, pulling any plasma with it. This will produce the hard x-ray
emission.

 The upper part of the loop will become self-contained and pull
together, moving away from the photosphere. As this happens, any
plasma caught inside will emit the soft x-rays and UV.

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CMEs are violent outflows of coronal plasma. They are often seen as
2.6.3. Coronal Mass Ejections (CME).
bubbles emerging from the corona with sizes up to 10R. They can occur at any time but are more
frequent at times of high activity (up to about 3 CMEs per day).

CMEs are possibly a result of the same form of magnetic reconnection which may explain solar flares.

The 22 year solar cycle is thought to (possibly) be due to the differential rotation of
2.6.4. The Solar Cycle.
the plasma in the convective part of the Sun. The magnetic field of the Sun starts as a simple dipole field
and the rotation winds the magnetic field lines around the Sun. As this happens, field lines having
opposite directions are brought closer together.

Magnetic field strength is shown by field lines being close together. As such, the rotation increases the
magnetic field in both hemispheres. This produces loops of magnetic lines which emerge from the
photosphere and form active regions. As winding continues, these active regions move towards the
equator and magnetic reconnection occurs which results in the lines reconfiguring to produce another
simple dipole field.

Two such processes (11 years each) results in one complete (22 year) cycle.

2.7. The Sun in space.

There is a continuous outflow of material from the Sun – the solar wing. This seems to be an outflowing
of high-pressure material from the corona, which then is replenished from the photosphere and
chromosphere.

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The magnetic field of the earth protects us from this solar wind by channeling the plasma around the
Earth. The interaction between the plasma (with its magnetic field) and the Earth’s magnetic field
distorts the magnetosphere producing a bow shock upstream and a magnetic tail downstream.

This produces the aurorae, geomagnetic disturbances and geomagnetic storms (especially at active times
when CMEs occur).

The pressure exerted by the solar wind decreases with distance from the Sun. Eventually, this balances
the low pressure of the interstellar medium (ISM) – defining the Sun’s influence on its surroundings – the
heliosphere. If the Sun is moving through the ISM, then the heliosphere will also be distorted in a similar
way to the Earth’s magnetosphere but this will be a distortion in pressure:

Termination Shock : The solar wind slows down significantly

under the influence of the ISM pressure.

Heliopause : The boundary defining the heliosphere.

Bow shock : A build up of gas at the front edge of the

heliopause.

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Background Science
Forms of energy. There are two basic forms of energy called kinetic energy and potential energy.
Kinetic energy : This is associated with the motion of an object. As such, it tends to be a very obvious
form of energy – if it moves it has kinetic energy (given by KE = ½mv2), if it is stationary, its kinetic
energy is zero.

Potential energy : This is less obvious and as such, is sometimes referred to as hidden or stored energy. It
is energy associated with some interaction or force. The obvious types of potential energy are:
 Gravitational potential energy
 Electrical potential energy
 Chemical potential energy

Another type of potential energy is very important in understanding fusion in stars. Mass is a form of
potential energy. Like all forms of energy, it obeys the Law of Conservation of Energy which states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another. This is a strange way of
thinking about mass but does allow an easy explanation of what happens when matter and anti-matter
meet – they annihilate, usually producing electromagnetic energy (ie., light). This is simply mass
potential energy changing from one form into another.

Conservation laws
The best known conservation law is that of 'total energy' ie

"The total energy of an isolated system is a constant"

This implies that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another (it also
implies that perpetual motion is not possible).

There are other conservation laws however. Like total energy, they cannot be proven, they are accepted
until shown to be false and their belief is based on our understanding of the world around us.

The main conservation laws to be aware of for S282 are:

 Conservation of total energy.

 Conservation of linear momentum.
 Conservation of angular momentum.
 Conservation of Baryon Number.

Energy transfer - The three mechanisms for energy transfer are :

Radiation - energy transmitted via waves or streams of particles - may transmit through a vacuum.
Conduction - energy transfer via particle collisions although no bulk movement of the medium occurs.

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Convection - energy transfer in a fluid (ie., liquid, gas or plasma) existing within a gravitational field. This occurs
via bulk movement (ie., convection currents) within the medium. A sufficiently high temperature gradient is
needed.

Nuclear Reactions
Einstein's energy equation indicates to us that 'mass' is a form of energy via  = mc2

If we look at the nuclear stability as a function of mass number we have

56
So it is seen that in general, when nuclei move towards 26
Fe, their stability increases as their rest energy
decreases.

The energy released in a specific reaction depends on the mass energies of the reactants eg.,

12 4 16
6
C + 2
He ---------> 8
O + 

1.7904 x 10-9 + 5.9720 x 10-10 ---------> 2.3865 x 10-9 + 

therefore the energy released,  = 1.1 x 10-12 J <------- gamma radiation

(assuming the initial and final kinetic energies are the same).

In order for a nuclear reaction to occur, the reactants have to approach very close to each other,
overcoming the Coulomb repulsive force given by

A(Z1e)(Z2e)
F = r2

This requires the temperature to be very high so that the reactants kinetic energy is high. Since this
repulsion is greater for larger Z, higher temperatures are needed for larger nuclei to react. As such,
hydrogen fusion to helium (11H + 11H having the smallest repulsion) tends to occur before other nuclear
possibilities.

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Magnetic Fields
Magnetic field lines are a way of showing the direction and strength of
magnetic forces. The strength of the field may be defined as the number of
magnetic field lines cross unit area ie., the density of the lines. As such, a
strong field is show with lines which are close together and a weak one has
them far apart.

Magnetic field lines can often be used to explain magnetic effects by

considering them as behaving like elastic bands – they will try to reduce their
length by pulling together. Also, it should be noted that, unlike electric field
lines (which start and terminate on charges), magnetic field lines do not have
a beginning and end, they are continuous loops.

Dr John A Chilton