8 Physics SEM-2 Textbook

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Physical Science
Physical Science
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Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh
Semester - 2
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State Council of Educational Research & Training

Andhra Pradesh
https://amaravathiteacher.com
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Class - VIII, Semester - 2
Text Book Development Committee
Sri. S. Suresh Kumar IAS

Commissioner of School Education & State Project Director,
Samagra Shiksha AP, Amaravati.
Smt. Vetriselvi. K IAS

Special Officer, English Medium Project, O/o CSE, AP, Amaravati.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy MA., B.Ed., Ph.D.

Director - SCERT, AP, Amaravati.
Sri. K. Ravindranath Reddy MA., B.Ed.

Director - Government Textbook Press, AP, Amaravati.
Programme Co-ordinators
Dr. G. Kesava Reddy Smt. V. Swarnalatha
Prof. C&T, SCERT, AP Lecturer, C&T, SCERT, AP
Subject Co-ordinator
Dr. G. Kesava Reddy
Prof. C&T, SCERT, AP
Asst. Subject Co-ordinator

Dr. G. R. Bhagyasri
Faculty, SCERT-AP
Technical Co-ordinator
Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar
Lecturer, SCERT-AP
Published by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati.
© Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
First Published 2022

New Impression - 2023
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be

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transmitted, in any form or by any means
without the prior permission in writing of the
publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any
form of binding or cover other than that in
which it is published and without a similar
condition including this condition being
imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copyright holder of this book is the
Commissioner of School Education,
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.
This book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. SS Maplitho

Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card
Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh
Printed in India
at the A.P. Govt. Text Book Press
Amaravati
Andhra Pradesh
Editors for Translation

Dr. Nagasuri Venugopal Dr. V. Saleem Basha Smt. G. Sudha Lakshmi
Retd Director, All India Radio, Principal, Govt. Degree College, Lecturer, SCERT, AP
Hyderabad. Baruva, Srikakulam Dist.
Translators
Sri N. Mahendra Reddy, Sri Koppisetti Venkat Rao,
School Assistant (PS) ZPHS, Thangedukunta, School Assistant (PS) SDRSA ZPHS, Tatiparthi,
Obuladevaracheruvu (M), Anantapuramu Dist. East Godavari Dist.
Smt. S.V.S.L Poornima, Sri Vemula Rama Mohana Rao,
School Assistant (PS) ZPHS, Murapaka, School Assistant (PS) ZPHS,Viyyampeta
Laveru (M), Srikakulam Dist.
Kothavalasa (M), Vizianagaram Dist.
Sri Pavani Bhanu Chandra Murthy,
Dr. Syed Zulfiqar Ali Ahamed,
School Assistant (PS) ARMHS, Perala chirala
School Assistant (PS) ZPHS, Paturu,
Municipality, Bapatla Dist.
Kovur (M), SPSR Nellore Dist.
Sri Adusumalli Ravi Kumar,
Smt. Kaki Swarnalatha,
School Assistant (PS) ZPHS,Pusuluru, Guntur Dist.
School Assistant (PS) ZPHS, Edumudi,
Sri Ravinaik Bhukya, Nagulupalapadu (M), Prakasam Dist.
Principal, AP Model School, Vipparlareddypalem,
Smt. B. Purnima,
Rompicherla (M), Palnadu Dist.
School Assistant (PS) ZPHS, Perampeta,
Sri H.M. Rayis Ahamad, West Godavari Dist.
PGT (PS), MJPAPBCWRS Kodumuru (M),
Kurnool Dist. Sri K.O.V.S.S.N.R.Subramanyam,
School Assistant (PS), ZPHS, Malicherla,
Sri D.Venkata Subba Naidu,
Vizianagaram (M), Vizianagaram Dist.
School Assistant (PS), ZPHS, Proddatur (M),
YSR Kadapa Dist. Dr. Settem Anjaneyulu,
School Assistant (PS), SRR ZPHS, Masapeta,
Sri Mallimoggala Subbayya,
Rayachoty (M), Annamaiah Dist.
School Assistant (PS), GPR ZPHS, Bommuru,
Rajamahendravaram, East Godavari Dist. Sri Malla. Seshagiri Rao,
PGT (PS), Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Gurukulam,
Smt. Madhavi Devarakonda,
Bhamini, Manyam Dist.
PGT PS, MJPAPBCWR School & Junior
College, Chilmathur (M), Puttaparthi Dist. Smt. Kondu Sudharani,
Technical Assistant, SGT, MPPS, Ketagudipi,
Dr. M. Ravi Kiran,
Tarlupadu (M), Prakasam Dist.
SA (PS), MPUPS, Vempalli, YSR Dist.
Designing & Page Layout : Stock Assortment, Bapatla.
Textbook Development Committee

(NCER T)
C HAIRPERSON, A DVISORY G ROUP F OR T EXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND M ATH -
EMATICS
J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
C HIEF A DVISOR
V.B. Bhatia, Professor (Retd.) (Physics), Delhi University, Delhi
M EMBERS
Bharati Sarkar, Reader (Retd.) (Zoology), Maitreyi College, Delhi University, Delhi
C. V. Shimray, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics,
(DESM), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, Department of Education, SPM College, Delhi
University, Delhi
H.C. Jain, Principal, (Retd.) Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
Harsh Kumari, Headmistress, CIE Experimental Basic School, Department of
Education, Delhi University, Delhi
J. S. Gill, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, Delhi
Lalita S. Kumar, Reader (Chemistry), School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU), Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
P.S. Yadava, Professor, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal
Puranchand, Professor and Joint Director (Retd.), Central Institute of
Educational Technology (CIET), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
R. Joshi, Lecturer (SG), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rachna Garg, Lecturer, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET),
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rashmi Sharma, Lecturer, North-East Regional Institute of Education, Shillong
R.K. Parashar, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneshwar
Ruchi Verma, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Shashi Prabha, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Sunila Masih, Teacher, Mitra GHS School, Suhagpur, P.O. Hoshangabad,
Madhya Pradesh
M EMBER - COORDINATOR
R. S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must
be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish
learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and
community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement
this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly
further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on
Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take
to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and
questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed
textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility
in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the
required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching
and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at
school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have
tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at
different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups and activities requiring
hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard
work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the
Chairperson of the advisory group in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the
Chief Advisor for this book, Professor V.B. Bhatia for guiding the work of this committee. Several
teachers contributed to the development of this textbook. We are grateful to their principals for
making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to
the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary
and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of
Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of
its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
30 November 2007 Research and Training
Foreword
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has unleashed a new era in school education by
introducing extensive curricular reforms from the academic year 2020-21. The
Government has taken up curricular reforms intending to enhance the learning
outcomes of the children with focus on building solid foundational learning and to
build up an environment conducive for an effective teaching-learning process. To achieve
this objective, The Government of A.P has adopted NCERT curriculum from Class 8th to
reach the global standards.
As a part of curriculum reforms the NCERT Text book has been translated into
telugu and printed as bilingual text books for the convenience of the students. To enrich
the content of the subject QR codes are incorporated in the beginning of each lesson to
enable learning outside the classroom. In this textbook, lessons are prepared based on
the themes like Materials, Moving things, How things work, People and ideas, Natural
Phenomena and Natural resources are incorporated under Physical Science. In order
to reinforce the concepts, several projects and activities are given to inculcate scientific
temperament. Each lesson is provided with eye catching illustrations to engage the
children. The key vocabulary of the lessons are included under “Key Words” and the
salient features of the lessons are given under the title "What you have learnt" for the
review of the important concepts. Questions are framed for each lesson to recapitulate
the conceptual understanding and to achieve competencies required for project works,
drawings and model making under “Exercises”. An effort has been made to relate the
scientific concepts with the real-life events thereby developing and promoting scientific
temperament in “Extended Learning - Activities and Projects”.
We are grateful to Honourable Chief Minister, Government of Andhra Pradesh,
Sri Y.S. Jagan Mohan Reddy for being our source of inspiration to carry out this extensive
reform in the education department. We extend our gratitude to Hon'ble Minister for
Education, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Sri Botcha Satyanarayana for striving
towards qualitative education. Our special thanks to Sri Budithi Rajsekhar IAS, Special
Chief Secretary to Government, School Education Department, Andhra Pradesh and
Sri S. Suresh Kumar, IAS, Commissioner of School Education and State Project Director,
Samagra Shiksha, Andhra Pradesh, Smt. Vetriselvi.K, IAS, Special officer, English
medium Project, Andhra Pradesh for their constant motivation and guidance.
We convey our special thanks to the NCERT for their cooperation and assistance
in adopting their curriculum. We also thank our co-ordinators, editors, translators
and layout designers for their contribution in the development of this textbook. We
invite constructive feedback from the teachers and the parents in further refinement
of the textbook.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy

Director
SCERT – Andhra Pradesh
Preface
This book is the outcome of the efforts of the textbook development committee
appointed by the NCER T. The committee met a few times to interact with one
another to improve the draft. Then there was a review meeting in which many experts and practicing
school teachers were invited to review the draft and suggest improvements.
By and large we have stuck to the format of the Class VII book. By now famous characters,
Boojho and Paheli, have been used to make the text interactive. Attempt has been made to recall
children’s own experiences and build concepts around them. This is designed to connect science
that they study in the school with their everyday life.
Many activities have been suggested to clarify concepts. Some of these activities are so simple
that children can perform them on their own. The requirement of the apparatus required for the
activities is minimal. We performed all the activities ourselves to ensure that there was no difficulty
in performing them in the school situation. The activities should also help children in developing
skills such as presentation of data in tabular and graphical forms, reasoning and drawing inference
from the given data.
The language of the book has been kept as simple as possible. A large number of photographs,
illustrations, cartoons, etc. have been included to make the book attractive. To help teachers evaluate
children effectively, a large number of exercises have been given at the end of each chapter. The
teachers are encouraged to frame additional exercises to test children’s understanding. Some
challenging exercises have also been devised for those children who would like to appear for the
National Talent Search Examination conducted by the NCERT.
We are conscious of the fact that there is a paucity of additional reading material for children.
We have tried to address this problem by providing non-evaluative boxes boxes. These boxes, in light
orange, contain additional information, anecdotes, stories, strange facts and other such interesting
materials.
We all know that children are mischievous and playful by nature. Therefore, in order to prevent
any untoward incident during the performance of the activities in the school or outside, necessary
cautions, in magenta, have been inserted at various places in the book.
To prepare children to assume their roles as responsible citizens of tomorrow, attempt has been
made to sensitise them to the issues concerning gender, religion, environment, health and hygiene,
water scarcity and energy conservation. We have sought to weave into the text the value of cooperation
and the importance of peer learning.
An important feature of the book is what we call Extended Learning.
Learning These are totally non-
evaluative
evaluative, and purely voluntary activities and projects. Some of the projects in this section have
been designed to enhance children’s interaction with the experts, teachers, even parents, and society
at large. The children are required to collect information of various kinds and draw conclusions of
their own.
My request to teachers and parents is to use the book in the spirit in which it has been written.
Encourage children to perform activities and learn by doing, rather than by rote. You can supplement,
or even replace, the activities given here. If you feel that you have better alternatives, especially with
your local/regional flavour, please write to us so that these activities could be used in the future
editions of the book.
We have been able to include only a small subset of children’s experiences. You have a better
knowledge of their experiences because you are in touch with them. Use them to illustrate the
concepts being taught. Above all, please do not stifle children’s natural curiosity. Encourage them
to ask questions, even if sometimes you feel uncomfortable. If you do not know the answer to a
question on the spot, do not feel embarrassed. You can promise them to find the answer and deal
with it later. Make a genuine attempt to get the answer from whatever resources are within your
reach, such as senior school or college teachers, experts, libraries, internet etc. If, inspite of your
efforts, you cannot get the answer to some question, you could write to NCERT.
I must thank the NCERT for enabling us to talk to children through the medium of this book.
Every member of the NCERT has been courteous and helpful to us.
In the end, I must express my gratitude to the members of the Editing Team, who worked tirelessly
to help me bring the book to the present form. If you and your students find this book useful and
enjoy teaching/learning science through this book, the Editing Team and I shall consider ourselves
well-rewarded.
V.B. BHATIA, Chief Advisor, Textbook Development Committee
Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the individuals and
organisations involved in the development of this book. The Council
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics for
reviewing and refining the manuscript of this book: K.C. Sharma, Reader
(Physics), Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer; Charu Verma, Lecturer
(Science), DIET, Pitampura, Delhi; Geeta Bajaj, TGT (Science), K.V. No. 3,
Delhi Cantt., New Delhi; K.D. Sharma, TGT (Science), R.P.V.V. Civil Lines,
Delhi; Manohar Lal Patel, Teacher, Govt. R.N.A. Higher Secondary School,
Pipariya, Madhya Pradesh; Reeta Sharma, Reader (Botany), Regional
Institute of Education, Bhopal; Kamal Deep Peter, OEI, Oracle India,
Bangalore; Puneeta Sharma, TGT (Science), L.D. Jain Girls Senior
Secondary School, Sadar Bazar, Delhi; M.C. Das, Teacher (Science), Govt.
Secondary School, Zoom, West Sikkim; Deepti Kohli, P.D. Public School,
Shalimar Bagh, Delhi; Sulekha Chandra, Reader (Chemistry), Zakir Husain
College, Delhi University, Delhi; R.S. Tomar, TGT (Science), J.N.V. Mothuka,
Faridabad (Haryana); Anjali Khirwadkar, Lecturer, Department of
Education, M.S. University, Baroda (Gujrat); Suresh Chand, TGT (Science),
J.N.V. Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh; Satheesh H.L., TGT (Science),
Demonstration School, Regional Institute of Education, Mysore; Simminder
Kaur Thukral, NIIT, Kalkaji, New Delhi; M.M. Kapoor, Professor (Retd.)
(Chemistry), Delhi University, Delhi; Sarita Kumar, Reader (Zoology),
Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi University, Delhi. The contributions
of Pushplata Verma, R.R. Koireng, Pramila Tanvar and Ashish K.
Srivastava, Assistant Professors, are acknowledged for being a part of
the review of this textbook.
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable suggestions received
from the National Monitoring Committee in the development of the
manuscript of this textbook.
The dynamic leadership of Professor Hukum Singh, Head, DESM, for
providing guidance at different stages of development of the textbook and
extending infrastructure facilities is highly acknowledged. Special thanks
are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor and Shashi Chadha, Assistant Editor
for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor,
Incharge Computer Station, Inder Kumar, DTP Operator; K.T. Chitralekha,
Copy Editor and Ritu Jha, Proof Reader.
The contributions of APC-office, administration of DESM, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also acknowledged.
A Note for the Students

The team of Paheli and Boojho will be with you as you journey through this
textbook. They love to ask questions. All kinds of questions come to their
minds and they collect them in their sacks. Sometimes, they may share some
of the questions with you, as you read through the chapters.
Paheli and Boojho are also on the lookout for answers to many
questions — sometimes the questions seem answered after they discuss them
with each other, sometimes through discussions with other classmates, teachers
or their parents. Answers to some questions do not seem available even after
all these. They might need to experiment on their own, read books in the library,
send questions to scientists. Just dig and dig and dig into all possibilities and
see if the questions can be answered. Perhaps, they would carry some of the
unanswered questions in their sacks to higher classes.
What will really thrill them would be your adding questions to their sacks
or answers to their questions. Sometimes, activities are suggested in the
textbook, results or findings of these by different groups of students would be
of interest to other students and teachers. You can complete the suggested
activities and send your results or findings to Paheli and Boojho. Do keep in
mind that activities that involve using blades, scissors or fire need to be done
strictly under the care of your teachers. Stick to the precautions given and
then enjoy doing all the suggested activities. Mind, the book will not be able to
help you much, if the activities are not completed!
We would like to advise you that you must make observations yourself
and record whatever results you get. Keen and true observations are necessary
for exploring any subject of study. For some reason your results may turn out
to be different from those of your classmates. Do not worry. Try to find out the
reason for these results instead of disregarding them. Do not ever copy results
from your classmate.
You can send your feedback for Paheli and Boojho at:
To
The Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics,
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110016
NATIONAL ANTHEM C≤rj·T ^‘·+

Jana gana mana adhinayaka jaya he »q>∑DeTq n~ÛHêj·Tø£ »j·TùV≤!
Bharata bhagya vidhata uÛ≤s¡‘· uÛ≤>∑´$<Ûë‘ê!
Panjaba Sindhu Gujarata Maratha |ü+C≤ã, dæ+<ÛäT, >∑T»sê‘·, eTsêsƒê,
Dravida Utkala Banga Á<ë$&É, ñ‘·ÿfi¯, e+>±!
Vindhya Himachala Yamuna Ganga $+<Ûä´, Væ≤e÷#·\, j·TeTTHê, >∑+>±!
uchchala jaladhi taranga ñ#·Ã\ »\~Û ‘·s¡+>±!
Tava Subha name jage, tave subha asisa ‘·e X¯óuÛÑHêy˚T C≤π>!
mage,
‘·e X¯óuÛÑ Ä•wü e÷"π>
gahe tava jaya gatha.
>±ùV≤ ‘·e »j·T>±<∏ë!
Jana gana mangala dayaka jaya he
»q>∑D eT+>∑fi¯<ëj·Tø£ »j·TùV≤!
Bharata bhagya vidhata.
uÛ≤s¡‘· uÛ≤>∑´ $<Ûë‘ê!
Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he,
»j·TùV≤! »j·TùV≤! »j·TùV≤!
jaya jaya jaya jaya he.
»j·T »j·T »j·T »j·TùV≤!!
`Rabindranath Tagore ` s¡M+Á<Hä ê<∏é sƒê>∑÷sY
PLEDGE Á|ü‹»„
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.
- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao
uÛ≤s¡‘<· X˚ +¯ Hê e÷‘·èuÛ÷Ñ $T. uÛ≤s¡rj·TT\+<äs÷ ¡ Hê dü¨<äsT¡ \T.
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dü+|ü<ä Hê≈£î >∑s«¡ ø±s¡D+. BìøÏ ns¡Ω‘· bı+<ä&Üì¬ø’ düs«¡ <ë H˚qT ø£èwæ #˚kÕÔqT.
Hê ‘·*¢<ä+Á&ÉT*ï, ñbÕ<Ûë´j·TT*ï, ô|<ä›\+<ä]ï >ös¡$kÕÔqT. Á|ü‹yê]‘√qT eTsê´<ä>±
q&ÉT#·Tø=+{≤qT. »+‘·Te⁄\|ü≥¢ <äjT· ‘√ ñ+{≤qT.
Hê <˚X¯+|ü≥¢, Hê Á|ü»\|ü≥¢ ùdyêìs¡‹‘√ ñ+{≤qì Á|ü‹»„ #˚düTÔHêïqT.
yê] XÁ j
‚ ÷
Ó _Ûeè<äT˝∆ Ò Hê Äq+<ëìøÏ eT÷˝+.
` ô|’&çeTÁ] yÓ+ø£≥düTu≤“sêe⁄
CONTENTS Chapter 7
L IGHT
ø±+‹
2
Chapter 8
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 34
$<äT´‘Y Á|üyêVü≤+ ` s¡kÕj·Tq |òü*‘·+
Chapter 9
S OME N ATURAL P HENOMENA 58
ø=ìï düVü≤» <äè–«wüj·÷\T
Chapter 10
C OMBUSTION AND F LAME 88
<äVü≤qeTT ` C≤«\
Chapter 11
STARS AND THE S OLAR SYSTEM 114
qø£åÁ‘ê\T ` kÂs¡≈£î≥T+ã+
Teacher Corner Student Corner
Chapter
7 LIGHT
T
he world is largely known through comb and close all its openings
the senses. The sense of sight except one in the middle. You can
is one of the most important use a strip of black paper for
senses. Through it we see mountains, this purpose. Hold the comb
rivers, trees, plants, chairs, people and perpendicular to the sheet of paper.
so many other things around us. We also
Throw light from a torch through
see clouds, rainbows and birds flying
the opening of the comb from one
in the sky. At night we see the moon
side (Fig. 7.1). With slight
and the stars. You are able to see the
adjustment of the torch and the
words and sentences printed on this
page. How is seeing made possible? comb you will see a ray of light along
the paper on the other side of the
7.1 What makes Things comb. Keep the comb and the torch
steady. Place a strip of plane mirror
Visible
in the path of the light ray (Fig. 7.1).
Have you ever thought how we see What do you observe?
various objects? You may say that eyes
see the objects. But, can you see an
object in the dark? It means that eyes
alone cannot see any object. It is only
when light from an object enters our
eyes that we see the object. The light
may have been emitted by the object, or
may have been reflected by it.
You learnt in Class VII that a polished
or a shiny surface can act as a mirror. A
mirror changes the direction of light
that falls on it. Can you tell in which
direction the light falling on a surface Fig. 7.1 : Arrangement for showing reflection
will be reflected? Let us find out.
After striking the mirror, the ray of
7.2 Laws of Reflection light is reflected in another direction.
Activity 7.1 The light ray, which strikes any surface,
is called the incident ray
ray. The ray that
Fix a white sheet of paper on a comes back from the surface after
drawing board or a table. Take a reflection is known as the reflected ray
ray.
2 LIGHT
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øÏsD
ø±+‹ 3
A ray of light is an idealisation. In Table 7.1 : Angles of Incidence

reality, we have a narrow beam of light and Reflection
which is made up of several rays. For S. Angle of Angle of
simplicity, we use the term ray for a No. i )
Incidence (( r)
Reflection ((
narrow beam of light.
1.
Draw lines showing the position of 2.
the plane mirror, the incident ray and
3.
the reflected ray on the paper with the
help of your friends. Remove the mirror 4.
and the comb. Draw a line making an 5.
angle of 90º to the line representing the
mirror at the point where the incident Do you see any relation between the
ray strikes the mirror. This line is known angle of incidence and the angle of
as the nor mal to the reflecting surface
normal reflection. Are they approximately equal?
at that point (Fig. 7.2). The angle If the experiment is carried out carefully,
it is seen that the angle of incidence is
always equal to the angle of reflection
reflection.
This is one of the laws of reflection
reflection.
Let us perform another activity on
reflection.
Fig. 7.2 : Drawing the normal

What would happen if I
between the normal and incident ray is threw the light on the
called the angle of incidence (i). The mirror along the normal.
angle between the normal and the
reflected ray is known as the angle of Activity 7.2
reflection (r) (Fig. 7.3). Measure the
angle of incidence and the angle of Perform Activity 7.1 again. This time
reflection. Repeat the activity several use a sheet of stiff paper or a chart
times by changing the angle of paper. Let the sheet project a little
incidence. Enter the data in Table 7.1. beyond the edge of the Table (Fig.
7.4). Cut the projecting portion of
the sheet in the middle. Look at the
reflected ray. Make sure that the
Reflected Incident reflected ray extends to the
ray ray
projected portion of the paper. Bend
Normal that part of the projected portion on
which the reflected ray falls. Can
you still see the reflected ray? Bring
Fig. 7.3 : Angle of incidence and angle of the paper back to the original
reflection
4 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 5
position. Can you see the reflected with the Sun as the source of light
ray again? What do you infer? instead of a torch. You, too, can use the
Sun as the source of light.
These activities can also be performed

by making use of the Ray Streak
Apparatus (available in the kit
prepared by NCERT).
Boojho remembered that in Class VII,

he had studied some features of the
image of an object formed by a plane
mirror. Paheli asked him to recall those
(a)
features:
(i) Was the image erect or upside
down?
(ii) Was it of the same size as the
object?
(iii) Did the image appear at the same
distance behind the mirror as the
object was in front of it?
(iv) Could it be obtained on a screen?
Let us understand a little more about
(b) the formation of an image by a plane
Fig. 7.4 (a), (b) : Incident ray, reflected ray
and the normal at the point mirror in the following way:
of incidence lie in the same
plane Activity 7.3
When the whole sheet of paper is A source of light O is placed in front
spread on the table, it represents one of a plane mirror PQ. Two rays OA
plane. The incident ray, the normal at and OC are incident on it (Fig. 16.5).
the point of incidence and the reflected Can you find out the direction of
ray are all in this plane. When you bend the reflected rays?
the paper you create a plane different Draw normals to the surface of the
from the plane in which the incident mirror PQ, at the points A and C.
ray and the normal lie. Then you do not Then draw the reflected rays at the
see the reflected ray. What does it points A and C. How would you
indicate? It indicates that the incident draw these rays? Call the reflected
ray, the normal at the point of rays AB and CD, respectively.
incidence and the reflected ray all lie Extend them further. Do they meet?
in the same plane.
plane This is another law Extend them backwards. Do they
of reflection. meet now? If they meet, mark this
Paheli and Boojho performed the point as I. For a viewer’s eye at E
above activities outside the classroom (Fig. 7.5), do the reflected rays
6 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 7
Fig. 7.6 : Parallel rays incident on

an irregular surface
Fig. 7.5 : Image formation in a plane mirror

appear to come from the point I.
Since the reflected rays do not
actually meet at I, but only appear
to do so, we say that a virtual image
Fig. 7.7 : Rays reflected from irregular
of the point O is formed at I. As you surface
have learnt already in Class VII,
such an image cannot be obtained When all the parallel rays reflected
on a screen. from a rough or irregular surface are
You may recall that in an image not parallel, the reflection is known as
formed by a mirror the left of the object diffused or irregular reflection.
appears on the right and the right Remember that the diffused reflection
appears on the left. This is known as is not due to the failure of the laws of
lateral inversion
inversion. reflection. It is caused by the
irregularities in the reflecting surface,
7.3 Regular and Diffused like that of a cardboard.
On the other hand, reflection from
Reflection
a smooth surface like that of a mirror
Activity 7.4 is called regular reflection (Fig. 7.8).
Images are formed by regular
Imagine that parallel rays are reflection.
incident on an irregular surface as
shown in Fig. 7.6. Remember that
the laws of reflection are valid at
each point of the surface. Use these
laws to construct reflected rays at
various points. Are they parallel to
one another? You will find that
these rays are reflected in different
directions. (Fig. 7.7) Fig. 7.8 : Regular reflection
8 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 9
Do We See all Objects due to Reflected Light?

Nearly everything you see around is seen due to reflected light. Moon, for example,
receives light from the Sun and reflects it. That’s how we see the moon. The objects
which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects. Can you
name some other such objects?
There are other objects, which give their own light, such as the Sun, fire, flame of
a candle and an electric lamp. Their light falls on our eyes. That is how we see them.
The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.
Paheli recalls having constructed a

periscope as an Extended Activity in
I have a question. Can the Class VI. The periscope makes use of
reflected rays be further reflected two plane mirrors. Can you explain
if incident on another mirror? how reflection from the two mirrors
enables you to see objects which are
Let us find out.
not visible directly? Periscopes are
7.4 Reflected Light Can be used in submarines, tanks and also
Reflected Again by soldiers in bunkers to see things
outside.
Recall the last time you visited a hair
dresser. She/he makes you sit in front of 7.5 Multiple Images
a mirror. After your hair cut is complete,
she/he holds a mirror behind you to show You are aware that a plane mirror forms
you how the hair has been cut only a single image of an object. What
(Fig. 7.9). Do you know how you could happens if two plane mirrors are used
see the hair at the back of your head? in combination? Let us see.
Fig. 7.9 : Mirror at the hair dresser shop

10 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 11
Activity 7.5 Can you now explain how you can

see the back of your head at the hair
Take two plane mirrors. Set them dresser’s shop?
at right angles to each other with This idea of number of images formed
their edges touching (Fig. 7.10). To by mirrors placed at an angle to one
hinge them you can use adhesive another is used in a kaleidoscope to
tape. Place a coin in between the make numerous beautiful patterns. You
mirrors. How many images of the can also make a kaleidoscope yourself.
coin do you see (Fig. 7.10)?
Kaleidoscope
Activity 7.6
To make a kaleidoscope, get three
rectangular mirror strips each about
15 cm long and 4 cm wide. Join
them together to form a prism as
shown in Fig. 7.12(a). Fix this
arrangement of mirrors in a circular
Fig. 7.10 : Images in plane mirror at right cardboard tube or tube of a thick
angle to each other chart paper. Make sure that the tube
Now hinge the mirrors using the is slightly longer than the mirror
adhesive tape at different angles, say strips. Close one end of the tube by
45°, 60°, 120°, 180° etc. Place some a cardboard disc having a hole in
object (say a candle) in between the centre, through which you can
them. Note down the number of see [Fig. 7.12(b)]. To make the disc
images of the object in each case. durable, paste a piece of transparent
Finally, set the two mirrors plastic sheet under the cardboard
parallel to each other. Find out how
many images of a candle placed
between them are formed (Fig. 7.11).
(a)
mir-
rors
(b) (c)
Fig. 7.11 : Image in plane mirror parallel
to each other Fig. 7.12 : Making a kaleidoscope
12 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 13
disc. At the other end, touching the

7.6 Sunlight — White or
mirrors, fix a circular plane glass Coloured
plate [Fig. 7.12(c)]. Place on this glass In Class VII, you learnt that the sunlight
plate several small pieces of coloured is referred to as white light. You also
glass (broken pieces of coloured learnt that it consists of seven colours.
bangles). Close this end of the tube Here is another activity (Activity 7.7)
by a ground glass plate. Allow showing that sunlight consists of several
enough space for the colour pieces colours.
to move around.
7.7 What is inside Our Eyes?
Your kaleidoscope is ready. When
you peep through the hole, you will be We see things only when light coming
able to see a variety of patterns in the from them enters our eyes. Eye is one
tube. An interesting feature of a of our most important sense organs. It
kaleidoscope is that you will never see is, therefore, important to understand
the same pattern again. Designers of its structure and working.
wallpapers and fabrics and artists often The eye has a roughly spherical
use kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new shape. The outer coat of the eye is
patterns. To make your toy attractive, white. It is tough so that it can protect
you can wrap the kaleidoscope in a the interior of the eye from accidents.
coloured paper. Its transparent front part is called
Activity 7.7
Get a plane mirror of a suitable size. prism. As you learnt in Class VII,
Place it in a bowl (katori) as shown this breaks up the light into its
in Fig. 7.13. Fill the bowl with water. colours, Splitting of light into its
Put this arrangement near a window colours is known as dispersion of
in such a way that direct sunlight light. Rainbow is a natural
falls on the mirror. Adjust the phenomenon showing dispersion.
position of the bowl
so that the reflected
light from the
mirror falls on a
wall. If the wall is
not white, fix a sheet
of white paper on it.
Reflected light will
be seen to have
many colours. How
can you explain
this? The mirror
and water form a Fig. 7.13 : Dispersion of light
14 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 15
cornea (Fig. 7.14). Behind the cornea, Class VII. The lens focuses light on the
we find a dark muscular structure back of the eye, on a layer called retina
called iris
iris. In the iris, there is a small (Fig. 7.14). The retina contains several
opening called the pupil. The size of nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve
the pupil is controlled by the iris. The cells are then transmitted to the brain
iris is that part of eye which gives it its through the optic nerve. There are two
distinctive colour. When we say that a kinds of cells–
person has green eyes, we refer actually (i) cones, which are sensitive to bright
to the colour of the iris. The iris controls light and
the amount of light entering into the (ii) rods, which are sensitive to dim light.
eye. Let us see how. Cones sense colour. At the junction
of the optic nerve and the retina, there
Ciliary
are no sensory cells, so no vision is
muscle
possible at that spot. This is called the
Iris blind spot.
spot Its existence can be
Optic
Nerve demonstrated as follows:
Lens
Cornea
Activity 7.9
Make a round mark and a cross on
Retina
a sheet of paper with the spot to the
Fig. 7.14 : Human eye right of the cross (Fig. 7.15). The
distance between two marks may be
Caution : For this activity, never use 6-8 cm. Hold the sheet of paper at
a laser torch. an arm’s length from the eye. Close
Activity 7.8 your left eye. Look continuously at
the cross. Move the sheet slowly
Look into your friend’s eye. Observe towards you, keeping your eye on
the size of the pupil. Throw light on the cross. What do you find? Does
her eye with a torch. Observe the the round mark disappear at some
pupil now. Switch off the torch, and point? Now close your right eye.
observe her pupil once again. Do Look at the round mark now and
you notice any change in the size repeat the activity. Does the cross
of the pupil? In which case was the disappear? The disappearance of the
pupil larger? Why do you think it cross or the round mark shows that
was so? there is a point on the retina which
In which case do you need to cannot send messages to the brain
allow more light in the eye, when when light falls on it.
the light is dim or bright?
Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens

which is thicker in the centre. What
kind of lens is thicker at the centre?
Fig. 7.15 : Demonstration of blind spot
Recall what you learnt about lenses in
16 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 17
The impression of an image does not Nature has provided eyes with
vanish immediately from the retina. It eyelids to prevent any object from
persists there for about 1/16th of a entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out
second. So, if still images of a moving light when not required.
object are flashed on the eye at a rate Eye is such a wonderful instrument
faster than 16 per second, then the eye that it (normal) can clearly see distant
perceives this object as moving. objects as well as objects nearby. The
minimum distance at which the eye can
Activity 7.10 see objects distinctly varies with age. The
most comfortable distance at which one
Get a square piece of cardboard of can read with a normal eye is about
size 6-8 cm. Make two holes as 25 cm.
shown in Fig. 7.16. Thread a string Some persons can see objects close
through the two holes. Draw/paste
to them clearly but cannot see distant
a cage on one side of the cardboard
objects so clearly. On the other hand,
and a bird on the other side. Twist
some persons cannot see objects nearby
the string and make the card twirl
clearly but they can see distant objects
rapidly. Do you see the bird in the
quite well. With suitable corrective
cage?
lenses, these defects of the eye can be
corrected.
Sometimes, particularly in old age,
eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the
Reverse side Front side of eye lens becoming cloudy. When it
of cardboard cardboard
happens, persons are said to have
cataract. There is a loss of vision,
sometimes extremely severe. It is
possible to treat this defect. The opaque
lens is removed and a new artificial
lens is inserted. Modern technology
has made this procedure simpler
and safer.
7.8 Care of the Eyes

It is necessary that you take proper care
Fig. 7.16 : Bird in cage
of your eyes. If there is any problem
you should go to an eye specialist. Have
The movies that we see are actually
a regular checkup—
a number of separate pictures in
proper sequence. They are made to  If advised, use suitable spectacles.
move across the eye usually at the rate  Too little or too much light is bad
of 24 pictures per second (faster than for eyes. Insufficient light causes
16 per second). So, we see a moving eyestrain and headaches. Too much
picture. light, like that of the Sun, a powerful
18 LIGHT
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ø±+‹ 19
Did you know?

Animals have eyes shaped in different ways. Eyes of a crab are quite small but
they enable the crab to look all around. So, the crab can sense even if the enemy
approaches from behind. Butterflies have large eyes that seem to be made up of
thousands of little eyes (Fig. 7.17).
They can see not only in the front
and the sides but the back as Eyes
well.
A night bird (owl) can see very
well in the night but not during
the day. On the other hand, day
light birds (kite, eagle) can see well
during the day but not in the night.
The owl has a large cornea and a
large pupil to allow more light in
its eye. Also, it has on its retina a
large number of rods and only a
few cones. The day birds on the
other hand, have more cones and Fig. 7.17 : Eyes of a butterfly
fewer rods.
lamp or a laser torch can injure the vegetables (such as spinach) and cod
retina. liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs,
 Do not look at the Sun or a powerful
milk, curd, cheese, butter and fruits
such as papaya and mango are also rich
light directly.
in vitamin A.
 Never rub your eyes. If particles of
dust go into your eyes, wash your 7.9 Visually Impaired
eyes with clean water. If there is no Persons Can Read and
improvement go to a doctor. Write
 Always read at the normal distance
for vision. Do not read by bringing Some persons, including children, can
the book too close to your eyes or be visually impaired. They have very
keeping it too far. limited vision to see things. Some
You learnt about balanced diet in persons cannot see at all since birth.
Class VI. If food is deficient in some Some persons may lose their eyesight
components, eyes may also suffer. Lack because of a disease or an injury. Such
of vitamin A in foodstuff is responsible persons try to identify things by
for many eye troubles. Most common touching and listening to voices more
amongst them is night blindness. carefully. They develop their other
One should, therefore, include in the senses more sharply. However,
diet components which have vitamin A. additional resources can enable them
Raw carrots, broccoli and green to develop their capabilities further.
20 LIGHT
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ìXÊ#·] (>∑T&É¢>∑÷ã) sêÁ‘·T\+<äT u≤>± #·÷&É>∑\<äT,
ø±ì |ü>∑\T dü]>±Z #·÷&É˝Ò<äT. |ü>∑{Ï |ü≈£åî\T (>∑<ä›,
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#·÷&É˝Òe⁄. >∑T&É¢>∑÷ã≈£î ô|<ä› ø±]ïj·÷ eT]j·TT ˇø£
ô|<ä› ø£+{ÏbÕ|ü ñ+&ç, m≈£îÿe yÓTT‘·Ô+˝À ø±+‹
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dü+K´˝À <ä+&Ü\T ñ+&ç ‘·≈î£ ÿe dü+K´˝À X¯+KTe⁄\T
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7.9 <äwæº˝À|ü+ ñqï e´≈£îÔ\T #·<äe>∑\s¡T
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ø±+‹ 21
Non-optical and optical aids for visually impaired

Non-optical aids include visual aids, tactual aids (using the sense of touch), auditory
aids (using the sense of hearing) and electronic aids. Visual aids, can magnify words,
can provide suitable intensity of light and material at proper distances. Tactual aids,
including Braille writer slate and stylus, help the visually challenged persons in
taking notes, reading and writing. Auditory aids include cassettes, tape recorders,
talking books and other such devices. Electronic aids, such as talking calculators
and computers, are also available for performing many computational tasks. Closed
circuit television, also an electronic aid, enlarges printed material with suitable contrast
and illumination. Nowadays, use of audio CDs and voice boxes with computers are also
very helpful for listening to and writing the desired text.
Optical aids include bifocal lenses, contact lenses, tinted lenses, magnifiers
and telescopic aids. While the lens combinations are used to rectify visual limitations,
telescopic aids are available to view chalkboard and class demonstrations.
7.10 What is the Braille Braille system has 63 dot patterns or

System? characters. Each character
represents a letter, a combination of
The most popular resource for visually letters, a common word or a
challenged persons is Braille
Braille. grammatical sign. Dots are arranged
in cells of two vertical rows of three
Louis Braille, himself a visually dots each.
challenged person, developed a system Patterns of dots to represent some
for visually challenged persons and English letters and some common
published it in 1821. words are shown below.
Fig. 7.18 : Example of dot patterns used

Louis Braille
in Braille System
The present system was adopted in These patterns when embossed on

1932. There is Braille code for common Braille sheets help visually challenged
languages, mathematics and scientific persons to recognise words by
notation. Many Indian languages can touching. To make them easier to
be read using the Braille system. touch, the dots are raised slightly.
22 LIGHT
<äèwæ˝º À|ü+ ñqïyê]øÏ <äø˘ düV≤æ ‘· ñ|üøs£ D¡ ≤\T, <äø˘ s¡V≤æ ‘· ñ|üøs£ D¡ ≤\T
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uÛ≤yêìï ñ|üjÓ÷–+#·&É+) eT]j·TT m\Áø±ºìø˘ ñ|üø£s¡D≤\T ñ+{≤sTT. <äXÀ´|üø£s¡D≤\T |ü<ë\qT Äes¡úq+ #˚dæ, ‘·–q
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<äø˘ düV≤æ ‘· ñ|üøs£ D
¡ ≤\˝À ~«HêuÛ´Ñ +‘·s¡ ø£≥ø±\T, düŒs¡Ùø£≥ø±\T (ø±+{≤øº̆ ˝…H‡é \T), s¡+>∑Tø£≥ø±\T, eB∆ø]£ DT\T eT]j·TT
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7.10 Áu…sTT© eédüú n+fÒ @$T{Ï? Áu…sTT© |ü<ä∆‹˝À 63 #·Tø£ÿ\ qeT÷Hê\T ˝Ò<ë >∑Ts¡TÔ\T
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>±˙ eT÷&ÉT #·Tø£ÿ\T ¬s+&ÉT n&ÉT¶ es¡Tdü\˝À, ¬s+&ÉT
dü«j·T+>± <äwæº˝À|ü+ ñqï e´øÏÔ nsTTq≥Te+{Ï #·Tø£ÿ\ìï neT]Ãe⁄+{≤sTT.
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eédüúqT n_Ûe~∆ #˚dæ 1821˝À Á|ü#·T]+#ês¡T. dü÷∫+#˚ #·Tø£ÿ\ qeT÷Hê\T øÏ+<ä Çe«ã&Ü¶sTT.
\÷sT÷dt Áu…sTT© |ü≥+ 7.18 : Áu…sTT© |ü<ä∆‹˝À ñ|üjÓ÷–+#·T _+<äT

>∑Ts¡TÔ\ qeT÷Hê≈£î ˇø£ ñ<ëVü≤s¡D
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<äwæº˝À|ü+ ñqï e´≈£îÔ\T ‘êø£&É+ <ë«sê |ü<ë\qT
Áu…sTT© ø√&é n+<äTu≤≥T˝À ñqï~. nH˚ø£ uÛ≤s¡rj·T uÛ≤wü\qT >∑T]Ô+#·&É+˝À düVü‰j·T|ü&É‘êsTT. düT\uÛÑ+>± ‘êø£&ÜìøÏ
Áu…sTT© eédüúì ñ|üjÓ÷–+∫ #·<äee#·TÃ. M\T>±, #·Tø£ÿ\qT ø=~›>± ô|ø’ Ï ñu…“‘·T>Ô ± ñ+&˚≥≥T¢ #˚kÕÔsT¡ .
ø±+‹ 23
Visually impaired people learn the character has to be memorised. Braille

Braille system by beginning with texts can be produced by hand or by
letters, then special characters and machine. Typewriter-like devices and
letter combinations. Methods depend printing machines have now been
upon recognition by touching. Each developed.
Some visually impaired Indians have great achievements to their

credit. Diwakar, a child prodigy has given amazing performances
as a singer.
Ravindra Jain, born completely visually impaired, obtained his
Sangeet Prabhakar degree from Allahabad. He had shown his
excellence as a lyricist, singer and music composer.
Lal Advani, himself visually impaired, established an Association
Helen A. Keller for special education and rehabilitation of disabled in India. Besides
this, he represented India on Braille problems in UNESCO.
Helen A. Keller, an American author and lecturer, is perhaps the most well-
known and inspiring visually challenged person. She lost her sight when she was
only 18 months old. But because of her resolve and courage she could complete
her graduation from a university. She wrote a number of books including The
Story of my Life (1903).
24 LIGHT
<äwæº˝À|ü+ ñqïyês¡T Áu…sTT© $<ÛëHêìï nø£åsê\‘√ ø√yê*. Áu…sTT© yê#·ø±ìï #˚‹‘√ ˝Ò<ë j·T+Á‘·+ <ë«sê
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ø£\sTTø£\qT H˚sT¡ Ã≈£î+{≤s¡T. ‘êø£&+É <ë«sê >∑T]Ô+#˚ |ü<‹∆ä ô|’ eTTÁ<äD j·T+Á‘ê\T Ç|ü⁄Œ&ÉT n_Ûe~∆ #˚j·Tã&Ü¶sTT.
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u≤\ y˚T<Ûë$ >±j·T≈£î&ÉT>± n<äT“¤‘·yÓTÆq Á|ü<äs¡Ùq\T Ç#êÃs¡T.
|ü⁄≥Tºø‘£ √ |üP]Ô n+<ÛTä &Óq’ s¡M+Á<äCH’… ,é dü+^‘· Á|üu≤Û ø£sY &çÁ^ì n\Vü‰u≤<é qT+&ç bı+<ës¡T.
n‘·qT bÕ≥\s¡#s· TT‘·>±, >±j·T≈£î&ÉT>± eT]j·TT dü+^‘· dü«s¡øs£ >Ô¡ ± ‘·q Á|ü‹uÛqÑ T Á|ü<]ä Ù+#ês¡T.
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j·TTHÓk˛ÿ˝À Áu…sTT© düeTdü´\ô|’ uÛ≤s¡‘·<˚X¯+ ‘·s¡|ü⁄q ÁbÕ‹ì<Û´ä + eVæ≤+#ês¡T.
ôV≤˝…Hé m. ¬ø\¢sY ˇø£ nyÓT]ø± s¡#·sTTÁ‹ eT]j·TT ñ|üHê´dü≈£îsê\T. áyÓT <äwæº düeTdü´ ñ+&ç ≈£L&Ü n‘·´+‘·
Á|üdæ~∆#Ó+~q eT]j·TT dü÷Œ]Ô<ëj·Tø£yÓTÆq e´øÏÔ. ÄyÓT πøe\+ 18 HÓ\\ ej·TdüT˝ÀH˚ #·÷|ü⁄qT ø√˝ÀŒj·÷s¡T. ø±˙
ÄyÓT dü+ø£\Œ+ eT]j·TT <ÛÓ’s¡´+ ø±s¡D+>± $X¯«$<ë´\j·T+ qT+&ç Á>±&ÉT´j˚TwüHé |üP]Ô#˚j·T>∑*>±s¡T. ÄyÓT ~ k˛ºØ
Ä|òt yÓTÆ ˝…’|òt (1903)‘√ düVü‰ nH˚ø£ |ü⁄düÔø±\qT sêkÕs¡T.
ø±+‹ 25
KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ANGLE OF  Light is reflected from all surfaces.
INCIDENCE  Regular reflection takes place when light is
ANGLE OF incident on smooth, polished and regular sur-
REFLECTION faces.
BLIND SPOT  Diffused or irregular reflection takes place from

rough surfaces.
BRAILLE
 Two laws of reflection are
CONES (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
CORNEA of reflection.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
DIFFUSED OR
drawn at the point of incidence to the re-
IRREGULAR
flecting surface, lie in the same plane.
REFLECTION
 Image formed in a plane mirror undergoes lat-
INCIDENT RAYS
eral inversion.
IRIS  Two mirrors inclined to each other give mul-
KALEIDOSCOPE tiple images.
 Beautiful patterns are formed in a kaleido-
LATERAL INVERSION
scope because of multiple reflections.
LAWS OF
 Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven
REFLECTION
colours.
PUPIL  Splitting of light into its constituent colours is
REFLECTED RAYS known as dispersion.
 Parts of the eye are cornea, iris, pupil, lens,
REFLECTION
retina and optic nerve.
REGULAR
 A normal eye can see nearby and distant ob-
REFLECTION
jects clearly.
RETINA  Visually impaired persons can read and write
RODS using the Braille system.
 Visually impaired persons develop their other
senses more sharply to improve their interac-
tion with their environment.
26 LIGHT
ø°\ø£|ü<ë\T MTs¡T @$T H˚s¡TÃ≈£îHêïs¡T

|ü‘q· ø√D+  ø±+‹ nìï ñ|ü]‘·˝≤\ qT+&ç |üsêes¡qÔ + #Ó+<äT‘·T+~.
|üsêes¡qÔ ø√D+  ø±+‹, eTè<äTyÓ’q, qTqTô|’q eT]j·TT Áø£e÷ø±s¡
ñ|ü ] ‘· ˝ ≤\ô|’ |ü ‘ · q yÓ T Æ q |ü ⁄ Œ&É T Áø£ e T|ü s êes¡ Ô q +
n+<Û_ä +<äTe⁄ #Ó+<äT‘·T+~.
Áu…sTT©  ø±+‹ >∑ s ¡ T ≈£ î ‘· \ +ô|’ q Áø£ e Ts¡ V æ ≤ ‘· |ü s êes¡ Ô q +
X¯+KTe⁄\T #Ó+<äT‘·T+~.
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Áø£eTs¡Væ≤‘· |üsêes¡Ôq+ (i) |ü‘·qø√D+, |üsêes¡Ôq ø√D≤ìøÏ düe÷q+.
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|ü‘·q‘·˝≤ìøÏ |ü‘·q_+<äTe⁄ ^∫q \+ã+
◊]dt
ˇπø ‘·\+˝À ñ+{≤sTT.
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<ä+&Ü\T
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ñqï edüTÔe⁄\qT düŒwüº+>± #·÷&É>∑\<äT.
 <äwæº˝À|ü+ ñqïyês¡T Áu…sTT© |ü<ä›‹ì ñ|üjÓ÷–+∫
#·<äe>∑\s¡T eT]j·TT Áyêj·T>∑\s¡T.
 <äwæº ˝À|ü+ ñqï e´≈£î\Ô T yê] #·T≥÷º ñqï |ü]düsê\‘√
|üsd¡ Œü s¡ #·s´¡ \≈£î ‘·eT $T–*q C≤„H+˚ Á~j·÷\qT #·Ts¡T≈£î>±
|üì#˚ùd≥≥T¢ #˚dTü ≈£î+{≤s¡T.
ø±+‹ 27
Exercises
1. Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can
you see objects outside the room. Explain.
2. Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused

reflection mean the failure of the laws of reflection?
3. Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection
will take place when a beam of light strikes. Justify your answer in each
case.
(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder
(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water
spread over it
(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper
4. State the laws of reflection.
5. Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
6. Fill in the blanks in the following.
(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be _______________ m

away from his image.
(b) If you touch your ____________ ear with right hand in front of a plane
mirror it will be seen in the mirror that your right ear is touched with
____________.
(c) The size of the pupil becomes ____________ when you see in dim light.
(d) Night birds have ____________ cones than rods in their eyes.
Choose the correct option in Questions 7 – 8

7. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(a) Always (b) Sometimes

(c) Under special conditions (d) Never
8. Image formed by a plane mirror is
(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged.

(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged.
(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
9. Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.
10. Draw a labelled sketch of the human eye.
28 LIGHT
nuÛ≤´kÕ\T
1. MTs¡T Nø£{Ï >∑~˝À ñHêïs¡qTø√+&ç. >∑~˝Àì edüTÔe⁄\qT MTs¡T #·÷&É>∑\sê? >∑~ yÓ\T|ü\
ñqï edüTÔe⁄\qT #·÷&É>∑\sê? $e]+#·+&ç.
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Áø£eTs¡Væ≤‘· |üsêes¡Ôq+ |üsêes¡Ôq dü÷Á‘ê\qT bÕ{Ï+#·<ë?
3. ÁøÏ+~ Çe«ã&çq yê{Ïô|’ ø±+‹ |ü‘·yÓTÆq|ü⁄Œ&ÉT Áø£eT |üsêes¡Ôq+ »s¡T>∑T‘·T+<ë? ˝Ò<ë
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(m) qTqT|ü⁄ #˚dæq #Óø£ÿ (_) düT<ä› bı&ç
(dæ) n≥º ñ|ü]‘·\+ (&ç) ˙s¡T #·*¢q bÕ\sê‹ H˚\
(Ç) <äs¡ŒD+ (m|òt) ø±–‘·|ü⁄ eTTø£ÿ
4. |üsêes¡qÔ dü÷Á‘ê\qT ù|s=ÿq+&ç.
5. |ü‘·q øÏs¡D+, |üsêes¡Ôq øÏs¡D+, |ü‘·q _+<äTe⁄ e<ä› ^∫q \+ã+ ˇπø ‘·\+˝À
ñ+{≤j·Tì #·÷|æ+#˚ ø£‘ê´ìï $e]+#·+&ç.
6. á ÁøÏ+~ U≤∞\qT |üP]+#·+&ç
(m) düeT‘·\ <äs¡ŒD+ eTT+<äT ˇø£ e´øÏÔ ˇø£ MT≥s¡T <ä÷s¡+˝À ñ+fÒ Á|ü‹_+ã+
<ä÷s¡+˝À ø£qã&ÉT‘·T+~.
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#˚‹‘√ |ü≥Tº≈£îqï≥T¢ ñ+≥T+~.
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7-8 Á|üX¯ï\˝Àì dü¬s’q düe÷<ÛëHê\qT mqTïø√+&ç
7. |ü‘·q ø√D+ |üsêes¡Ôq+ ø√D≤ìøÏ düe÷q+.
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9. ¬ø*&çjÓ÷k˛ÿ|t ìsêàD≤ìï e]í+#·+&ç.
10. e÷qe⁄ì ø£qTï |ü{≤ìï ^dæ uÛ≤>±\T >∑T]Ô+#·+&ç?
ø±+‹ 29
E X E R C I S E S
11. Gurmit wanted to perform Activity 7.8 using a laser torch. Her teacher
advised her not to do so. Can you explain the basis of the teacher’s advise?
12. Explain how you can take care of your eyes.
13. What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of
90° to the incident ray?
14. How many images of a candle will be formed if it is placed between two
parallel plane mirrors separated by 40 cm?
15. Two mirrors meet at right angles. A ray of light is incident on one at an
angle of 30° as shown in Fig. 7.19. Draw the reflected ray from the second
mirror.
Fig. 7.19
16. Boojho stands at A just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in Fig.
7.20. Can he see himself in the mirror? Also can he see the image of
objects situated at P, Q and R?
Fig. 7.20
17. (a) Find out the position of the image of an object situated at A in the
plane mirror (Fig. 7.21).
(b) Can Paheli at B see this image?
(c) Can Boojho at C see this image?
(d) When Paheli moves from B to C, where does the image of A move?
Fig. 7.21
30 LIGHT
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nuÛ≤´kÕ\T Ä $<Ûä+>± #˚j·Te<ä›ì dü\Vü‰ Ç#êÃs¡T. ñbÕ<Ûë´j·TT&ÉT m+<äT≈£î n˝≤+{Ï dü\Vü‰ Ç#êÃs√
˙e⁄ $e]+#·>∑\yê?
12. MT ø£+{Ï >∑T]+∫ MTs¡T m≥Te+{Ï C≤Á>∑‘·Ô\T rdüT≈£î+{≤s√ $e]+#·+&ç?
13. |üsêes¡Ôq øÏs¡D+ |ü‘·qøÏs¡D+‘√ 90° &çÁ^\T #˚dü÷Ô ñ+fÒ |ü‘·q ø√D+ $\Te m+‘· ?
14. ˇø£<ëìø=ø£{Ï 40 ôd+{°MT≥s¡T¢ <ä÷s¡+˝À düe÷+‘·s+¡ >± ñqï s¬ +&ÉT <äsŒ¡ D≤\ eT<Û´ä ø=y=«‹Ôì
ñ+∫q|ü⁄Œ&ÉT mìï Á|ü‹_+u≤\T @s¡Œ&É‘êsTT?
15. ¬s+&ÉT <äs¡ŒD≤\qT 90° &çÁ^\ ø√D+ ñHêïsTT. |ü≥+ 7.19 ˝À #·÷|æq≥T¢ ˇø£ <ëìô|’ 30°
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|ü≥+ 7.19
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<ëì Á|ü‹_+ã kÕúHêìï ø£qT>=q+&ç?
(_) B e<ä› ñqï|ü⁄Œ&ÉT |üùV≤* á Á|ü‹_+u≤ìï #·÷&É>∑\<ë?
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|ü≥+ 7.21
ø±+‹ 31
Extended Learning — Activities and Project

1. Make your own mirror. Take a glass strip or glass slab. Clean it and
put it on a white sheet of paper. See yourself in the glass. Next put
the glass slab on a black sheet of paper. Again look into the glass.
In which case do you see yourself better and why?
2. Make friends with some visually impaired students. Enquire from
them how they read and write. Also find out how they are able to
recognise objects, hurdles and currency notes.
3. Meet an eye specialist. Get your eye sight checked and discuss how
to take care of your eyes.
4. Survey your neighbourhood. Find out how many children below
the age of 12 years use spectacles. Find out from their parents
what, in their view, could be the reason for the weak eyesight of
their children.
Did You Know?

Eyes can be donated by any person as an invaluable gift to visually
impaired persons suffering from corneal blindness, The person may be
(a) a male or female.
(b) of any age.
(c) of any social status.
(d) using spectacles.
(e) suffering from any normal disease but not AIDS, Hepatitis B or C,
rabies, leukemia, lymphoma, tetanus, cholera, encephalitis.
The eyes have to be donated within 4-6 hours after death at any
place, home or hospital.
A person who wants to donate the eyes may pledge eyes during his/her
lifetime to any registered eye bank. He/she should also inform his/her
relatives about this pledge so that they can take necessary action after
his/her death.
You can also donate a Braille kit.
32 LIGHT
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1. MT kı+‘· <äs¡ŒD≤ìï ‘·j·÷s¡T #˚düTø√+&ç. ˇø£ >±E |ü\ø£qT ˝Ò<ë >±E ~yÓTàì>±ì
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2. <äwæº ˝À|üeTTqï $<ë´s¡T\ú ‘√ ùdïVü≤+ #˚jT· +&ç yês¡T m˝≤ #·<Tä e⁄‘·THêïs√, ÁyêdüT≈£î+≥THêïs√
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C≤Á>∑‘·Ô\qT >∑T]+∫ #·]Ã+#·+&ç.
4. MT Çs¡T>∑Tbıs¡T>∑T Ç+&É¢˝À düπs« #˚j·T+&ç.12 dü+e‘·‡sê\ ˝À|ü⁄ ñqï |æ\¢\˝À m+‘·
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MT≈£î ‘Ó\TkÕ ?
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MTs¡T Áu…sTT© øÏ{Ÿ qT ≈£L&Ü <ëq+ #˚j·Te#·TÃ.
ø±+‹ 33
Chapter
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF
8 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Y
our elders might have cautioned plastic and wood do not conduct
you against touching an electrical electricity. However, so far we have used
appliance with wet hands. But our tester to test materials which were
do you know why it is dangerous to in solid state. But what about liquids?
touch an electrical appliance with wet Do liquids also conduct electricity? Let
hands? us find out.
We have learnt earlier that the
materials, which allow electric current
to pass through them, are good Paheli and Boojho want to
conductors of electricity. On the other remind you that one should
hand, materials, which do not allow not experiment with the
electric current to pass through them electric supply from the
easily, are poor conductors of mains or a generator or an
electricity. inverter. Use only electric
In Class VI, we made a tester to test cells for all the activities
whether a particular material allows the suggested here.
electric current to pass through it or not.
Do you recall how the tester helped us
in deciding that? 8.1 Do Liquids Conduct
We found that metals such as copper Electricity?
and aluminium conduct electricity
To test whether a liquid allows electric
whereas materials such as rubber,
current to pass through it or not, we
can use the same tester (Fig. 8.1).
Fig.8.1 : A tester
34 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
n<Ûë´j·T+
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However, replace the cell by a battery.

of the tester glow? Does lemon juice
Also, before using the tester we
or vinegar conduct electricity? How
should check whether it is working
would you classify lemon juice or
or not.
vinegar— a good conductor or a poor
conductor?
Activity 8.1
Join the free ends of the tester
together for a moment. This
completes the circuit of the tester
and the bulb should glow. However,
if the bulb does not glow, it means
that the tester is not working. Can
you think of the possible reasons?
Is it possible that the connections
are loose? Or, the bulb is fused? Or,
your cells are used up? Check that
all the connections are tight. If they
are, then replace the bulb with
another bulb. Now test if the tester
is working or not. If it is still not Fig. 8.2 : Testing conduction of electricity in
working then replace the cells with lemon juice or vinegar
fresh cells.
When the liquid between the two
Now that our tester is working, let ends of the tester allows the electric
us use it to test the various liquids. current to pass, the circuit of the tester
(Caution: While checking your tester, becomes complete. The current flows in
the circuit and the bulb glows. When
do not join its free ends for more than a
the liquid does not allow the electric
few seconds. Otherwise the cells of the
current to pass, the circuit of the tester
battery will drain very quickly.)
is not complete and the bulb does not
glow.
Activity 8.2
In some situations even though the
Collect a few small plastic or rubber liquid is conducting, the bulb may not
caps of discarded bottles and clean glow. It may have happened in Activity
them. Pour one teaspoon of lemon 8.2. What can be the reason?
juice or vinegar in one cap. Bring Do you remember why the bulb
your tester over this cap and let the glows when the electric current passes
ends of the tester dip into lemon juice through it? Due to the heating effect
or vinegar as shown in Fig.8.2. Take of current, the filament of the bulb gets
care that the ends are not more than heated to a high temperature and it
1 cm apart but at the same time do starts glowing. However, if the current
not touch each other. Does the bulb through a circuit is too weak, the
filament does not get heated
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sufficiently and it does not glow. And Activity 8.3

why is the current in the circuit weak?
Well, though a material may conduct Take the tray from inside a discarded
electricity, it may not conduct it as matchbox. Wrap an electric wire a few
easily as a metal. As a result, the times around the tray. Place a small
circuit of the tester may be complete compass needle inside it. Now
and yet the current through it may be connect one free end of the wire to
too weak to make the bulb glow. Can the terminal of a battery. Leave the
we make another tester which can other end free. Take another piece of
detect a weak current? wire and connect it to the other
terminal of the battery (Fig. 8.4).
We can use another effect of an electric
current to make another kind of tester.
Do you recall that electric current
produces a magnetic effect? What
happens to a compass needle kept nearby
when current flows in a wire? Even if
the current is small, the deflection of the
magnetic needle can be seen. Can we
make a tester using the magnetic
effect of currents? Let us find out in
Activity 8.3.
You may use an LED (Fig. 8.3) in place
Fig 8.4 : Another tester
of the electric bulb in the tester of
Fig. 8.2. LED glows even when a weak Join the free ends of two wires
electric current flows through it. momentarily. The compass needle
should show deflection. Your tester
There are two wires (called leads)
attached to an LED. One lead is
with two free ends of the wire is ready.
slightly longer than the other. Now repeat Activity 8.2 using this
Remember that while connecting to a tester. Do you find a deflection in the
circuit, the longer lead is always compass needle the moment you dip
connected to the positive terminal of the free ends of the tester in lemon
the battery and the shorter lead is juice?
connected to the negative terminal of Take out the ends of the tester
the battery. from the lemon juice, dip them in
water and then wipe them dry.
Repeat the activity with other liquids
such as tap water, vegetable oil, milk,
honey. (Remember to wash and wipe
dry the ends of tester after testing
each liquid). In each case observe
whether the magnetic needle shows
deflection or not. Record your
Fig. 8.3 : LEDs observations in Table 8.1.
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Table 8.1 : Good/Poor Conducting Liquids

S.No Material Compass Needle Shows Good Conductor/
Deflection Yes/No Poor Conductor
1. Lemon juice Yes Good Conductor
2. Vinegar
3. Tap Water
4. Vegetable oil
5. Milk
6. Honey
7.
8.
9.
10.
From Table 8.1, we find that some We have tested the conduction of
liquids are good conductors of electricity electricity through tap water. Let us now
and some are poor conductors. test the conduction of electricity through
distilled water.
When the free ends of the

Activity 8.4
tester do not touch each Take about two teaspoonfuls of
other, there is an air gap distilled water in a clean and dry
between them. Paheli knows
plastic or rubber cap of a bottle. (You
that air is a poor conductor of
may obtain distilled water from your
electricity. But she has also read
that during lightning, an electric school science lab. You may also get
current passes through air. She distilled water from a medical store
wonders if air is indeed a poor or a doctor or a nurse). Use the tester
conductor under all conditions. to test whether distilled water
This makes Boojho ask whether conducts electricity or not. What do
other materials classified as you find? Does distilled water
poor conductors also allow conduct electricity? Now dissolve a
electricity to pass under pinch of common salt in distilled
certain conditions. water. Again test. What do you
conclude this time?
Actually, under certain conditions When salt is dissolved in distilled

most materials can conduct. That is why water, we obtain salt solution. This is a
it is preferable to classify materials as conductor of electricity.
good conductors and poor conductors The water that we get from sources
instead of classifying as conductors and such as taps, hand pumps, wells and
insulators. ponds is not pure. It may contain several
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salts dissolved in it. Small amounts of Most liquids that conduct electricity
mineral salts are naturally present in it. are solutions of acids, bases and salts.
This water is thus a good conductor of When an electric current flows
electricity. On the other hand, distilled through a conducting solution, does it
water is free of salts and is a poor produce an effect on the solution?
conductor.
8.2 Chemical Effects of
Electric Current
Small amounts of mineral salts In Class VII, we have learnt some effects
present naturally in water are of electric current. Can you list these
beneficial for human health. effects? What effect does the current
However, these salts make water produce when it flows through a
a good conductor. So, we should conducting solution? Let us find out.
never handle electrical
appliances with wet hands or Activity 8.6
while standing on a wet floor.
Take out carbon rods carefully from
We have found that common salt, when two discarded cells. Clean their
dissolved in distilled water, makes it a good metal caps with sand paper. Wrap
conductor. What are the other substances copper wires around the metal caps
which, when dissolved in distilled water, of the carbon rods and join them to
make it conducting? Let us find out.
a battery (Fig. 8.5). We call these two
Caution: Do the next activity under the electrodes. (Instead of carbon
rods electrodes
supervision of your teacher/parent or
some elderly person, because the use of
acid is involved in it.
Activity 8.5
Take three clean plastic or rubber caps
of bottles. Pour about two teaspoonfuls
of distilled water in each of them. Add
a few drops of lemon juice or dilute
hydrochloric acid to distilled water in
one cap. Now in the second cap
containing distilled water, add a few Metal Cap
drops of a base such as caustic soda
or potassium iodide. Add a little sugar Carbon Carbon
to the distilled water in the third cap rod rod
and dissolve it. Test which solutions Water
conduct electricity and which do not.
What results do you obtain? Fig.8.5 : Passing current through water
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rods, you may take two iron nails

about 6 cm long .) Pour a cupful of
water in a glass/plastic bowl. Add a Boojho decided to test
teaspoonful of salt or a few drops of whether some fruits and
vegetables also conduct
lemon juice to water to make it more
electricity or not. He cut a
conducting. Now immerse the potato into two halves and inserted
electrodes in this solution. Make the copper wires of a tester into it.
sure that the metal caps of the Just then his mother called him and
carbon rods are outside the water. he forgot to take out the wires of
Wait for 3-4 minutes. Observe the the tester inserted into the potato.
electrodes carefully. Do you notice When he came back after half an
any gas bubbles near the hour, he noticed that there was a
electrodes? Can we call the change greenish blue spot on the potato
around one wire whereas there was
taking place in the solution a
no such spot around the other wire
chemical change? Recall the (Fig. 8.6).
definition of a chemical change that
you learnt in Class VII.
In 1800, a British chemist, William

Nicholson (1753–1815), had shown
that if electrodes
were immersed
in water, and a
current was passed,
bubbles of oxygen
and hydrogen were
produced. Oxygen
bubbles formed
on the electrode Fig. 8.6 : Testing potato
connected to the positive terminal of
He was surprised with this
the battery and hydrogen bubbles
observation and along with Paheli
formed on the other electrode.
repeated this activity many times. They
The passage of an electric current found that it was always the wire
through a conducting solution causes connected to the positive terminal,
which had a greenish blue spot around
chemical reactions. As a result, bubbles
it. They felt that this discovery was very
of a gas may be formed on the electrodes. useful because it could be used for
Deposits of metal may be seen on identifying the positive terminal of a cell
electrodes. Changes of colour of or a battery concealed in a box. They
solutions may occur. The reaction would decided to report their finding to a
depend on what solution and electrodes children’s magazine.
are used. These are some of the chemical Remember that Boojho set out to
effects of the electric current. test whether potato conducted
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electricity or not. What he found was

that current produced a chemical
effect in the potato. To him this was
very exciting. In fact, this is how
science sometimes works. You are
looking for something and you
discover something else. Many
Copper plate
important discoveries have been made
in this manner.
Copper plate Copper sul-
8.3 Electroplating phate
solution
You know that a brand new bicycle has
shiny handlebar and wheel rims. Fig. 8.
Fig.8.
8.77 : A simple circuit showing
However, if these are accidentally electroplating
scratched, the shiny coating comes off Allow the current to pass for
revealing a not so shiny surface beneath. about 15 minutes. Now remove the
You might have also seen women using electrodes from the solution and
ornaments, which appear to be made of look at them carefully. Do you find
gold. However, with repeated use, the any difference in any one of them?
gold coating wears off, revealing silver or Do you find a coating over it? What
some other metal beneath. colour is the coating? Note down the
In both these cases, a metal has a terminal of the battery with which
coating of another metal. Do you wonder this electrode is connected.
how a layer of one metal can be
deposited on top of another? Well, let
us try doing it ourselves. After doing the electroplating
activity, Paheli interchanged
Activity 8.7 the electrodes and repeated
We will need copper sulphate and the activity. What do you think
she would observe this time?
two copper plates of size around
10 cm × 4 cm. Take 250 mL of
distilled water in a clean and dry When electric current is passed
beaker. Dissolve two teaspoonfuls of through the copper sulphate solution,
copper sulphate in it. Add a few drops copper sulphate dissociates into
of dilute sulphuric acid to copper copper and sulphate. The free copper
sulphate solution to make it more gets drawn to the electrode connected
conducting. Clean copper plates with to the negative terminal of the battery
sand paper. Now rinse them with and gets deposited on it. But what
water and dry them. Connect the about the loss of copper from the
copper plates to the terminals of a solution?
battery and immerse them in copper From the other electrode, a copper
sulphate solution (Fig. 8.7). plate, an equal amount of copper gets
dissolved in the solution. Thus, the
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loss of copper from the solution is

restored and the process continues.
This means that copper gets
transferred from one electrode to the
other.
Boojho could get only one

copper plate. So he
performed Activity 8.7 by
connecting a carbon rod in
place of the copper plate
which was connected to
the negative terminal of
the battery. He succeeded
in obtaining a coating of
copper on carbon rod.
The process of depositing a layer of

any desired metal on another material
by means of electricity is called Fig. 8.8 : Some electroplated objects
electroplating
electroplating. It is one of the most
silver and gold on less expensive metals.
common applications of chemical effects
These ornaments have the appearance
of electric current.
of silver or gold but are much less
Electroplating is a very useful
expensive.
process. It is widely used in industry
Tin cans, used for storing food, are
for coating metal objects with a thin
made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin
layer of a different metal (Fig.8.8). The
is less reactive than iron. Thus, food
layer of metal deposited has some
does not come into contact with iron and
desired property, which the metal of the
is protected from getting spoilt.
object lacks. For example, chromium
Iron is used in bridges and
plating is done on many objects such
automobiles to provide strength.
as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas
However, iron tends to corrode and rust.
burners, bicycle handlebars, wheel rims
So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron
and many others.
to protect it from corrosion and
Chromium has a shiny appearance.
formation of rust.
It does not corrode. It resists scratches.
However, chromium is expensive and it In the electroplating factories the
may not be economical to make the disposal of the used conducting
whole object out of chromium. So the solution is a major concern. It is a
object is made from a cheaper metal and polluting waste and there are specific
only a coating of chromium over it is disposal guidelines to protect the
environment.
deposited. Jewellery makers electroplate
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KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ELECTRODE  Some liquids are good conductors of electric-
ELECTROPLATING ity and some are poor conductors.

 Most liquids that conduct electricity are solu-
GOOD CONDUCTOR tions of acids, bases and salts.
 The passage of an electric current through a
LED
conducting liquid causes chemical reactions.
POOR CONDUCTOR The resulting effects are called chemical ef-
fects of currents.
 The process of depositing a layer of any de-
sired metal on another material, by means of
electricity, is called electroplating.
Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of ,

______________ and ______________.
(b) The passage of an electric current through a solution causes
______________ effects.
(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets
deposited on the plate connected to the terminal of the
battery.
(d) The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another

material by means of electricity is called .
2. When the free ends of a tester are dipped into a solution, the magnetic
needle shows deflection. Can you explain the reason?
3. Name three liquids, which
when tested in the manner
shown in Fig. 8.9, may cause
the magnetic needle to
deflect.
Fig. 8.9
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E X E R C I S E S
4. The bulb does not glow in the setup shown in Fig.8.10. List the possible
reasons. Explain your answer.
Fig. 8.10
5. A tester is used to check the conduction of electricity through two liquids,
labelled A and B. It is found that the bulb of the tester glows brightly for
liquid A while it glows very dimly for liquid B. You would conclude that
(i) liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.
(ii) liquid B is a better conductor than liquid A.
(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.
(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.
6. Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to make it
conducting?
7. In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut off the
main electrical supply for the area. Explain why they do this.
8. A child staying in a coastal region tests the drinking water and also the
seawater with his tester. He finds that the compass needle deflects more
in the case of seawater. Can you explain the reason?
9. Is it safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors during
heavy downpour? Explain.
10. Paheli had heard that rainwater is as good as distilled water. So she
collected some rainwater in a clean glass tumbler and tested it using a
tester. To her surprise she found that the compass needle showed
deflection. What could be the reasons?
11. Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.
12. The process that you saw in Activity 8.7 is used for purification of copper.
A thin plate of pure copper and a thick rod of impure copper are used as
electrodes. Copper from impure rod is sought to be transfered to the thin
copper plate. Which electrode should be attached to the positive terminal
of the battery and why?
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Extended Learning — Activities and Projects
1. Test the conduction of electricity through various fruits and

vegetables. Display your result in a tabular form.
2. Repeat Activity 8.7 with a zinc plate in place of the copper plate
connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Now replace zinc
plate with some other metallic object and again repeat the activity.
Which metal gets deposited over which other metal? Discuss your
findings with your friends.
3. Find out if there is a commercial electroplating unit in your town.

What objects are electroplated there and for what purpose? (The
process of electroplating in a commercial unit is much more complex
than what we did in Activity 8.7). Find out how they dispose off the
chemicals they discard.
4. Imagine that you are an ‘entrepreneur’ and have been provided a
loan by a bank to set up a small electroplating unit. What object
would you like to electroplate and for what purpose? (Look up the
meaning of ‘entrepreneur’ in a dictionary).
5. Find out the health concerns associated with chromium

electroplating. How are people trying to resolve them?
6. You can make a fun pen for yourself. Take a conducting metal plate
and spread a moist paste of potassium iodide and starch. Connect
the plate to a battery as shown in Fig. 8.11. Now using the free end
of the wire, write a few letters on the paste. What do you see?
Fig. 8.11
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For more information on this topic visit:

 electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
Did You Know?
LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are available in

many colours such as red, green, yellow, blue,
white and are increasingly being used for many
applications, for example in traffic signal lights.
LEDs are increasingly being used for lighting. A
cluster of white LEDs grouped together forms a
LED light source. LED light sources consume
less electricity and have longer lifetime than
light bulbs and fluorescent tubes. Hence these
are gradually becoming the preferred lighting
source.
n<äq|ü⁄ düe÷#ês¡+ ø=s¡≈£î á ÁøÏ+~ yÓuŸôd’{ŸqT dü+Á|ü~+#·+&ç.

 electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.html
LED (˝…{
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Chapter
9 SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA
In Class VII, you read about winds, precautions to protect ourselves from
storms and cyclones. You learnt that the deadly sparks.
cyclones can cause a lot of damage to
human life and property. You also The Sparks that the Greeks Knew
About
learnt that we can protect ourselves from
these destructive phenomena to some The ancient Greeks knew as early as
extent. In this chapter we shall discuss 600 B.C. that when amber (amber is a
two other destructive natural kind of resin) was rubbed with fur, it
phenomena. These are lightning and attracted light objects such as hair. You
might have seen that when you take
earthquakes. We shall also discuss what
off woollen or polyester clothes, your
steps we can take to minimise
hair stands on end. If you take off these
destruction caused by these clothes in the dark, you even see a
phenomena. spark and hear a crackling sound. In
1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American
9 . 1 Lightning scientist, showed that lightning and the
You might have seen sparks on a spark from your clothes are essentially
electric pole when wires become loose. the same phenomena. However, it took
This phenomenon is quite common 2000 years for this realisation to occur.
when wind is blowing and shaking the
wires. You might also have seen sparks
when a plug is loose in its socket. I wonder why they took so
Lightning is also an electric spark, but many years to realise the
on a huge scale. similarity.
In ancient times, people did not
understand the cause of these sparks.
They were, therefore, afraid of lightning
and thought that the wrath of gods was Scientific discoveries are a
visiting them. Now, of course, we result of hardwork by many
people. It can sometimes take
understand that lightning is caused by a long time.
the accumulation of charges in the
clouds. We need not be afraid of We shall now study some properties
lightning, but we have to take of electric charges. We shall also see how
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ø=ìï düVü≤» <äè–«wüj·÷\T 59
they are related to the lightning in the pieces of paper. Take care not to
sky. touch the rubbed end of the refill
Let us perform some activities to with your hand or with a metallic
understand the nature of electric object. Repeat the activity with small
charges. But recall first what you might pieces of dry leaf, husk and mustard
have played as a game. When you rub seeds. Record your observations.
a plastic scale on your dry hair, the
scale can attract very small pieces of When a plastic refill is rubbed with
paper. polythene, it acquires a small electric
charge. Similarly, when a plastic comb
9.2 Charging by Rubbing is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a
small charge. These objects are called
Activity 9.1 charged objects
objects. In the process of
charging the refill and the plastic comb,
Take a used ballpen refill and rub polythene and hair also get charged.
it vigorously with a piece of
polythene. Bring it close to small Let’s try to charge some other
objects that are familiar to you.
Activity 9.2
Collect the objects and the materials listed in Table 9.1. Try to charge each
by rubbing with the materials mentioned in the Table. Record your findings.
You can add more items to the Table.
Table 9.1
Objects Rubbed Materials Attracts/does not Charged/

Used for Rubbing Attract Pieces Not Charged
of Paper
Refill Polythene,
woollen cloth
Balloon Polythene, woollen
cloth, dry hair
Eraser Wool
Steel spoon Polythene,

woollen cloth
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9.3 Types of Charges and Rub the other refill also with
Their Interaction polythene. Bring it close to the
We will select some objects from Table charged refill. Be careful not to
9.1 for the next activity. touch the charged end with your
hand. Is there any effect on the refill
Activity 9.3 in the tumbler? Do the two attract
each other, or repel each other?
(a) Inflate two balloons. Hang them In this activity we have brought
in such a way that they do not touch close together the charged objects
each other (Fig. 9.1). Rub both the that were made of the same
balloons with a woollen cloth and material. What happens if two
release them. What do you observe? charged objects made of different
materials are brought close to each
other? Let’s find out.
(b) Rub a refill and place it gently
in a glass tumbler as before (Fig.
9.3). Bring an inflated charged
balloon near the refill and observe.
Fig. 9.1 : Like charges repel each other

Now let us repeat this activity
with the used pen refills. Rub one
refill with polythene. Place it
carefully in a glass tumbler using
the tumbler as a stand (Fig. 9.2).
Fig. 9.3 : Unlike charges attract each other
Let’s summarise the observations:

 A charged balloon repelled a charged
balloon.
 A charged refill repelled a charged
refill.
 But a charged balloon attracted a
charged refill.
Does it indicate that the charge on
the balloon is of a different kind from
the charge on the refill? Can we say
Fig. 9.2 : Interaction between like charges then, that there are two kinds of
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charges? Can we also say that the with the end of the paper clip.
charges of the same kind repel each Observe what happens. Is there any
other, while charges of different kind effect on the foil strips? Do they
attract each other? repel each other or attract each
It is a convention to call the charge other? Now, touch other charged
acquired by a glass rod when it is bodies with the end of the paper clip.
rubbed with silk as positive. The Do foil strips behave in the same
other kind of charge is said to be way in all cases? Can this apparatus
negative. be used to detect whether a body is
It is observed that when a charged charged or not? Can you explain
glass rod is brought near a charged why the foil strips repel each other?
plastic straw rubbed with polythene
there is attraction between the two.
What do you think would be the kind
of charge on the plastic straw? Your
guess, that the plastic straw would carry
a negative charge is correct.
The electrical charges generated by
rubbing are static. They do not move by
themselves. When charges move, they
constitute an electric current. You have
been reading about electric current since
Class VI. The current in a circuit which
makes a bulb glow, or the current that
makes a wire hot, is nothing but a
motion of charges.
Fig 9.4 : A simple electroscope
9 . 4 Transfer of Charge
The aluminium foil strips receive the
Activity 9.4 same charge from the charged refill
Take an empty jam bottle. Take a through the paper clip (remember that
piece of cardboard slightly bigger in metals are good conductors of
size than the mouth of the bottle. electricity). The strips carrying similar
Pierce a hole in it so that a metal charges repel each other and they
paper clip can be inserted. Open out become wide open. Such a device can
the paper clip as shown in Fig. 9.4. be used to test whether an object is
Cut two strips of aluminium foil carrying charge or not. This device is
about 4 cm  1 cm each. Hang them known as electroscope
electroscope.
on the paper clip as shown. Insert Thus, we find that electrical charge
the paper clip in the cardboard lid can be transferred from a charged object
so that it is perpendicular to it (Fig. to another through a metal conductor.
9.4). Charge a refill and touch it Touch the end of the paper clip gently
with hand and you will find a change in
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the foil strips. They come back to their You learnt in Class VII that during
original state. Repeat charging of foil the development of a thunderstorm, the
strips and touching the paper clip. Every air currents move upward while the
time you will find that the foil strips water droplets move downward. These
collapse as soon as you touch the vigorous movements cause separation
paperclip with hand. Why does it of charges. By a process, not yet
happen? The reason is that the foil strips
completely understood, the positive
lose charge to the earth through your
charges collect near the upper edges of
body. We say that the foil strips are
discharged
discharged. The process of transferring the clouds and the negative charges
of charge from a charged object to the accumulate near the lower edges. There
earth is called earthing
earthing. is accumulation of positive charges near
the ground also. When the magnitude
of the accumulated charges becomes very
Earthing is provided in buildings to
protect us from electrical shocks due large, the air which is normally a poor
to any leakage of electrical current. conductor of electricity, is no longer able
to resist their flow. Negative and positive
9.5 The Story of Lightning charges meet, producing streaks of
bright light and sound. We see streaks
It is now possible to explain lightning
as lightning (Fig. 9.5). The process is
in terms of the charges produced by
called an electric discharge.
rubbing.
Fig 9.5 : Accumulation of charges leading to lightning.

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The process of electric discharge can metal objects. Do not lie on the ground.
occur between two or more clouds, or Instead, squat low on the ground. Place
between clouds and the earth. Today we your hands on your knees with your
need not get frightened by lightning like head between the hands (Fig. 9.6). This
our ancestors did. Now we understand position will make you the smallest
the basic phenomenon. Scientists are target to be struck.
trying hard to improve this
understanding. However, lightning
strike could destroy life and property. It
is, therefore, necessary to take measures
to protect ourselves.
9.6 Lightning Safety

During lightning and thunderstorm no
open place is safe.
 Hearing thunder is an alert to rush
to a safer place.
 After hearing the last thunder, wait
for some time before coming out of
the safe place.
Finding a Safe Place

A house or a building is a safe place.
If you are travelling by car or by bus, Fig. 9.6 : Safe position during lightning
you are safe inside with windows and
doors of the vehicle shut. Inside the house
Lightning can strike telephone cords,
Do’s and Don’ts during a electrical wires and metal pipes (Do you
Thunderstorm remember, lightning is an electrical
Outside discharge?). During a thunderstorm
Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, contact with these should be avoided. It
construction machinery, open cars are is safer to use mobile phones and
not safe. Open fields, tall trees, shelters cordless phones. However, it is not wise
in parks, elevated places do not protect to call up a person who is receiving your
us from lightning strokes. phone through a wired phone.
Carrying an umbrella is not at all a Bathing should be avoided during
good idea during thunderstorms. thunderstorms to avoid contact with
If in a forest, take shelter under running water.
shorter trees. Electrical appliances like computers,
If no shelter is available and you are TVs, etc., should be unplugged. Electrical
in an open field, stay far away from all lights can remain on. They do not cause
trees. Stay away from poles or other any harm.
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Lightning Conductors 9 . 7 Earthquakes

Lightning Conductor is a device used You just learnt about thunderstorm and
to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. In Class VII you learnt about
lightning. A metallic rod, taller than the cyclones. These natural phenomena can
building, is installed in the walls of the cause large scale destruction of human
building during its construction. One life and property. Fortunately, these
end of the rod is kept out in the air and phenomena can be predicted to some
the other is buried deep in the ground extent. The weather department can
(Fig. 9.7). The rod provides easy route warn about a thunderstorm developing
for the transfer of electric charge to the in some area.
ground. If a thunderstorm occurs there is
The metal columns used during always a possibility of lightning and
construction, electrical wires and water cyclones accompanying it. So, we get
pipes in the buildings also protect us to time to take measures to protect
an extent. But do not touch them during ourselves from the damage caused by
a thunderstorm. these phenomena.
lightning
conductor
copper
plate
Fig. 9.7 : Lightning conductor

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There is, however, one natural caused by these earthquakes from

phenomenon which we are not yet able newspapers and magazines of those
to predict accurately. It is an
days. Prepare a short report on the
earthquake. It can cause damage to
suffering of the people during and
human life and property on a huge scale.
after the earthquakes.
A major earthquake occurred in India
on 8 October 2005 in Uri and Tangdhar
towns of North Kashmir (Fig. 9.8). Before What is an earthquake? What
that a major earthquake occurred on 26 happens when it occurs? What can we
January 2001 in Bhuj district of do to minimise its effects? These are
Gujarat. some of the questions which we shall
discuss below.
Activity 9.5
What is an Earthquake?
Ask your parents about the huge
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
damage to life and property caused
trembling of the earth which lasts for a
by these earthquakes. Collect a few
very short time. It is caused by a
pictures showing the damage
disturbance deep inside the earth’s
Fig. 9.8 : Kashmir earthquake

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crust. Earthquakes occur all the time,

all over the earth. They are not even What could cause a
noticed. Major earthquakes are much disturbance inside
less frequent. They can cause immense the earth?
damage to buildings, bridges, dams and
people. There can be a great loss to life Now we know that the tremors are
and property. Earthquakes can cause caused by the disturbance deep down
floods, landslides and tsunamis. A inside the uppermost layer of the earth
major tsunami occurred in the Indian called the crust (Fig. 9.9).
Ocean on 26 December 2004. All the
coastal areas around the ocean suffered
huge losses. crust
Activity 9.6
mantle
Take an outline map of the world.
Locate the eastern coast and outer
core
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
India. Mark other countries around
inner
the Indian Ocean which could have core
suffered damage. Collect accounts
of the devastation caused by the
tsunami in India from your parents, Fig. 9.9 : Structure of the earth
or other elders in the family or in
the neighbourhood. The outermost layer of the earth is
not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each
What Causes an Earthquake? fragment is called a plate (Fig. 9.10).
These plates are in continual motion.
When they brush past one another, or
My grandmother told me
that the earth is balanced
on the horn of a bull and
when the bull shifts it to
the other horn, an
earthquake takes place.
How could it be true?
Eurasian
In ancient times, people did not know Plate
the true cause of earthquakes. Their Arabian
ideas were, therefore, expressed in Plate Indan
mythical stories such as the one told by Plate
Boojho’s grandmother. Similar myths
were prevalent in other parts of the
world. Fig. 9.10 : Earth plates
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a plate goes under another due to carried out. However, most earthquakes
collision (Fig. 9.11), they cause are caused by the movement of earth’s
disturbance in the earth’s crust. It is plates.
this disturbance that shows up as an Since earthquakes are caused by the
earthquake on the surface of the earth. movement of plates, the boundaries of
the plates are the weak zones where
earthquakes are more likely to occur.
The weak zones are also known as
seismic or fault zones
zones. In India, the
Colliding
areas most threatened are Kashmir,
Western and Central Himalayas, the
whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch,
Rajasthan and the Indo–Gangetic Plane.
Some areas of South India also fall in
Brushing
past
the danger zone (Fig. 9.12).
Fig. 9.11 : Movements of earth’s plates
If scientists know so much

about earthquakes, can
they also predict when and
where the next one will
strike?
Although, we know for sure what

causes an earthquake, it is not yet
possible to predict when and where the
next earthquake might occur.
Fig. 9.12 : Movements of Indian earth’s plate

I read somewhere that
underground explosions
The power of an earthquake is
could also cause expressed in terms of a magnitude
tremors. on a scale called the Richter scale
scale.
Really destructive earthquakes have
Tremors on the earth can also be magnitudes higher than 7 on the
caused when a volcano erupts, or a Richter scale. Both Bhuj and Kashmir
meteor hits the earth, or an earthquakes had magnitudes greater
underground nuclear explosion is than 7.5.
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The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are called
seismic waves. The waves are recorded by an instrument called the
seismograph (Fig. 9.13). The instrument is simply a vibrating rod, or a
pendulum, which starts vibrating when tremors occur. A pen is attached to
the vibrating system. The pen records the seismic waves on a paper which
moves under it. By studying these waves, scientists can construct a complete
map of the earthquake, as shown in Fig. 9.14. They can also estimate its
power to cause destruction.
String
Earth’s Sur-
Focus face Seismic
waves
Support Pendulum Bob Epicentre
Pen
Rotating
Drum
Chart
Paper
Inside the earth
A typical seismograph record

Fig. 9.13 : A seismograph Fig. 9.14 : Map of the earthquake
Like many other scales in science (decibel is another example), Richter scale is
not linear. This means that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have one
and half times the destructive energy of an earthquake of magnitude 4. In
fact, an increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more destructive energy.
Therefore, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more destructive
energy than an earthquake of magnitude 4.
Protection against Earthquakes living in seismic zones, where the

We know from the earlier pages that earthquakes are more likely to occur,
earthquakes cannot be predicted. We have to be specially prepared. First of
have also seen that they can be highly all, the buildings in these zones should
destructive. It is, therefore, important be so designed that they can withstand
that we take necessary precautions to major tremors. Modern building
protect ourselves all the time. People technology can make it possible.
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It is advisable to make the structure The Central Building Research

simple so that it is ‘Quake Safe’. Institute, Roorkee, has developed
 Consult qualified architects and knowhow to make quake-resistant
structural engineers. houses.
 In highly seismic areas, the use of In the event that an earthquake does
mud or timber is better than using strike, take the following steps to protect
heavy construction material. Keep yourself.
roofs as light as possible. In case 1. If you are at home
the structure falls, the damage will  Take shelter under a table and stay
not be heavy. there till the shaking stops.
 It is better if the cupboards and  Stay away from tall and heavy objects
shelves are fixed to the walls, so that that may fall on you.
they do not fall easily.  If you are in bed, do not get up.
 Be careful where you hang wall Protect your head with a pillow.
clocks, photo-frames, water heaters 2. If you are outdoors
etc., so that in the event of an
earthquake, they do not fall on  Find a clear spot, away from
people. buildings, trees and overhead power
lines. Drop to the ground.
 Since some buildings may catch fire
due to an earthquake, it is necessary  If you are in a car or a bus, do not
that all buildings, especially tall come out. Ask the driver to drive
buildings, have fire fighting slowly to a clear spot. Do not come
equipment in working order. out till the tremors stop.
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+ KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
CRUST  Some objects can be charged by rubbing with
DISCHARGE other objects.
 There are two kinds of charges — positive

EARTH’S PLATES
charge and negative charge
EARTHQUAKE  Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.
ELECTROSCOPE
 The electrical charges produced by rubbing
LIGHTNING are called static charges.
 When charges move, they constitute an elec-
LIGHTNING
tric current.
CONDUCTOR
 An electroscope may be used to detect
NEGATIVE CHARGE whether a body is charged or not.
 The process of transfer of charge from a
POSITIVE CHARGE
charged object to the earth is called earthing.
RICHTER SCALE  The process of electric discharge between
clouds and the earth or between different
SEISMOGRAPH clouds causes lightning.
THUNDER  Lightning strike could destroy life and prop-

erty.
THUNDERSTORM  Lightning conductors can protect buildings
from the effects of lightning.
TRANSFER OF
 An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trem-
CHARGE
bling of the earth.
TSUNAMI  Earthquake is caused by a disturbance deep
inside the earth’s crust.
TREMOR
 It is not possible to predict the occurrence of
an earthquake.
 Earthquakes tend to occur at the boundaries
of earth’s plates. These boundaries are known
as fault zones.
 Destructive energy of an earthquake is mea-
sured on the Richter scale. The earthquake
measuring 7 or more on Richter scale can
cause severe damage to life and property.
 We should take necessary precautions to pro-
tect ourselves from earthquakes.
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Exercises
Select the correct option in Questions 1 and 2.
1. Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction?
(a) A plastic scale
(b) A copper rod
(c) An inflated balloon
(d) A woollen cloth.
2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the rod
(a) and the cloth both acquire positive charge.
(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge.
(c) and the cloth both acquire negative charge.
(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.
3. Write T against true and F against false in the following statements.
(a) Like charges attract each other (T/F)
(b) A charged glass rod attract a charged plastic straw (T/F)
(c) Lightning conductor cannot protect a building from lightning (T/F)
(d) Earthquakes can be predicted in advance (T/F)
4. Sometimes, a crackling sound is heard while taking off a sweater during

winters. Explain.
5. Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it with our hand.
6. Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an earthquake is

measured. An earthquake measures 3 on this scale. Would it be recorded
by a seismograph? Is it likely to cause much damage?
7. Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from lightning.

8. Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another charged balloon
whereas an uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon?
9. Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which can be used to

detect a charged body.
10. List three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike.
11. Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake strikes. What
precaution would you take to protect yourself?
12. The weather department has predicted that a thunderstorm is likely to

occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to go out on that day. Would you
carry an umbrella? Explain.
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rdüT≈£îyÓfi‘¯ êsê? $e]+#·+&ç?

1. Open a water tap. Adjust the flow so that it forms a thin stream.
Charge a refill. Bring it near the water stream. Observe what
happens. Write a short report on the activity.
2. Make your own charge detector. Take a paper strip roughly
10 cm × 3 cm. Give it a shape as shown in Fig. 9.15. Balance it on
a needle. Bring a charged body near it. Observe what happens.
Write a brief report, explaining its working.
Paper 10 cm ×× 3 cm
Fold along the dotted line
Cut along the dotted line
Needle
ThermoCole
Fig. 9.15
3. This activity should be performed at night. Go to a room where there
is a fluorescent tube light. Charge a balloon. Switch off the tube light
so that the room is completely dark. Bring the charged balloon near
the tubelight. You should see a faint glow. Move the balloon along
the length of the tube and observe how the glow changes.
Caution : Do not touch the metal parts of the tube or the wires
connecting the tube with the mains.
4. Find out if there is an organisation in your area which provides
relief to those suffering from natural disaster. Enquire about the
type of help they render to the victims of earthquakes. Prepare a
brief report on the problems of the earthquake victims.
For more information on these topics, visit:
 science.howstuffworks.com/lightning.htm
 science.howstuffworks.com/earthquake.htm
nuÛÑ´düq ø=qkÕ–+|ü⁄ ` ø£‘ê´\T ÁbÕC…≈£îº\T

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eT]j·TT Á|üø±X¯+ m˝≤ e÷s¡T‘·T+<√ >∑eTì+#·+&ç.
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‘êø£e<äT›.
4. Á|üø£ ‹ yÓ|’ Øü ‘ê´\ e\q u≤<Û|ä &ü y˚ ê]øÏ ñ|üXe¯ Tq+ ø£*–+#˚ dü+düú @<ÓH’ ê MT ÁbÕ+‘·+˝À
ñ+<ë ˝Ò<ë nì ‘Ó\TdüTø√+&ç. uÛÑ÷ø£+|ü u≤~Û‘·T\≈£î yês¡T m≥Te+{Ï düVü‰j·T+
n+~kÕÔs√ $#ê]+#·+&ç. uÛÑ÷ø£+|ü u≤~Û‘·T\ düeTdü´\ô|’ dü+øÏå|üÔ ìy˚~ø£qT ‘·j·÷s¡T
#˚jT· +&ç.
á n+XÊ\ô|’ eT]+‘· düe÷#ês¡+ ø=s¡≈£î, dü+<ä]Ù+#·+&ç:
 science.howstuffworks.com/lightning.htm
 science.howstuffworks.com/earthquake.htm
Chapter
10 COMBUSTION AND FLAME
W
e use different kinds of fuel for
various purposes at home, in
industry and for running
automobiles. Can you name a few fuels
used in our homes? Name a few fuels
used in trade and industry. What fuels
are used for running automobiles? Your
list will contain fuels like cowdung,
wood, coal, charcoal, petrol, diesel,
compressed natural gas (CNG), etc.
You are familiar with the burning of a
candle. What is the difference between the
burning of a candle and the burning of a
fuel like coal? May be you were able to
guess right: candle burns with a flame
whereas coal does not. Similarly, you will
find many other materials burning
Fig. 10.1 : Burning of magnesium
without a flame. Let us study the chemical
process of burning and the types of flame A chemical process in which a
produced during this process. substance reacts with oxygen to give
off heat is called combustion
combustion. The
10.1 What is Combustion? substance that undergoes combustion
Recall the activity of burning of is said to be combustible. It is also called
magnesium ribbon per for med in a fuel
fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or
Class VII. We learnt that magnesium gas. Sometimes, light is also given off
burns to form magnesium oxide and during combustion, either as a flame or
produces heat and light (Fig. 10.1). as a glow.
We can perform a similar activity with In the reactions mentioned
a piece of charcoal. Hold the piece with above magnesium and charcoal are
a pair of tongs and bring it near the combustible substances.
flame of a candle or a Bunsen burner.
What do you observe?
We find that charcoal burns in air.
We know that coal, too, burns in air We were told that
food is a fuel for
producing carbon dioxide, heat and
our body.
light.
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<äVü≤qeTT ` C≤«\ 89
Activity 10.2
(Caution : Be careful while handling
Rightly so. In our body burning candle).
food is broken down by Fix a lighted candle on a table. Put
reaction with oxygen and a glass chimney over the candle and
heat is produced. We
rest it on a few wooden blocks in
learnt that in Class VII.
such a way that air can enter the
Activity 10.1
Collect some materials like straw,
matchsticks, kerosene oil, paper,
iron nails, stone pieces, glass etc.
Under the supervision of your
teacher try to burn each of these
materials one by one. If combustion
takes place mark the material
combustible
combustible, otherwise mark it (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.2: Experiment to show that air is
non-combustible (Table 10.1). essential for burning
Table 10 .1 : Combustible and N on-
10.1 chimney [Fig. 10.2(a)]. Observe
combustible Substances what happens to the flame. Now
remove the blocks and let the
Material Combustible Non- chimney rest on the table [Fig.
combustible
10.2(b)]. Again observe the flame.
Wood Finally, put a glass plate over the
Paper
chimney [Fig. 10.2(c)]. Watch the
flame again. What happens in the
Iron nails three cases? Does the flame flicker
Kerosene oil off? Does it flicker and give smoke?
Does it burn unaffected? Can you
Stone piece infer anything at all about the role
Straw played by air in the process of
burning?
Charcoal
Matchsticks We find that for combustion, air is
Glass necessary. The candle burns freely in
case (a) when air can enter the
Can you name some more chimney from below. In case (b), when
substances which are combustible? You air does not enter the chimney from
can add those to Table 10.1. below, the flame flickers and produces
Let us investigate conditions under smoke. In case (c), the flame finally
which combustion takes place. goes off because the air is not available.
C
9 OMBUSTION
0 AND FLAME COMBUSTION AND 90
FLAME
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is covered with a blanket to extinguish

fire (Fig. 10.3). Can you guess why?
We have read that the sun
produces its own heat and
light. Is it also some kind of
combustion?
In the sun, heat and light are

produced by nuclear reactions. You
will learn about this process in higher
classes.
Fig. 10.3 : Blanket wrapped around a person
whose clothes caught fire
Activity 10.3 Now recall some of your experiences.
Place a piece of burning wood or Does a matchstick burn by itself?
charcoal on an iron plate or Tawa. How does it burn?
Cover it with a glass jar or a You must have had an experience of
tumbler, or a transparent plastic jar. burning a piece of paper. Does it burn
Observe what happens. Does when a burning matchstick is brought
charcoal stop burning after near it?
sometime? Can you think of the Can you burn a piece of wood by
reason why it stops burning? bringing a lighted matchstick near it?
Why do you have to use paper or
You might have heard that when the kerosene oil to start fire in wood or coal?
clothes of a person catch fire, the person Have you heard of forest fires?
During extreme heat

of summer, at some
places dry grass
catches fire. From
the grass, it spreads
to trees, and very
soon the whole forest
is on fire (Fig. 10.4).
It is very difficult to
control such fires.
Fig. 10.4 : Forest fire
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Do these experiences tell you that We find that a combustible substance

different substances catch fire at cannot catch fire or burn as long as its
different temperatures? temperature is lower than its ignition
The lowest temperature at which a temperature. Have you ever seen
substance catches fire is called its cooking oil catching fire when a frying
ignition temperature. pan is kept for long on a burning stove?
Can you tell now why a matchstick Kerosene oil and wood do not catch fire
does not catch fire on its own at room on their own at room temperature. But,
temperature? Why does the matchstick if kerosene oil is heated a little, it will
start burning on rubbing it on the side catch fire. But if wood is heated a little,
of the matchbox? it would still not catch fire. Does it mean
that ignition temperature of kerosene oil
The history of the matchstick is very is lower than that of wood? Does it mean
old. More than five thousand years that we need to take special care in
ago small pieces of pinewood dipped storing kerosene oil? The following
in sulphur were used as matches in activity shows that it is essential for a
ancient Egypt. The modern safety
substance to reach ignition temperature
match was developed only about two
hundred years ago.
to burn.
A mixture of antimony trisulphide,
potassium chlorate and white Activity 10.4
phosphorus with some glue and
starch was applied on the head of a (Caution : Be careful while handling
match made of suitable wood. When burning candle).
struck against a rough surface, white
phosphorus got ignited due to the heat Make two paper cups by folding a
of friction. This started the sheet of paper. Pour about 50 mL of
combustion of the match. However, water in one of the cups. Heat both
white phosphorus proved to be the cups separately with a candle
dangerous both for the workers (Fig. 10.5). What do you observe?
involved in the manufacturing of
matches and for the users.
These days the head of the safety
match contains only antimony
trisulphide and potassium chlorate. water
The rubbing surface has powdered
paper
glass and a little red phosphorus
cups
(which is much less dangerous).
When the match is struck against
the rubbing surface, some red
phosphorus gets converted into white Fig. 10.5 : Heating water in a paper cup
phosphorus. This immediately reacts
with potassium chlorate in the What happens to the empty paper
matchstick head to produce enough cup? What happens to the paper cup
heat to ignite antimony trisulphide with water? Does water in this cup
and start the combustion.
become hot?
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If we continue heating
the cup, we can even boil
water in the paper cup.
Can you think of an
explanation for this
phenomenon?
The heat supplied to
the paper cup is
transferred to water by
conduction. So, in the
presence of water, the
ignition temperature of
paper is not reached.
Hence, it does not burn.
The substances which
have very low ignition
temperature and can
easily catch fire with 10.6:
Fig. 10 .6: Firemen extinguish the fire by throwing water under
a flame are called
inflammable substances
substances. Examples of Does your city/town have a fire
inflammable substances are petrol, brigade station?
alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) When a fire brigade arrives, what
etc. Can you list some more inflammable does it do? It pours water on the fire
substances? (Fig. 10.6). Water cools the combustible
material so that its temperature is
10.2 How Do We Control Fire? br ought below its ign it ion
temperature. This prevents the fire
You must have seen or heard of fire from spreading. Water vapours also
breaking out in homes, shops and surround the combustible material,
factories. If you have seen such an helping in cutting off the supply of air.
accident, write a short description in So, the fire is extinguished.
your note book. Also, share the You have learnt that there are three
experience with your classmates. essential requirements for producing
fire. Can you list these requirements?
Find out the telephone number of the
fire service in your area. If a fire
These are: fuel, air (to supply
breaks out in your house or in your oxygen) and heat (to raise the
neighbourhood, the first thing to do temperature of the fuel beyond the
is to call the fire service. ignition temperature). Fire can be
controlled by removing one or more of
these requirements. The job of a fire
It is important that all of us extinguisher is to cut off the supply of
know the telephone numbers air, or to bring down the temperature
of the fire service.
of the fuel, or both. Notice that the fuel
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The most common fire

extinguisher is water. But
water works only when
things like wood and paper
are on fire. If electrical
equipment is on fire, water
may conduct electricity
and harm those trying to
douse the fire. Water is
also not suitable for fires
involving oil and petrol. Do
you recall that water is
heavier than oil? So, it Fig. 10.7 : Fire extinguisher
sinks below the oil, and oil
keeps burning on the top.
For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like
petrol, carbon dioxide (CO 2) is the best extinguisher. CO2, being heavier than
oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. Since the contact between the fuel and
oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. The added advantage of CO2 is that in
most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
How do we get the supply of carbon dioxide? It can be stored at high pressure
as a liquid in cylinders. In what form is the LPG stored in cylinders? When
released from the cylinder, CO2 expands enormously in volume and cools down.
So, it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it also brings down the
temperature of the fuel. That is why it is an excellent fire extinguisher. Another
way to get CO 2 is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire, these
chemicals give off CO 2.
in most cases cannot be eliminated. We find that the gas burns rapidly
If, for instance, a building catches fire, and produces heat and light. Such
the whole building is the fuel. combustion is known as rapid
10.3 Types of Combustion combustion
combustion.
There are substances like
Bring a burning matchstick or a gas
phosphorus which burn in air at room
lighter near a gas stove in the kitchen.
temperature.
Turn on the knob of the gas stove. What
do you observe? The type of combustion in which
a material suddenly bursts into
CAUTION : Do not handle the gas flames, without the application of any
stove yourself. Ask your parents apparent cause is called spontaneous
to help. combustion.
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ñ+~. n˝≤π> q÷HÓ, ô|Á{À˝Ÿ e+{Ï |ü<ësêú\T
eT+&ÉT ‘·Tqï|ü⁄Œ&ÉT ≈£L&Ü yê{Ïì Äs¡Œ&ÜìøÏ
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ñ+≥T+<äì MT≈£î ‘Ó\TdüTø£<ë? ø±ã{Ïº, ˙s¡T
q÷HÓ jÓTTø£ÿ n&ÉT>∑T uÛ≤>±ìøÏ #˚]b˛‘·T+~. ô|’qTqï q÷HÓ eT+&ÉT‘·÷H˚ ñ+≥T+~.
$<äT´‘Y |ü]ø£sê\T eT]j·TT ô|Á{À˝Ÿ e+{Ï <äVü≤qo* |ü<ësêú\T eT+&ÉT‘·Tqï|ü⁄&ÉT yê{Ïì Äs¡Œ&ÜìøÏ ø±s¡“Hé &Éj·÷¬ø’‡&é
(CO2) ñ‘·ÔeTyÓTÆq~. CO2, ÄøÏ‡»Hé ø£+fÒ ãs¡TyÓ’q~, eT+≥qT n~ ˇø£ <äT|üŒ{Ï˝≤ ø£ù|ŒdüTÔ+~. |òü*‘·+>± Ç+<Ûäq+ eT]j·TT
ÄøÏ‡»Hé eT<Ûä´ dü+ã+<Ûä+ ‘Ó–b˛sTT, eT+≥ ìj·T+Á‹+#·ã&ÉT‘·T+~. #ê˝≤ dü+<äsê“¤\˝À CO2 qT ñ|üjÓ÷–+#·&É+ e\¢ ø£*π>
n<äq|ü⁄ Á|üjÓ÷»q+ @$T≥+fÒ n~ $<äT´‘Y |ü]ø£sê\≈£î Vü‰ì ø£*–+#·<Tä .
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yÓ÷‘ê<ä
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oÁ|òüT <äVü≤q+ n+{≤s¡T.
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Spontaneous combustion of coal dust

has resulted in many disastrous fires
in coal mines. Spontaneous forest
fires are sometimes due to the heat
of the sun or due to lightning strike.
However, most forest fires are due to
the carelessness of human beings. It
is important to remember that the Fig. 10.8: Colours of a candle flame and the
campfires must be completely flame of a kitchen stove
extinguished before leaving a forest
after a picnic, or a visit.
We generally have fireworks on

festival days. When a cracker is ignited,
a sudden reaction takes place with the
evolution of heat, light and sound. A
large amount of gas formed in the
reaction is liberated. Such a reaction is
called explosion. Explosion can also take
place if pressure is applied on the
cracker.
10.4 Flame
Observe an LPG flame. Can you tell the
colour of the flame. What is the colour
of a candle flame?
Fig. 10.9 : Flames of kerosene lamp, candle
Recall your experience of burning a and Bunsen burner
magnesium ribbon in Class VII. If you
do not have experience of burning the Record your observations and
remaining items in Table 10.2 you can mention whether on burning the
do that now. material forms a flame or not.
Table 10.2 Materials forming Flame on Burning

S.No. Material Forms flame Does not form flame
1. Candle
2. Magnesium
3. Camphor
4. Kerosene Stove
5. Charcoal
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3. ø£s÷¡ Œs¡+
4. øÏs√dæHé düyº é
5. u§>∑TZ
10.5 Structure of a Flame

Activity 10.5
Light a candle (Caution : Be careful).
Hold a 4-5 cm long thin glass tube
with a pair of tongs and introduce
its one end in the dark zone of a
non-flickering candle flame (Fig.
10.10). Bring a lighted matchstick Fig. 10.11
near the other end of the glass tube.
Do you see a flame caught at this When the candle flame is steady,
end of the glass tube after a while? introduce a clean glass plate/slide into
If so, what is it that produces a the luminous zone of the flame
flame? Notice that the wax near the (Fig. 10.11). Hold it there with a pair of
heated wick melts quickly. tongs for about 10 seconds. Then
remove it. What do you observe?
Fig. 10.12
Fig. 10.10 A circular blackish ring is formed on

the glass plate/slide. It indicates the
The substances which vapourise deposition of unburnt carbon particles
during burning, give flames. For present in the luminous zone of the
example, kerosene oil and molten wax flame.
rise through the wick and are vapourised Hold a thin long copper wire just
during burning and form flames. inside the non-luminous zone of flame
Charcoal, on the other hand, does not for about 30 seconds (Fig. 10.12).
vapourise and so does not produce a Notice that the portion of the copper
flame. In Activity 10.5, could the vapours wire just outside the flame gets red hot.
of wax coming out of the glass tube be Does it indicate that the non-luminous
the cause of the flame produced? zone of the flame has a high
10.5 C≤«\ jÓTTø£ÿ ìsêàD+

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temperature? In fact, this part of the 10.6 What is a Fuel?

flame is the hottest part (Fig. 10.13).
Recall that the sources of heat energy
outer zone of for domestic and industrial purposes
hottest complete are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol,
part combustion (blue) kerosene etc. These substances are
moderately called fuels. A good fuel is one which is
hot middle zone of readily available. It is cheap. It burns
partial combustion easily in air at a moderate rate. It
least (yellow) produces a large amount of heat. It does
hot
not leave behind any undersirable
innermost zone of substances.
wax candle unburnt wax
vapours (black) There is probably no fuel that could
be considered as an ideal fuel fuel. We
Fig. 10.13 : Different zones of candle flame should look for a fuel which fulfils most
of the requirements for a particular use.
Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone Fuels differ in their cost. Some fuels
of a flame with a metallic blow-pipe for are cheaper than others.
melting gold and silver (Fig. 10.14). Why Make a list of fuels familiar to you.
do they use the outermost zone of the Group them as solid, liquid and gaseous
flame? fuels as in Table 10.3.
10.7 Fuel Efficiency

Suppose you were asked to boil a given
quantity of water using cow dung, coal
and LPG as fuel. Which fuel would you
prefer? Give your reason. You may take
the help of your parents. Do these three
fuels produce the same amount of heat?
The amount of heat energy produced on
complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is
Fig. 10.14 : Goldsmith blowing through called its calorific value
value. The calorific
a metallic pipe value of a fuel is expressed in a unit
Table 10.3 : Types of Fuels
S. No. Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels
1. Coal Kerosene oil Natural gas

2.
3.
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10.7 Ç+<Ûäq <äø£å‘·
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1. u§>∑TZ øÏs√dæHé düVü≤» yêj·TTe⁄
2.
3.
called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg). particles. These fine particles are

Calorific values of some fuels are given dangerous pollutants causing
in Table 10.4. respiratory diseases, such as asthma.
2. Incomplete combustion of these
Table 10.4 : Calorific Values of fuels gives carbon monoxide gas. It is a
different Fuels
very poisonous gas. It is dangerous to
Fuel Calorific Value burn coal in a closed room. The carbon
(kJ/kg) monoxide gas produced can kill persons
sleeping in that room.
Cow dung cake 6000-8000
Wood 17000-22000 Oh! So, that is why we are
Coal 25000-33000 advised never to sleep in a
Petrol 45000 room with burning or
smouldering coal fire in it.
Kerosene 45000
Diesel 45000 3. Combustion of most fuels releases
Methane 50000 carbon dioxide in the environment.
CNG 50000 Increased concentration of carbon
LPG 55000 dioxide in the air is believed to cause
Biogas 35000-40000 global warming
warming.
Hydrogen 150000 Global warming is the rise in
temperature of the atmosphere of the
Burning of Fuels Leads to Harmful earth. This results, among other things,
Products in the melting of polar glaciers, which
leads to a rise in the sea level, causing
The increasing fuel consumption has floods in the coastal areas. Low lying
harmful effects on the environment. coastal areas may even be permanently
1. Carbon fuels like wood, coal, submerged under water.
petroleum release unburnt carbon
4. Burning of coal and diesel releases
For centuries, wood was used as
sulphur dioxide gas. It is an extremely
domestic and industrial fuel. But now
it has been replaced by coal and other suffocating and corrosive gas. Moreover,
fuels like LPG. In many rural parts of petrol engines give off gaseous oxides of
our country, people still use wood as a nitrogen. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
fuel because of its easy availability and dissolve in rain water and form acids.
low cost. However, burning of wood gives Such rain is called acid rain
rain. It is very
a lot of smoke which is very harmful for
harmful for crops, buildings and soil. You
human beings. It causes respiratory
problem. Also, trees provide us with have already learnt about it in Class VII.
useful substances which are lost when The use of diesel and petrol as fuels
wood is used as fuel. Moreover cutting in automobiles is being replaced by
of trees leads to deforestation which is CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), because
quite harmful to the environment, as CNG produces the harmful products in
you learnt in Class VII.
very small amounts. CNG is a cleaner fuel.
Ç+<Ûqä + jÓTTø£ÿ ø¬ ˝À]|òøæ ˘ $\TeqT øÏ˝ÀCÖ˝Ÿ / øÏ˝ÀÁ>±eTT ø±\Twü´ ø±s¡ø£ sπ DTe⁄\T ÄdüeÔ ÷ e+{Ï XÊ«düø√X¯ yê´<ÛTä \≈£î
(kJ/kg) nH˚ Á|üe÷D≤\˝À e´ø£|Ô sü T¡ kÕÔsT¡ . ø=ìï Ç+<ÛHä ê\ ø±s¡DeTe⁄‘êsTT.
¬ø˝À]|òæø˘ $\Te\T |ü{Ïºø£ 10.4˝À Çe«ã&Ü¶sTT. 2. á Ç+<ÛHä ê\ ndü+|üPs¡í <äV≤ü q+ e\¢ ø±s¡“Hé yÓ÷Hê¬ø‡’ &é
|ü{Ïºø£: 10.4: $$<Ûä Ç+<ÛäHê\ ¬ø˝À]|òæø˘ $\Te\T yêj·TTe⁄ $&ÉT<ä\>∑TqT. Ç~ #ê˝≤ $wü|Pü ]‘·yTÓ qÆ yêj·TTe⁄.
Ç+<Ûqä + ¬ø˝À]|òæø˘ $\Te (kJ/kg) eT÷dæ ñqï >∑~˝À u§>∑TZqT eT+&ç+#·&É+ Á|üe÷<äø£s¡+.
Äe⁄ ù|&É‘√ #˚dæq |æ&Éø£ 6000-8000 Ç˝≤ ñ‘·Œ‹Ô nsTTq ø±s¡“Hé yÓ÷Hê¬ø’‡&é yêj·TTe⁄ e\q
#Óø£ÿ 17000-22000 Ä >∑~˝À ìÁ~düTÔqï e´≈£îÔ\T #·ìb˛e&É+ »s¡T>∑T‘·T+~.
u§>∑TZ 25000-33000 zVt≤! n+<äTπø ø±uÀ\T, eT+&ÉT‘·Tqï ˝Ò<ë
ô|Á{À\T 45000 C≤«\ ˝Ò≈£î+&Ü ø±\T‘·Tqï u§>∑TZ\ ≈£î+|ü{Ï ñqï
øÏs√dæHé >∑~˝À m|ü⁄Œ&É÷ ìÁ~+#·e<ä›ì eTq≈£î #ÓãT‘ês¡T.
45000
&ûõ˝Ÿ 3. #ê˝≤ Ç+<ÛäHê\T <äVü≤q+ #Ó+~q|ü⁄&ÉT yê‘êes¡D+˝À
45000
MT<∏˚Hé ø±s¡ “ Hé &É j · ÷ ¬ ø ’ ‡ &é qT $&É T <ä \ #˚ k ÕÔ s TT. >±*˝À
50000
dü+|”&´É düV≤ü »yêj·TTe⁄ (CNG) ø±s¡“Hé &Éj·÷¬ø’‡&é >±&ÛÉ‘· ô|s¡>∑&É+ uÛÑ÷‘ê|ü+ q≈£î
50000
Á<äMø£‘· Ç+<Ûqä yêj·TTe⁄ (LPG) ø±s¡DeTe⁄‘·T+~.
55000
ãjÓ÷>±´dt uÛ Ñ ÷ ‘ê|ü + nH˚ ~ uÛ Ñ ÷ yê‘êes¡ D ñc˛í Á >∑ ‘ · q T
35000-40000 ô|+#·T‘·T+~. Bì |òü*‘·+>±, <Ûäe ÁbÕ+‘·+˝Àì
ôV’≤Á&√»Hé 150000 Væ≤e÷˙q<ë\T ø£]–b˛‘êsTT, Ç+ø± Ç‘·s¡ Á|üu≤Û yê\qT
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ñ‘·ŒqïeTe⁄‘êsTT <ë]rdüTÔ+~, Ç+ø± düeTTÁ<ärs¡ ÁbÕ+‘ê\˝À es¡<ä\≈£î
ô|s¡T>∑T‘·Tqï Ç+<Ûqä $ìjÓ÷>∑+ |üsêés¡D+ô|’ Vü‰ìø£sy¡ TÓ qÆ ≈£L&Ü ø±s¡DeTe⁄‘·T+~. ˝À‘·≥Tº rs¡ ÁbÕ+‘ê\T
Á|üu≤Û yê\qT #·÷|ü⁄‘·T+~. XÊX¯«‘·+>± ˙{Ï˝À eTTì–b˛e#·TÃ.
1. #Óø£ÿ, u§>∑TZ, ô|Á{À*j·T+ e+{Ï Ç+<ÛäHê\T eT+&Éì 4. u§>∑TZ eT]j·TT &ûõ˝Ÿ \qT eT+&ç+#·&É+ e\¢ dü\Œ¤sY
ø£s¡“q πsDTe⁄\qT $&ÉT<ä\ #˚kÕÔsTT. á Á|üe÷<äø£s¡ dü÷ø£åà &Éj·÷¬ø’‡&é yêj·TTe⁄ $&ÉT<ä\ ne⁄‘·T+~. Ç~ n~Ûø£+>±
X¯‘êu≤›\T>±, >∑Vü≤, bÕ]ÁXÊ$Tø£ nedüsê\≈£î Ç+<Ûäq+>± ø£åj·TeTT ø£*–+#˚ eT]j·TT }|æ] dü\|ü˙j·Tì yêj·TTe⁄.
ø£\|ü ñ|üjÓ÷>∑|ü&ÉT‘·Tqï~. ø±˙ Ç|ü⁄Œ&ÉT <ëì kÕúq+˝À Ç+ø±, ô|Á{À˝Ÿ Ç+»qT¢ HÓÁ’ {À»Hé yêj·TTe⁄ jÓTTø£ÿ Ä¬ø‡’ &Éq¢ T
u§>∑TZ eT]j·TT Á<äMø£‘· Ç+<Ûäq yêj·TTe⁄ (LPG) e+{Ï ≈£L&Ü $&ÉT<ä\ #˚kÕÔsTT. dü\Œ¤sY eT]j·TT HÓ’Á{À»Hé Ä¬ø’‡&ÉT¢
Ç‘·s¡ Ç+<ÛäHê\qT ñ|üjÓ÷–düTÔHêï+. ø£\|ü düT\uÛÑ+>±,
‘·≈î£ ÿe <Ûsä ≈¡ î£ \_Û+#·T≥ e\q eTq <˚X+¯ ˝Àì nH˚ø£ Á>±MTD es¡¸|⁄ü ˙{Ï˝À ø£]– Äe÷¢\qT @s¡Œs¡TkÕÔsTT. n˝≤+{Ï esê¸ìï
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ñ|üj÷Ó –düTHÔ êïs¡T. nsTT‘˚, ø£\|üqT eT+&ç+#·&+É e\¢ #ê˝≤ H˚\≈£î #ê˝≤ Vü‰ìø£s+¡ . MTs¡T á $wüj÷· ìï 7e ‘·s>¡ ‹∑ ˝À
m≈£îÿe bı>∑ edüTÔ+~, Ç~ e÷qe⁄\≈£î #ê˝≤ Vü‰ìø£s¡+. H˚s¡TÃ≈£îHêïs¡T ø£<ë.
n˝≤π> XÊ«düø√X¯ düeTdü´\qT ≈£L&Ü ø£*–düTÔ+~. ø£\|üqT
Ç+<Ûäq+>± ñ|üjÓ÷–+∫q≥¢sTT‘˚ #Ó≥¢ qT+&ç \_Û+#˚ dü+|”&É´ düVü≤»yêj·TTe⁄ Vü‰ìø£s¡yÓTÆq ñ‘·ŒHêï\qT
ñ|ü j Ó ÷ >∑ ø £ s ¡ y Ó T Æ q |ü < ësêú \ qT eTq+ qwü º b ˛‘ê+. #ê˝≤ ‘· ≈ £ î ÿe yÓ ÷ ‘ê<ä T ˝À ñ‘· Œ ‹Ô #˚ j · T &É + e\q
n+‘˚ø±≈£î+&Ü, MTs¡T 7e ‘·s¡>∑‹˝À #·<äTe⁄ ≈£îqï≥T¢>± yêVü≤Hê\˝À Ç+<Ûqä +>± &ûõ˝Ÿ eT]j·TT ô|Á{À\T kÕúq+˝À
#Ó ≥ ¢ q T q]øÏ y ˚ j · T &É + n&É e ⁄\T ‘· – Z b ˛e&ÜìøÏ
ø±s¡DeTÚ‘·T+~. Ç~ |üsêés¡D≤ìøÏ #ê˝≤ Vü‰ìø£s¡+. Bìï ñ|üjÓ÷–düTÔHêïs¡T. CNG ˇø£ dü«#·Ã¤ Ç+<Ûäq+.
KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
ACID RAIN  The substances which burn in air are called
combustible.
CALORIFIC VALUE
VALUE
 Oxygen (in air) is essential for combustion.
COMBUSTION  During the process of combustion, heat and
light are given out.
DEFORESTATION
DEFORESTA  Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature
at which a combustible substance catches
EXPLOSION fire.
 Inflammable substances have very low
FLAME
ignition temperature.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER  Fire can be controlled by removing one or more
requirements essential for producing fire.
FUEL  Water is commonly used to control fires.
 Water cannot be used to control fires involving
FUEL EFFICIENCY
electrical equipment or oils.
GLOBAL WARMING  There are various types of combustions such
as rapid combustion, spontaneous
IDEAL FUEL combustion, explosion, etc.
 There are three different zones of a flame -
IGNITION
dark zone, luminous zone and non-luminous
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
zone.
INFLAMMABLE  An ideal fuel is cheap, readily available, readily
SUBSTANCES
SUBSTANCES combustible and easy to transport. It has high
calorific value. It does not produce gases or
residues that pollute the environment.
 Fuels differ in their efficiency and cost.
 Fuel efficiency is expressed in terms of its
calorific value which is expressed in units of
kilojoule per kg.
 Unburnt carbon particles in air are dangerous
pollutants causing respiratory problems.
 Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives
poisonous carbon monoxide gas.
 Increased percentage of carbon dioxide in air
has been linked to global warming.
 Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen produced by
the burning of coal, diesel and petrol cause
acid rain which is harmful for crops, buildings
and soil.

ÄeT¢ es¡¸+  >±*˝À eT+&˚ |ü<ësêú\qT <äVü≤qo* |ü<ësêú\T n+{≤s¡T.
 <äVü≤HêìøÏ ÄøÏ‡»Hé (>±*˝À) nedüs¡+.
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<äVü≤q+  ˇø£ <äVü≤qo* |ü<ës¡∆+ @ ø£ìwüº ñc˛íÁ>∑‘· e<ä› eT+&ÉT‘·T+<√
<ëìì Ä |ü<ës¡ú »«\q ñc˛íÁ>∑‘· n+{≤s¡T.
n&Ée⁄\qT q]øÏy˚j·TT≥  <äVü≤qo* |ü<ësêú\T #ê˝≤ ‘·≈£îÿe »«\q ñc˛íÁ>∑‘·qT ø£*–
Áù|\T&ÉT ñ+{≤sTT.
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C≤«\ m≈£îÿe ø±s¡ø±\qT ‘=\–+#·&+É <ë«sê eT+≥qT ìj·T+Á‹+#·e#·TÃ.
eT+≥\qT ÄπsŒ kÕ<Ûäq+  kÕ<Ûës¡D+>± eT+≥\qT Äs¡Œ&ÜìøÏ ˙{Ïì ñ|üjÓ÷–kÕÔs¡T.
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Ç+<Ûqä + yê{Ïì Äs¡Œ&ÜìøÏ ˙s¡T |üìøÏsê<äT.
Ç+<Ûäq <äø£å‘·  <äVü≤q+ |ü\T s¡ø±\T>± ñ+≥T+~. n$: oÁ|òüT <äVü≤q+, dü«‘·dæ<ä∆
uÛ÷Ñ ‘ê|üeTT <äVü≤q+, Áù|\T&ÉT yÓTT<ä˝…’q$.
 C≤«\˝À eT÷&ÉT s¡ø±˝…’q ÁbÕ+‘ê\T ñ+{≤sTT. n$ Nø£{Ï
Ä<äsÙ¡ Ç+<Ûqä + ÁbÕ+‘·eTT, Á|üø±X¯e+‘·yTÓ qÆ ÁbÕ+‘·+, Á|üø±X¯e+‘·+ ø±ì ÁbÕ+‘·+
»«\q ñc˛íÁ>∑‘·  Ä<äsÙ¡ Ç+<ÛHä êìøÏ n+<äTu≤≥T <Ûsä ,¡ Ç+<Ûqä \uÛ´Ñ ‘·, ‘·«s¡>± <äV≤ü q+
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ñ+≥T+~. Ç~ |üsêés¡D≤ìï ø£\Twæ‘·+ #˚ùd yêj·TTe⁄\qT ø±ì,
neX‚cÕ\Tø±ì ñ‘·Œ‹Ô #˚j·T<äT.
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 Ç+<Ûäq <äø£å‘·qT yê{Ï ¬ø˝À]|òæø˘ $\Te <ë«sê, øÏ˝ÀCÖ\T/ øÏ˝À
Á>±eTT Á|üe÷D≤\˝À ‘Ó*j·TCÒkÕÔs¡T
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$&ÉT<ä\e⁄‘·T+~.
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ne⁄‘·T+~.
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$&ÉT<ä\j˚T´ dü\Œ¤sY eT]j·TT HÓÁ’ {À»Hé jÓTTø£ÿ Ä¬ø‡’ &ÉT¢ ÄeT¢ esê¸\≈£î
ø±s¡DeTe⁄‘êsTT. Ç$ |ü+≥\≈£î, uÛÑeHê\≈£î, H˚\≈£L Vü‰ìø£s¡+.
Exercises
1. List conditions under which combustion can take place.

(a) Burning of wood and coal causes of air.
(b) A liquid fuel, used in homes is .
(c) Fuel must be heated to its before it starts
burning.
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by .
3. Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced pollution in
our cities.
4. Compare LPG and wood as fuels.
5. Give reasons.
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical equipment.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood.
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped
around an aluminium pipe does not.
6. Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame.
7. Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is expressed.
8. Explain how CO2 is able to control fires.
9. It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves catch fire easily.
Explain.
10. Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting gold and silver
and why?
11. In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt. The heat produced
was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the calorific value of the fuel.
12. Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss.
13. Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was to be
heated in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the yellow part
of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the beaker in the outermost part of the
flame. Whose water will get heated in a shorter time?
nuÛ≤´kÕ\T
1. @ ø±s¡ø±\ e\¢ <äVü≤q+ »s¡T>∑T‘·T+<√ C≤_‘ê ‘·j·÷s¡T #˚j·T+&ç.
2. U≤∞\qT |üP]+#·+&ç.
(m) ø£\|ü eT]j·TT u§>∑TZqT ø±\Ã&É+ e\q >±* ˝À $&ÉT<ä\e⁄‘·T+~.
(_) >∑Vü‰\˝À ñ|üjÓ÷–+#˚ Á<äe Ç+<Ûäq+ .
(dæ) Ç+<ÛäHêìï eT+&ç+#·T≥≈£î <ëìì eTT+<äT>± øÏ y˚&ç #˚j·÷*.
(&ç) #·eTTs¡T e\¢ @s¡Œ&çq eT+≥\qT <ë«sê ìj·T+Á‹+#·˝ÒeTT.
3. yêVü≤Hê\˝À CNG $ìjÓ÷>∑+ eTq q>∑sê\˝Àì ø±\TcÕ´ìï m˝≤ ‘·–Z+∫+<√ $e]+#·+&ç.
4. Ç+<ÛäHê\T>± LPG eT]j·TT ø£\|ü\qT ˇø£<ëì‘√ ˇø£{Ï b˛\Ã+&ç.
5. ø±s¡D≤\T ‘Ó\Œ+&ç.
(m) $<äT´‘Y |ü]ø£sê\≈£î dü+ã+~Û+∫q eT+≥\qT ìj·T+Á‹+#·&ÜìøÏ ˙s¡T ñ|üj÷Ó –+#·sê<äT.
(_) ø£\|ü ø£+fÒ LPG yÓTs¡T¬>’q >∑Vü≤ Ç+<Ûäq+.
(dæ) ø±–‘êìøÏ düT\uÛ+Ñ >± eT+≥ n+≥T≈£î+≥T+~, ø±ì n\÷´$Tìj·T+ >=≥º+ #·T≥÷º #·T≥ºã&çq
ø±–‘·|ü⁄ eTTø£ÿ düT\uÛÑ+>± eT+≥q+≥Tø√<äT.
6. ø=y=«‹Ô C≤«\ jÓTTø£ÿ |ü≥+ ^dæ uÛ≤>±\qT >∑T]Ô+#·+&ç?
7. Ç+<Ûäq+ ¬ø˝À]|òæø˘ $\Te jÓTTø£ÿ Á|üe÷D+ @$T{Ï?
8. CO eT+≥\qT m˝≤ ìj·T+Á‹+#·>∑\<√ $e]+#·+&ç.
2
9. |ü#·Ãì Ä≈£î\ ≈£î|üŒqT eT+&ç+#·&É+ ø£wüº+, ø±˙ m+&çq Ä≈£î\qT düT\uÛÑ+>± eT+&ç+#·e#·TÃ.
$e]+#·+&ç.
10. dü«s¡øí ±s¡T&ÉT ã+>±s¡+ eT]j·TT yÓ+&çì ø£]–+#·&ÜìøÏ C≤«\ jÓTTø£ÿ @ ÁbÕ+‘êìï ñ|üj÷Ó –kÕÔ&TÉ ,
m+<äTe\¢?
11. ˇø£ Á|üjÓ÷>∑+˝À 4.5 øÏ˝ÀÁ>±eTT\ Ç+<Ûäq+ |üP]Ô>± eT+&çq|ü⁄Œ&ÉT ñ‘·Œ‹Ô nsTTq ñcÕíìï
180,000 kJ. >± ø=*#ês¡T. nsTTq Ç+<Ûäq+ jÓTTø£ÿ ¬ø˝À]|òæø˘ $\TeqT ˝…øÏÿ+#·+&ç.
12. ‘·T|ü⁄Œ |üfÒº Á|üÁøÏj·TqT <äVü≤q+ nì |æ\ee#êÃ? #·]Ã+#·+&ç.
13. n_<ë eT]j·TT s¡y˚Twt \T ˇø£ ;ø£sY˝À ˙{Ïì y˚&ç #˚ùd Á|üjÓ÷>∑+ #˚düTÔHêïs¡T. n_<ë ø=y=«‹Ô
eT+≥˝Àì |üdüT|ü⁄ uÛ≤>∑+˝À e‹Ô <ä>∑Zs¡ ;ø£sY ñ+∫+~. s¡y˚TXŸ ;ø£sY qT eT+≥≈£î yÓ\T|ü*
uÛ≤>∑+˝À ñ+#ê&ÉT. me] ˙s¡T ‘·«s¡>± y˚&Ó≈£îÿ‘·T+~?

1. Survey the availability of various fuels in your locality. Find out
their cost per kg and prepare a tabular chart showing how many
kJ of various fuels you can get for every rupee.
2. Find out the number, type and location of fire extinguishers available
in your school, nearby shops and factories. Write a brief report about
the preparedness of these establishments to fight fire.
3. Survey 100 houses in your area. Find the percentage of households
using LPG, kerosene, wood and cattle dung as fuel.
4. Talk to people who use LPG at home. Find out what precautions
they take in using LPG.
5. Make a model of a fire extinguisher. Place a short candle and a
slightly taller candle in a small dish filled with baking soda. Place
the dish at the bottom of a large bowl. Light both the candles. Then
pour vinegar into the dish of baking soda. Take care. Do not pour
vinegar on the candles. Observe the foaming reaction. What happens
to the candles? Why? In what order?
baking soda +
vinegar
Fig. 10.15
For more information, visit:

 www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03767.htm
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/combustion
nuÛÑ´düq ø=qkÕ–+|ü⁄ ` ø£‘ê´\T ÁbÕC…ø˘º‡

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ø£qT>=ì, MTs¡T Á|ü‹ s¡÷bÕsTTøÏ mìï øÏ˝À\qT bı+<äe#√Ã ‘Ó*ù| |ü{Ïºø£qT ‘·j·÷s¡T
#˚jT· +&ç.
2. MT bÕsƒ¡XÊ\, düMT|ü <äTø±D≤\T eT]j·TT bòÕ´ø£ºØ\˝À n+<äTu≤≥T˝À ñqï n–ïe÷|üø£
|ü]ø£sê\ dü+K´, s¡ø£+ eT]j·TT yê{Ï kÕúHêìï ‘Ó\TdüTø√+&ç. eT+≥\qT Äs¡Œ&ÜìøÏ
á dü+düú\ jÓTTø£ÿ dü+dæ<ä∆‘· >∑T]+∫ dü+øÏå|üÔ ìy˚~ø£qT Áyêj·T+&ç.
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eT]+‘· düe÷#ês¡+ ø=s¡≈£î øÏ+~ yÓuŸôd’{Ÿ dü+Á|ü~+#·+&ç:

 www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03767.htm
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/combustion
Chapter
STARS AND THE
11 SOLAR SYSTEM
P
aheli and Boojho visited their associated with them. Night sky
grandparents’ village during watching can be a fascinating experience
the summer break. After dinner, at a place where there are no bright lights
they went on to the roof of the house. It and the atmosphere is clear.
was a clear cloudless night. They were Look at the sky on a dark, clear night.
surprised to see a large number of bright You see the entire sky dotted with
stars in the sky. They had never seen such countless stars, some bright and some
a beautiful scene in their city (Fig. 11.1). not so bright. Observe them carefully.
Fig. 11.1: Night sky
Paheli wondered, why the village sky Do all of them appear to twinkle? Do
was so different from the night sky in you find any star-like object which does
big cities? Her grandfather explained that not twinkle? The objects which do not
twinkle are planets.
due to bright light, smoke and dust, the The moon is the brightest object in
sky in big cities is rarely clear. the night sky. The stars, the planets,
He also identified some objects seen the moon and many other objects in the
in the night sky and told stories sky are called celestial objects.
114 STARS AND THE SOLAR S YSTEM
n<Ûë´j·T+
qø£åÁ‘ê\T
11 kÂs¡≈£î≥T+ã+
|üùV≤© eT]j·TT uÛÀCÀ\T y˚d$ü ôd\e⁄\ düeTj·T+˝À yê] ø£<\ä∏ T #ÓbÕŒs¡T. Á|üø±X¯e+‘·yTÓ qÆ BbÕ\T ˝Òq|ü⁄Œ&ÉT düŒwüyº TÓ qÆ
‘ê‘· >±] Á>±e÷ìøÏ yÓfi≤fls¡T sêÁ‹ uÛÀ»q+ ‘·sT¡ yê‘· y˚T&Éô|ø’ Ï yê‘êes¡D+ ñqï Á|ü<X˚ +¯ ˝À sêÁ‹ |üP≥ Äø±XÊìï #·÷&É&+É
yÓfi≤fls¡T. Äø±X¯+ y˚T|òü÷\T ˝Ò≈£î+&Ü ìs¡à\+>± ñ+~. ˇø£ eTH√Vü≤s¡yÓTÆq nqTuÛÑ÷‹ì ø£*–düTÔ+~.
Äø±X¯+˝À ô|<ä› dü+K´˝À Á|üø±X¯e+‘·yTÓ qÆ qø£Áå ‘ê\qT #·÷dæ eTãT“\T˝Òì ˇø£ Nø£{Ï sêÁ‹ Äø±X¯+yÓ’|ü⁄ #·÷&É+&ç.
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sêÁ‹|üP≥ Äø±X¯+˝À ø£ì|æ+#˚ qø£Áå ‘ê\ (edüTeÔ ⁄\T) >∑T]+∫
|ü≥+ 11.1. sêÁ‹|üP≥ Äø±X¯+

n˙ï $TDT≈£î $TDT≈£î eT+≥÷ ø£ì|ædüTÔHêïj·÷?
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b˛sTT+~. bı>∑ eT]j·TT <äTeTTà ø±s¡D+>± ô|<ä› q>∑sê˝À¢ ñqïyê{Ïì Á>∑Vü‰\T n+{≤s¡T.
ø=ìï Á|üø±X¯e+‘·+>±qT, eT]ø=ìï ‘·≈î£ ÿe Á|üø±X¯e+‘·>±qT sêÁ‹|ü P ≥ Äø±X¯ + ˝À #· + Á<ä T &É T n‘· ´ +‘·
ñ+{≤sTT. C≤Á>∑‘·Ô>± |ü]o*+#·+&ç. Á|üø±X¯e+‘·yÓTÆq edüTÔe⁄. qø£åÁ‘ê\T, Á>∑Vü‰\T, #·+Á<äT&ÉT,
Äø±X¯+˝À ñqï Ç‘·s¡ edüTeÔ ⁄\qT ªK>√fi¯ edüTeÔ ⁄\Tμ n+{≤s¡T
qø£åÁ‘ê\T ` kÂs¡≈£î≥T+ã+ 115
The study of celestial objects and Is there a change in the shape of the
associated phenomena is called moon everyday? Are there days when
astronomy
astronomy. In acient India our the shape of the moon appears to be
ancestors per for med methodical perfectly round? Are there days when
observations of sky. Their knowledge of the moon cannot be seen at all even if
astronomy was highly advanced for the sky is clear?
their time. Passage of the Sun, stars, The day on which the whole disc of
moon and planets in the sky helped the moon is visible is known as the full
them to devise calenders and almanacs. moon day. Thereafter, every night the
These were often used by people in their size of the bright part of the moon
day to day conduct and a better appears to become thinner and thinner.
understanding of climate and rainfall On the fifteenth day the moon is not
patterns for timely sowing and choice visible. This day is known as the ‘new
of crops, fixing the dates of seasons and moon day’. The next day, only a small
festivals. portion of the moon appears in the sky.
Let us also make some observations This is known as the crescent moon.
of celestial objects and learn about them. Then again the moon grows larger every
day. On the fifteenth day once again we
11.1 The Moon get a full view of the moon.
Activity 11.1 The various shapes of the bright part
of the moon as seen during a month
Observe the moon continuously for are called phases of the moon (Fig.
several nights, preferably from one 11.2). Phases of the moon play an
full moon to the next. Make a sketch important role in our social life. Almost
of the moon every night in your note all festivals in India are celebrated
book and note the day from the day according to the phases of the moon.
of the full moon. Also note everyday For example, Diwali is celebrated on the
the part of the sky (east or west) in new moon day; Budh Poornima and
which the moon is seen. Guru Nanak’s birthday are celebrated
on full moon day; Maha Shivratri is
celebrated on thirteenth night of waning
moon; Eid-ul-Fitr is observed on the day
following the sighting of crescent moon.
The time period between one full moon
to the next full moon is slightly longer
than 29 days. In many calendars this
period is called a month.
Why does the moon change

its shape every day?
Fig.11.2 : Phases of the moon
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eé~Û 29 s√E\ ø£+fÒ ø=+#Ó+ m≈£îÿe. nH˚ø£
ø±´˝…+&És¡¢˝À á ø±˝≤ìï HÓ\ nì |æ\TkÕÔs¡T.
#·+Á<äT&ÉT Á|ü‹s√p ‘·q Äø±sêìï

m+<äT≈£î e÷s¡TÃ≈£î+{≤&ÉT?
|ü≥+ 11.2. #·+Á<ä ø£fi¯\T
Let us try to understand why phases

of the moon occur. You have studied in
Chapter 7 that the moon does not
produce its own light, whereas the Sun
and other stars do. We see the moon
because the sunlight falling on it gets
reflected towards us (Fig. 11.3). We,
therefore, see only that part of the moon,
from which the light of the Sun is
reflected towards us.
Fig. 11.3 ::Moon is visible due to reflected
sunlight
Activity 11.2
Take a big ball or a pitcher. Paint performed in the afternoon then the
half of it white and half black. white portion of the ball should be
Go out into the playground with kept towards the west. In each case
two of your friends. Draw a circle of the line dividing the white and
radius of about 2 m on the ground. black portions is kept vertical.
Divide the circle into eight equal Standing at the centre of the
parts as shown in Fig. 11.4. circle observe the visible white
Stand at the centre of the circle. portion of the ball while your friend
Ask a friend to hold the ball at stands at the points on the circle
different points of the circle. Ask her marked earlier. Draw the shape of
to keep the white portion of the ball the white portion as you see it.
always towards the Sun. If you are Compare your drawings with the
performing this activity in the different phases of the moon as
morning then the white portion of shown in Fig. 11.5.
the ball should be kept towards the
east. If the activity is being
Fig. 11.4: The moon appears different at different positions in its orbit
#·+Á<äøfi£ \¯ T @ $<Û+ä >± dü+uÛ$Ñ kÕÔj÷Ó ns¡+ú #˚dTü ø√e&ÜìøÏ

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kÕúHê\ e<ä› ã+‹ì |ü≥Tºø√eTì ùdïVæ≤‘·T&çì n&É>+∑ &ç. $<Û+ä >± ‘Ó\ì¢ uÛ≤>∑+ jÓTTø£ÿ Äø±s¡+ ^j·T+&ç. |ü≥+
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á øè£‘ê´ìï ñ<äj·T+ |üP≥ #˚düTÔqï≥¢sTT‘˚ ã+‹
jÓTTø£ÿ ‘Ó\¢ì uÛ≤>±ìï ‘·÷s¡TŒ yÓ’|ü⁄ ñ+#ê*. ˇø£y˚fi¯
|ü≥+ 11.4 ø£ø£å´˝À $$<Ûä kÕúHê\ e<ä› #·+Á<äT&ÉT $$<Ûä s¡÷bÕ\˝À ø£ì|æ+#·T≥
Fig. 11.5: Positions of the moon in its orbit and its corresponding phases
Remember that the moon revolves these positions in your notebook. In

around the Earth. The Earth along which part of the sky would you look
with the moon, revolves around the for the full moon?
Sun (Fig. 11.6). The size of the illuminated part of
the moon visible from the Earth
increases each day after the new moon
day. After the full moon day, the sunlit
part of the moon visible from the Earth
decreases in size every day.
I have heard that we

never see the back side of
the moon from the Earth.
Is it true?
Fig. 11.6 : Earth accompanied by moon
revolving around the Sun Activity 11.3
Can you now guess the relative Draw a circle of about 1m diameter
positions of the Sun, moon and the on the ground. Ask one of your
Earth on the day of the full moon and friends to stand at the centre of this
on the day of the new moon? Sketch circle. You revolve around your
|ü≥+ 11.5 #·+Á<äTì ø£ø£å´˝À <ëì kÕúHê\T eT]j·TT dü+ã+~Û‘· <äX¯\T

#· + Á<ä T &É T uÛ Ñ ÷ $T #· T ≥÷º ‹s¡ T >∑ T ‘· T Hêï&É ì #·+Á<äT&çì #·÷&É{≤ìøÏ MTs¡T Äø±X¯+˝À @ ÁbÕ+‘·+˝À
>∑Ts¡TÔ+#·Tø√+&ç. #·+Á<äTì‘√ bÕ≥T uÛÑ÷$T dü÷s¡T´ì #·÷kÕÔsT¡ ?
#·T≥÷º |ü]ÁuÛÑ$TdüTÔ+~. (|ü≥+ 11.6) ne÷yêdü´ ‘·sê«‘· Á|ü‹s√E uÛÑ÷$T qT+&ç ø£ì|æ+#˚
#·+Á<äTì Á|üø±X¯e+‘·yÓTÆq uÛ≤>∑ |ü]e÷D+ ô|s¡T>∑T‘·÷
#·+Á<äT&ÉT
e⁄+≥T+~. bÂs¡í$T ‘·sê«‘· Á|ü‹s√E uÛÑ÷$T qT+&ç #·÷ùdÔ
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friend in such a manner that your

face always remains towards him.
Can your friend see your back? How Can we hear any sound
many rotations did you complete in on the moon?
one revolution? The moon revolves
around the Earth in a similar
manner.
The moon completes one rotation on We learnt in Chapter 13
its axis as it completes one revolution that sound cannot
around the Earth. travel when there is no
medium. Then, how can
The Moon’s Sur face
Surface we hear any sound on
the moon?
The moon is a fascinating object for
poets and story-tellers. But when
astronauts landed on the moon, they Did you know?
found that the moon’s surface is dusty On July 21, 1969 (Indian time) the
and barren. There are many craters of American astronaut, Neil Armstrong,
different sizes. It also has a large number landed on the moon for the first time.
of steep and high mountains (Fig. 11.7). He was followed by Edwin Aldrin.
Some of these are as high as the highest
mountains on the Earth.
NASA
Fig. 11.8 : An astronaut on the moon
NASA 11.2 The Stars

Fig. 11.7 : Surface of the moon What other objects do you see in the
night sky? There is a large number of
The moon has no atmosphere. It has stars in the sky. Observe carefully on a
no water. Can any life exist on the dark night and from a place away from
moon? a big city. Are all the stars equally
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bright? Are they of the same colour? In In fact, the stars are present in the
fact, stars emit light of their own. The sky during the day-time also. However,
Sun is also a star. Why does it appear they are not visible then because of the
so large compared to the other stars? bright sunlight.
Which appears bigger, a football Observe some prominent star or a
placed near you, or a football placed at group of stars in the sky for about two
a distance of 100 m? The stars are hours or more. What do you find? Do
millions of times farther away than the you find any change in the positions of
Sun. Therefore, the stars appear to us stars in the sky?
like points. You will find that the stars appear
to move from east to west. A star which
The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 rises in the east in the evening, sets in
kilometres (150 million km) away from the west in the early morning.
the Earth. Why do stars appear to move from
The next nearest star is Proxima east to west? Let us find out.
Centauri. It is at a distance of about
40,000,000,000,000 km from the
Activity 11.4
Earth. Can you read this distance in
kilometres conveniently? Some stars Stand in the centre of a big room
are even further away. and start rotating. In which
Such large distances are expressed direction will the objects in the room
in another unit known as light yearyear.
appear to move? Do you see them
It is the distance travelled by light in
moving in the direction opposite to
one year. Remember that the speed
of light is about 300,000 km per your motion?
second. Thus, the distance of the Sun
from the Earth may be said to be Paheli recalls that when she is in a
about 8 light minutes. The distance moving train the nearby trees and
of Alpha Centauri is about 4.3 light buildings appear to move in the
years. backward direction.
If the stars appear to move from east
to west, could it mean that the Earth,
If light from stars takes rotates from west to east?
years to reach us, I
wonder if we are looking
into the past when we
look at stars.
Now I understand
why the Sun appears
to rise in the east and
I want to know why we do set in the west as the
not see the stars during Earth rotates from
the day. Why are they west to east on
visible only at night? its axis.
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There is actually a star, the pole star,

which is situated in the direction of the
earth’s axis. It does not appear to move
My grandfather told me that (Fig. 11.10).
there is one star in the sky
which does not move at all. How
is it possible?
Activity 11.5
Take an umbrella and open it. Make
about 10-15 stars out of white
paper. Paste one star at the position
of the central rod of the umbrella
and others at different places on the
cloth near the end of each spoke
(Fig. 11.9).
Fig 11.10: The Pole star lies close to the axis of

rotation of the Earth
11.3 Constellations
Look at the sky for some time. Can you
see some stars forming groups with
shapes like those in Fig. 11.11.
The stars forming a group that has a
recognisable shape is called a
constellation
constellation.
Constellations were devised by ancient

Fig. 11.9 : Pole star does not appear to move
people to be able to recognise stars in
the sky. The shapes of constellations
Now rotate the umbrella by holding resemble objects familiar to those
its central rod in your hand. Observe people.
the stars on the umbrella. Is there
You can easily identify some
any star which does not appear to
constellations in the night sky. For this,
move? Where is this star located?
you should know what a particular
If there were a star located where the
constellation looks like and where to
axis of rotation of the Earth meets look for it in the night sky.
the sky, could this star also be One of the most famous
stationary? constellations which you can see during
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(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a) Great Bear (b) Orion (c) Cassiopeia (d) Leo Major
Fig. 11.11 : Some constellations in the night sky
summer time in the early part of the

night is Ursa Major [Fig.11.11 (a)]. Ursa Major ( Saptarshi)
It is also known as the Big Dipper, Saptarshi has been associated with
the Great Bear or the Saptarshi. seven well known ancient Indian sages,
There are seven prominent stars in or rishis, as shown in the figure below.
this constellation. It appears like a big According to ancient mythology,
ladle or a question mark. There are three the seven sages who form the Saptarshi,
stars in the handle of the ladle and four preserve the eternal knowledge of
in its bowl (Fig. 11.12). Vedas and explain it to people in every
In all ancient cultures, very interesting new age.
mythological stories have been associated
with the various constellations.
Activity 11.6
Observe this constellation for a few
hours. Do you find any change in
its shape? Do you find any change
in its position?
You will observe that the shape of
Fig. 11.12: Dipper used for drinking water in the constellation remains the same.
ancient times
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You will also find that the shown in Fig. 11.13. Extend this
constellation appears to move in the imaginary line towards the north
sky from east to west. direction. (About five times the
distance between the two stars.)
This line will lead to a star which is
not too bright. This is the Pole star.
I have heard that we can Observe the Pole star for some time.
locate the Pole Star with Note that it does not move at all as
the help of Ursa Major. other stars drift from east to west.
Activity 11.7 Activity 11.8

During a summer night, observe
This activity should be performed
Ursa Major 3-4 times at an interval
on a clear moonless night during
of 2 to 3 hours. Also locate the Pole
summer at about 9.00 pm. Look
star each time. Does Ursa Major
towards the northern part of the sky
appear to move from east to west?
and identify Ursa Major. You may
Does it appear to revolve around the
get help from elders in your family.
Pole star? Compare your
Look at the two stars at the end of
observations with those in Fig.
Ursa Major. Imagine a straight line
11.14.
passing through these stars as
Pole star
Fig. 11.14: Ursa Major moves around the

Pole star
In fact, all the stars appear to revolve

Fig. 11.13: Locating the Pole star around the Pole star.
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Note that the Pole star is not visible Cassiopeia is another prominent
from the southern hemisphere. Some constellation in the northern sky. It is
of the northern constellations like Ursa visible during winter in the early part
Major may also not be visible from of the night. It looks like a distorted
some points in the southern letter W or M [Fig. 11.11(c)].
hemisphere.
Did you know?
Orion is another well-known A constellation does not have only 5-
constellation that can be seen during 10 stars. It has a large number of
winter in the late evenings. It is one of stars (Fig. 11.16). However, we can
the most magnificent constellations in see only the bright stars in a
the sky. It also has seven or eight bright constellation with our naked eye.
stars [Fig. 11.11(b)] Orion is also called All the stars which make up a
the Hunter. The three middle stars constellation are not at the same
represent the belt of the hunter. The distance. They are just in the same
four bright stars appear to be arranged line of sight in the sky.
in the form of a quadrilateral.
The star Sirius, which is the
brightest star in the sky, is located
close to Orion. To locate Sirius, imagine
a straight line passing through the
three middle stars of Orion. Look along
this line towards the east. This line will
lead you to a very bright star. It is
Sirius. (Fig. 11.15).
Fig. 11.15: Locating - Sirius Fig. 11.16
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Fig. 11.17 : The solar system (not to scale)
11.4 The Solar System Did you know?

The Sun and the celestial bodies which Till 2006 there were nine planets in
revolve around it form the solar system. the solar system. Pluto was the
It consists of large number of bodies farthest planet from the Sun.
such as planets, comets, asteroids and In 2006, the International
meteors. The gravitational attraction Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a
between the Sun and these objects new definition of a planet. Pluto does
not fit this definition. It is no longer a
keeps them revolving around it.
planet of the solar system.
The Earth, as you know, also
revolves around the Sun. It is a member Let us know about some members of
of the solar system. It is a planet. There the solar family.
are seven other planets that revolve
around the Sun. The eight planets in The Sun
their order of distance from the Sun
The Sun is the nearest star from us. It
are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
is continuously emitting huge amounts
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
of heat and light. The Sun is the source
Figure 11.17 shows a schematic view
of almost all energy on the Earth. In
of the solar system. fact, the Sun is the main source of heat
and light for all the planets.
I have read that there The Planets

are nine planets in the The planets look like stars, but they do
solar system
not have light of their own. They merely
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reflect the sunlight that falls on them.

Can you distinguish between planets
and stars?
The simplest method of identifying
planets from stars is that stars twinkle,
whereas planets do not. Also the planets
keep changing their positions with
respect to the stars.
A planet has a definite path in which
it revolves around the Sun. This path is
called an orbit
orbit. The time taken by a
planet to complete one revolution is Fig. 11.18 : Planets move in their own orbits
called its period of revolution. The period
of revolution increases as the distance
of the planet increases from the sun. Besides revolving around the Sun, a
planet also rotates on its own axis like a
top (Fig. 11.19). The time taken by a
planet to complete one rotation is called
I wonder why the planets do its period of rotation.
not collide while revolving
around the Sun.
Activity 11.9
Go out into the playground with
four or five of your friends. Draw
four circles of radii 1m, 1.8m, 2.5m
and 3.8m, all having a common
centre (Fig. 11.18).
Ask one of your friends to stand Fig. 11.19 ::A Planet rotates on its own
in the centre and represent the axis like a top
Sun. Your other four friends may
represent Mercury, Venus, Earth Some planets are known to have
and Mars. moons/satellites revolving round them.
Any celestial body revolving around
Ask your friends to move around
another celestial body is called its
the Sun in anti-clockwise direction
satellite.
in their own orbits (Fig. 11.18). Do
they collide with one another? The Earth can be said to be a satellite
of the Sun, though generally we call it a
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n|üdüe´~X¯˝À dü÷s¡T´ì #·T≥Tº ‹s¡>∑eTì n&É>∑+&ç
(|ü≥+ 11.18). n$ ˇø£<ëì‘√ ˇø£{Ï &Ûû ø=+{≤j·÷? uÛÑ÷$Tì dü÷s¡T´ìøÏ ñ|üÁ>∑Vü≤+>± #Ó|üŒe#·TÃ. nsTT‘˚
kÕ<Ûës¡D+>± eTq+ <ëìì dü÷s¡T´ìøÏ Á>∑V≤ü +>± |æ\TkÕÔ+.
the Earth falls on the

moon, it causes lunar
eclipse. When the
The Earth revolves shadow of the moon
around the Sun. Does it falls on the Earth, it
make Earth a satellite causes solar eclipse.
of the Sun? Aryabhata also found
the distance between
the Earth and the
planet of the Sun. We use the term moon, which is very
satellite for the bodies revolving around close to the known
planets. Moon is a satellite of the Earth. value today. Aryabhata
There are many man-made satellites C.E. 476 - 550
revolving round the Earth. These are
called artificial satellites.
Astronomy in Ancient India

The practice of astronomy in ancient
India is mentioned in Rig Veda which Mercury (Budh)
was composed about 4000 years ago. The planet mercury is nearest to the
Many Indian scholars have Sun. It is the smallest planet of our
contributed to astronomy. One of the solar system. Because Mercury is very
most well known astronomers is close to the Sun, it is very difficult to
Aryabhata. The work of Aryabhata on observe it, as most of the time it is
astronomy can be found in his
hidden in the glare of the Sun. However,
writing ‘Aryabhatiya’. He wrote it in
it can be observed just before sunrise
499 CE at the age of 23 years. The
diameter of the Earth as stated by or just after sunset, near the horizon.
Aryabhata is close to its presently So it is visible only at places where trees
known value. Disregarding the or buildings do not obstruct the view
popular view that Earth is ‘achala’ of the horizon. Mercury has no satellite
(immovable), Aryabhata stated that of its own.
Earth is sphere and rotates on its own
axis. His estimate about the sidereal
period of Earth was 23 hours, 56
minutes and 4.1 seconds, which is
very close to the presently known
value. He also correctly stated that
the moon and the planets shine due Venus (Shukra)
to reflected sunlight. He also gave a
Venus is earth’s nearest planetary
scientific explanation for solar and
neighbour. It is the brightest planet in
lunar eclipses. When the shadow of
the night sky.
Ç‘·qT dü÷s¡´, #·+Á<ä Á>∑Vü≤D≤\≈£î

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dü÷s¡T´ì #·T≥÷º uÛÑ÷$T ‹s¡T>∑T‘·T+~.
e\¢ #·+Á<äÁ>∑Vü≤D+ @s¡Œ&ÉT‘·T+~.
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dü÷s¡´ Á>∑Vü≤D+ @s¡Œ&ÉT‘·T+~.
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Ç~ Á|üdüTÔ‘· ‘Ó*dæq $\Te≈£î #ê˝≤ Äs¡úÛÑ≥º
uÛÑ÷$T #·T≥Tº ‹s¡T>∑T‘·Tqï nH˚ø£ e÷qq ì]à‘· <ä>sZ∑ >¡ ± ñ+~. C.E. 476 - 550
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#ê˝≤eT+~ uÛ≤s¡rj·T |ü+&ç‘T· \T K>√fi¯ XÊÁkÕÔìøÏ
dü÷s¡T´&çøÏ #ê˝≤ <ä>sZ∑ >¡ ± ñqï+<äTe\¢, <ëìì >∑eTì+#·&+É
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XÊÁdüyÔ ‘˚ \Ô· ˝À Äs¡úÛ≥Ñ º ˇø£sT¡ . K>√fi¯ XÊÁdü+Ô ô|’ Äs¡úÛ≥Ñ Tº
ø±+‹˝À <ë– ñ+≥T+~. nsTTq|üŒ{ÏøÏ, dü÷s√´<äj·÷ìøÏ
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Á|ü<˚XÊ\˝À e÷Á‘·y˚T Ç~ ø£ì|ædüTÔ+~. ãT<ÛäÁ>∑Vü‰ìøÏ
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ñ|üÁ>∑Vü‰\T ˝Òe⁄.
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Sometimes Venus appears in the

eastern sky before sunrise. Sometimes
it appears in the western sky just after
sunset. Therefore it is often called a
morning or an evening star, although it
is not a star. Try to locate Venus in the The Earth (Prithvi)
night sky. The Earth is the only planet in the solar
Venus has no moon or satellite of its system on which life is known to exist.
own. Rotation of Venus on its axis is Some special environmental conditions
somewhat unusual. It rotates from east are responsible for the existence and
to west while the Earth rotates from west continuation of life on the Earth. These
to east. include just the right distance from the
Sun, so that it has the right temperature
Activity 11.10 range, the presence of water and suitable
atmosphere and a blanket of ozone.
Find out from some newspaper or
from an almanac the time when
Venus is visible in the sky. You can
easily recognise Venus by its We must take special care to
brightness. Remember that Venus protect our environment so that
cannot be seen very high in the sky. life on Earth is not disturbed.
You must try to observe Venus
either 1-3 hours before sunrise or From space, the Earth appears blue-
1-3 hours after sunset. green due to the reflection of light from
water and landmass on its surface.
The axis of rotation of the Earth is
not perpendicular to the plane of its
Does it mean that on Venus, orbit. The tilt is responsible for the
the Sun would rise in the change of seasons on the Earth. The
west and set in the east? Earth has only one moon.
If you get a chance, try to observe

Venus through a telescope. You will
observe that Venus shows phases just If I am 13 years old, how many
like the moon (Fig. 11.20). times have I gone round the sun?
Mars (Mangal)
Fig. 11.20 : Phases of Venus The next planet, the first outside the
orbit of the Earth is Mars. It appears
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ø£‘·´+ 11.10
uÛÑ÷$Tô|’ Je⁄\≈£î Çã“+~ ø£\>∑≈£î+&Ü
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slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also You are familiar with the equator of
called the red planet. Mars has two small the Earth. The plane of the equator
natural satellites. is called the equatorial plane (Fig.
11.21). The plane in which the Earth
Mangalyaan revolves round the Sun is called the
orbital plane of the Earth (Fig. 11.21).
Indian Space Research Organisation These two planes are inclined to each
(ISRO) launched India’s first Mars other at an angle of 23.5º. This
orbiter mission – Mangalyaan, on means that the axis of the Earth is
November 5, 2013. It was successfully inclined to its orbital plane at an angle
placed into an orbit of Mars on of 66.5º.
September 24, 2014. With this India
became the first country in the world
to do so in its first attempt.
Jupiter (Brihaspati)
Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar
system. It is so large that about 1300
earths can be placed inside this giant
planet. However, the mass of Jupiter is
about 318 times that of our Earth. It
rotates very rapidly on its axis.
Jupiter has a large number of
satellites. It also has faint rings around
it. You can easily recognise Jupiter as it
appears quite bright in the sky. If you
observe it with the help of a telescope,
you can also see four of its large moons Fig. 11.21 : Earth rotates on a tilted axis
(Fig. 11.22).
Fig. 11.22 : Jupiter and its four large satellites.
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One interesting thing about Saturn

is that it is the least dense among all
I have an idea! If you take a the planets. Its density is less than that
large ball which can accommodate of water.
about 1300 peas, then the ball will
represent Jupiter and one pea will
Uranus and Neptune
represent the Earth. These are the outermost planets of the
solar system. They can be seen only with
the help of large telescopes. Like Venus,
Uranus also rotates from east to west.
The most remarkable feature of Uranus
Saturn (Shani) is that it has highly tilted rotational axis
Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears

yellowish in colour. What makes it
unique in the solar system is its
beautiful rings. These rings are not
visible with the naked eye. You can
observe them with a small telescope.
Saturn also has a large number of Fig. 11.24 : Uranus in its orbital path
satellites.
Boojho has a
naughty idea! “If
we imagine Saturn
in a large pool of
water then it will
float (Fig. 11.23)
Fig. 11.23 : Saturn is less dense than water
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j·TTπsqdt ≈£L&Ü ‘·÷s¡TŒ qT+&ç |ü&ÉeTs¡≈£î ‹s¡T>∑T‘·T+~.
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#ê˝≤ yê\T>± e⁄qï ÁuÛÑeTD≤øå±ìï ø£*– ñ+≥T+~.
ãVü≤düŒ‹øÏ Äe\ |üdüT|ü⁄ s¡+>∑T˝À X¯ìÁ>∑Vü≤+
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n+<äyTÓ qÆ e\j·÷˝Ò. e\j·÷\T ø£+{ÏøÏ ø£ì|æ+#·e⁄. MTs¡T
yê{Ïì ˇø£ ∫qï <ä÷s¡<ä]Ùì ‘√ >∑eTì+#·e#·TÃ. X¯ìøÏ
≈£L&Ü ô|<ä› dü+K´˝À ñ|üÁ>∑Vü‰\T ñHêïsTT.
|ü≥+ . 11.24 : j·TTπsqdt ø£øå±´ e÷s¡Z+
uÛÀCÀ≈£î ˇø£ ø=+f… Ä˝À#·q

ñ+~!.ˇø£ ô|<ä› ˙{Ï ø=\qT˝À
X¯ìÁ>∑Vü≤+ñqï≥T¢ eTq+
}Væ≤+#·T≈£î+fÒ n~
‘˚\T‘·T+~.( 11.23)
|ü≥+. 11.23 : X¯ìÁ>∑Vü≤+ ˙{Ï ø£+fÒ ‘·≈£îÿe kÕ+Á<ä‘· ø£*– ñ+≥T+~.

(Fig. 11.24). As a result, in its orbital Asteroids

motion it appears to roll on its side.
There is a large gap in between the orbits
The first four planets, Mercury,
of Mars and Jupiter (Fig. 11.25). This
Venus, Earth and Mars are much nearer
gap is occupied by a large number of
the Sun than the other four planets.
small objects that revolve around the
They are called the inner planets. The
Sun. These are called asteroids
asteroids.
inner planets have very few moons.
Asteroids can only be seen through
The planets outside the orbit of Mars,
large telescopes.
namely Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune are much farther off than the Comets
inner planets. They are called the outer
planets. They have a ring system around Comets are also members of our solar
them. The outer planets have large system. They revolve around the Sun
number of moons. in highly elliptical orbits. However, their
period of revolution round the Sun is
11.5 Some Other Members of usually very long. A Comet appears
the Solar System generally as a bright head with a long
tail. The length of the tail grows in size
There are some other bodies which as it approaches the sun. The tail of a
revolve around the Sun. They are also comet is always directed away from the
members of the solar system. Let us
sun (Fig. 11.26).
learn about some of them.
Asteroids
Fig. 11.25 : The Asteroid belt
(|ü≥+ 11.24). ‘·‘Œ· *¤ ‘·+>± <ëì ø£ø´å£ ˝À ø£<Tä \T‘·Tqï|ü⁄&ÉT Á>∑Vü≤ X¯ø£˝≤\T
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#ê˝≤ m≈£îÿe>± ñ+≥T+~. kÕ<Ûës¡D+>± ˇø£ ‘√ø£#·Tø£ÿ
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dü÷s¡T´ì #·T≥÷º ‹]π> ø=ìï Ç‘·s¡ edüTeÔ ⁄\T ñHêïsTT. dü÷s¡T´ì düMT|æ+#˚ ø=B› ‘√ø£ bı&Ée⁄ eT]+‘· ô|s¡T>∑T‘·T+~
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>∑÷]Ã H˚s¡TÃ≈£î+<ë+. <ä÷s¡+>± e⁄+≥T+~.
X¯óÁ≈£î&ÉT dü÷s¡T´&ÉT ãT<ÛTä &ÉT
≈£îE&ÉT
uÛ÷Ñ $T Ädü
sº êsTT&ÉT¢
Asteroids
ãèVü≤düŒ‹
|ü≥+ 11.25 : Á>∑Vü≤ X¯ø£˝≤\ |ü{°º
Fig. 11.26 : Different position of a Comet
Many comets are known to appear Fig. 11.27 : Streak of a Meteor

periodically. One such comet is Halley’s
Some meteors are large and so they
comet, which appears after nearly every
76 years. It was last seen in 1986. Can can reach the Earth before they
you tell, when Halley’s comet will be evaporate completely. The body that
visible again? reaches the Earth is called a meteorite
meteorite.
Meteorites help scientists in
Superstitions about the Comets investigating the nature of the material
Some people think that comets are from which the solar system was formed.
messengers of disasters, such as
wars, epidemics and floods. But these Meteor Showers
are all myths and superstitions. When the Earth crosses the tail of a
Appearance of a comet is a natural comet, swarms of meteors are seen.
phenomenon. We have no reason to These are known as meteor showers.
be afraid of it. Some meteor showers occur at
regular intervals each year. You can
Meteors and Meteorites find the time of their appearance from
a scientific magazine or from the
At night, when the sky is clear and the internet.
moon is not there, you may sometimes
see bright streaks of light in the sky (Fig. Artificial Satellites
11.27). These are commonly known as
shooting stars, although they are not You must have heard that there are a
stars. They are called meteors
meteors. A meteor number of artificial satellites which are
is usually a small object that orbiting the Earth. You might wonder
occasionally enters the earth’s how artificial satellites are different from
atmosphere. At that time it has a very natural satellites. Artificial satellites are
high speed. The friction due to the man-made. They are launched from the
atmosphere heats it up. It glows and Earth. They revolve around the Earth
evaporates quickly. That is why the much closer than earth’s natural
bright steak lasts for a very short time. satellite, the moon.
|ü≥+ 11.26 ‘√ø£#·Tø£ÿ jÓTTø£ÿ $$<Ûä <äX¯\T

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ø£ì|ædTü +Ô ~.
India has built and launched several also used for telecommunication and
artificial satellites. Aryabhata was the remote sensing.
first Indian satellite. Some other Indian
satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1,
EDUSAT, etc. (Fig. 11.28).
I want to tell you that by remote
Artificial satellites have many
sensing we mean collecting
practical applications. They are used for
information from a distance.
forecasting weather, transmitting
television and radio signals. They are
ISRO
Fig. 11.28 : Some Indian satellites
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Á|üjÓ÷–+∫+~. Äs¡úÛÑ≥º uÛ≤s¡‘· <˚X¯|ü⁄ ‘=* ø£Á‹eT ]yÓ÷{Ÿ ôdì‡+>¥\ ø√dü+ ≈£L&Ü ñ|üjÓ÷–kÕÔs¡T.
ñ|ü Á >∑ V ü ≤ +. ÇHê‡{Ÿ (INSAT), ◊ÄsY m dt (IRS),
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uÛ≤s¡rj·T ñ|üÁ>∑Vü‰\T (|ü≥+ 11.28).
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|ü≥+ 11.28 : ø=ìï uÛ≤s¡rj·T ñ|üÁ>∑Vü‰\T
KEYWORDS WHAT Y
WHAT OU HA
YOU VE LEARNT
HAVE
AR TIFICIAL  The phases of the moon occur because we can
SATELLITES see only that part of the moon which reflects
the light of the Sun towards us.
ASTEROIDS
 Stars are celestial bodies that emit light of
CASSIOPEIA their own. Our sun is also a star.
CELESTIAL  It is convenient to express distances of stars
OBJECTS in light years.
 Stars appear to move from east to west.
COMETS  The pole star appears to be stationary from
CONSTELLATIONS the Earth, because it is situated close to the
direction of the axis of rotation of the Earth.
LIGHT YEAR
 Constellations are groups of stars that ap-
METEORITES pear to form recognisable shapes.
METEORS  The solar system consists of eight planets and
a host of asteroids, comets and meteors.
NATURAL  A body revolving around another body is called
SATELLITES a satellite.
ORBIT  Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth.
Some planets also have natural satellites.
ORION
 Venus is the brightest planet in the night sky.
PHASES OF MOON  Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar sys-
PLANETS tem.
 The artificial satellites revolve around the
POLE STAR Earth. They are much closer than the moon.
REMOTE SENSING  Artificial satellites are used for weather fore-
casting, long distance communication and
SOLAR SYSTEM
remote sensing.
STARS
URSA MAJOR
Exercises
Choose the correct answer in Questions 1-3.

1. Which of the following is NOT a member of the solar system?
(a) An asteroid (b) A satellite
(c) A constellation (d) A comet
2. Which of the following is NOT a planet of the sun?
(a) Sirius (b) Mercury
(c) Saturn (d) Earth

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düe÷#ês¡Á|ükÕs¡+, ]yÓ÷{Ÿ ôdì‡+>¥\ ø√dü+ ñ|üjÓ÷–kÕÔs¡T.
nuÛ≤´kÕ\T
1-3 Á|üX¯ï\˝À dü¬s’q düe÷<ÛëHêìï m+#·Tø√+&ç.
1. øÏ+~ yê{Ï˝À @~ kÂs¡ eédüú˝À düuÛÑT´&ÉT ø±<äT?
(m) Á>∑Vü≤X¯ø£\+ (_) ñ|üÁ>∑Vü≤+
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(m) dæ]j·Tdt (_) ãT<ÛäT&ÉT
(dæ) X¯ì (&ç) uÛÑ÷$T
E X E R C I S E S
3. Phases of the moon occur because
(a) we can see only that part of the moon which reflects light
towards us.
(b) our distance from the moon keeps changing.
(c) the shadow of the Earth covers only a part of the moon’s surface.
(d) the thickness of the moon’s atmosphere is not constant.
(a) The planet which is farthest from the Sun is ____________ .
(b) The planet which appears reddish in colour is ____________ .
(c) A group of stars that appear to form a pattern in the sky is known as
a ____________ .
(d) A celestial body that revolves around a planet is known as __________.
(e) Shooting stars are actually not ____________.
(f) Asteroids are found between the orbits of _________ and _________ .
5. Mark the following statements as true (T) or false (F).
(a) Pole star is a member of the solar system. ( )
(b) Mercury is the smallest planet of the solar system. ( )
(c) Uranus is the farthest planet in the solar system. ( )
(d) INSAT is an artificial satellite. ( )
(e) There are nine planets in the solar system. ( )
(f) Constellation Orion can be seen only with a telescope. ( )
6. Match items in column A with one or more items in column B.
A B
(i) Inner planets (a) Saturn
(ii) Outer planets (b) Pole star
(iii) Constellation (c) Great Bear
(iv) Satellite of the Earth (d) Moon
(e) Earth
(f) Orion
(g) Mars
7. In which part of the sky can you find Venus if it is visible as an evening star?
8. Name the largest planet of the solar system.
9. What is a constellation? Name any two constellations.
10. Draw sketches to show the relative positions of prominent stars in
(a) Ursa Major and (b) Orion
11. Name two objects other than planets which are members of the solar system.
12. Explain how you can locate the Pole Star with the help of Ursa Major.
13. Do all the stars in the sky move? Explain.
14. Why is the distance between stars expressed in light years? What do you
understand by the statement that a star is eight light years away from
the Earth?
3. #·+Á<äø£fi¯\T dü+uÛÑ$+#·T≥≈£î ø±s¡D+?

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4. U≤∞\T |üP]+#·TeTT.
(m) dü÷s¡T´&çøÏ n‘·´+‘· <ä÷s¡+˝À ñqï Á>∑Vü≤+ .
(_) ms¡T|ü⁄ s¡+>∑T˝À ø£ì|æ+#˚ Á>∑Vü≤+ .
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(Ç) ªªwüO{Ï+>¥ kÕºs¡T¢μμ ìC≤ìøÏ ø±e⁄.
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(m) <Ûäe qø£åÁ‘·+ kÂs¡ eédüú˝À düuÛÑT´&ÉT. ( )
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(dæ) j·TTπsqdt kÂs¡ eédüú˝À n‘·´+‘· düT<ä÷s¡ Á>∑Vü≤+. ( )
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(m|òt) z]j·THé qø£åÁ‘·sê• ì f…*k˛ÿ|t‘√ e÷Á‘·y˚T #·÷&Ée#·TÃ. ( )
6. A es¡Tdü ˝Àì n+XÊ\ì B es¡Tdü ˝À ˇø£{Ï ˝Ò<ë n+‘·ø+£ fÒ m≈£îÿe n+XÊ\‘√ dü]b˛\Ã+&ç.
A B
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ii) u≤Vü≤´ Á>∑Vü‰\T b) <Ûäe qø£åÁ‘·+
iii) qø£åÁ‘· sêX¯ó\T c) Áπ>{Ÿ uÒsY
iv) uÛÑ÷$T jÓTTø£ÿ ñ|üÁ>∑Vü≤+ d) #·+Á<äT&ÉT
e) uÛÑ÷$T
f) z]j·THé
g) n+>±s¡≈£î&ÉT ˝Òø£ ≈£îE&ÉT
7. X¯óÁ≈£î&ÉT kÕj·T+ø±\ ‘ês¡>± ø£ì|æùdÔ Äø±X¯+˝Àì @ uÛ≤>∑+˝À MTs¡T ø£qT>=qe#·TÃ?
8. kÂs¡ eédüú˝Àì n‹ô|<ä› Á>∑Vü‰ìï ù|s=ÿqTeTT.
9. qø£åÁ‘·sêX¯ó\T n+fÒ @$T{Ï? @yÓ’Hê ¬s+&ÉT qø£åÁ‘·sêX¯ó\T ù|s¡T¢ sêj·T+&ç.
10. (m) ñsê‡ y˚T»sY eT]j·TT (_) z]j·THé\˝Àì ÁbÕ<Ûëq´ qø£åÁ‘ê\ jÓTTø£ÿ kÕù|ø£å kÕúHê\qT
‘Ó\T|ü⁄‘·÷ u§eTà*ï ^j·T+&ç.
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13. Äø±X¯+˝À ñ+&˚ qø£åÁ‘ê\˙ï ø£<äT\T‘êj·÷? $e]+#·+&ç?
14. qø£åÁ‘ê\ eT<Ûä´ <ä÷s¡+ ø±+‹ dü+e‘·‡sê\˝À m+<äT≈£î e´ø£Ô|üs¡TkÕÔs¡T? ªªˇø£ qø£åÁ‘·+ uÛÑ÷$TøÏ
mì$T~ ø±+‹ dü+e‘·‡sê\ <ä÷s¡+˝À ñ+~μμ nH˚ Á|üø≥£ q <ë«sê MTs¡T @$T ns¡+ú #˚dTü ≈£îHêïs¡T?
E X E R C I S E S
15. The radius of Jupiter is 11 times the radius of the Earth. Calculate the
ratio of the volumes of Jupiter and the Earth. How many Earths can Jupiter
accomodate?
16. Boojho made the following sketch (Fig. 11.29) of the solar system. Is the
sketch correct? If not, correct it.
Fig. 11.29
Extended Lear ning — Activities and Pr

Learning ojects
Projects
1. The North-South line at your place
Let us learn to draw the north-south line
with the help of the shadow of a stick. Fix a
straight stick vertically in the ground where
the Sun can be seen for most of the day.
Call the foot of the stick as point O.
Sometime in the morning, mark the tip of
the shadow of the stick. Say this point is
A. With OA as radius draw a circle on the
ground. Wait till the shadow becomes
shorter and then starts increasing in size.
When the shadow again touches the circle,
mark it as point B. Draw the bisector of the
angle AOB. This is your North-South line.
To decide which side of this line shows North, use a magnetic
compass.
2. If possible, visit a planetarium. There are planetariums in many
cities. In a planetarium you can see the motion of the stars,
constellations and planets on a large dome.
3. On a moonless night observe the sky for a few hours. Look out for a
meteor, which appears as a streak of light. September-November is
a good time for observing meteors.
15. ãVü≤düŒ‹ yê´kÕs¡ú+ uÛÑ÷yê´kÕs¡ú+ ø£+fÒ 11 ¬s≥T¢ m≈£îÿe. ãVü≤düŒ‹ eT]j·TT uÛÑ÷$T\ jÓTTø£ÿ
nuÛ≤´kÕ\T
|òüTq|ü]e÷D≤\ ìwüŒ‹Ôì ˝…øÏÿ+#·+&ç?ãVü≤düŒ‹ ˝À mìï uÛÑ÷eTT\qT neTs¡Ãe#·TÃ?
16. ã÷CÀ kÂs¡ eédüú jÓTTø£ÿ |ü≥+ (|ü≥+ 11.29) ^XÊ&ÉT. á |ü≥+ dü¬s’q<˚Hê? ø±ø£b˛‘˚
dü]~<ä›+&ç.
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≈£îE&ÉT ãT<ÛäT&ÉT
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ãèVü≤düŒ‹
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X¯ì
|ü≥+ 11`29
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nqTø=+<ë+. ñ<äj·T+ ø=+‘· düeTj·T+, ø£Ás¡ jÓTTø£ÿ
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eT]j·TT Á>∑Vü‰\ì ô|<ä› &√yéTô|’ #·÷&Ée#·TÃ.
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|ü]o*+#·&ÜìøÏ ôdô|º+ãsY-qe+ãsY eT+∫ düeTj·T+.
4. Learn to identify the planets visible to the naked eye and some
prominent constellations such as Great Bear (Saptarshi) and Orion.
Also try to locate the Pole Star and the star Sirius.
5. Position of the rising Sun – Uttarayan and Dakshinayan:
This activity may last for several weeks. Choose a place from where
eastern horizon is clearly visible. Choose also a marker, such as a
tree or an electric pole, to mark the position of the rising Sun. It will
be sufficient if you take the observation once every week. On any
day, note down the direction of the rising Sun. Repeat this
observation every week. What do you find? You would have noted
that the point of sunrise changes continuously. From summer
solstice (around 21 June), the point of sunrise gradually shifts
towards the south. The Sun is then said to be in dakshinayan
(moving south). It keeps doing so till winter solstice (around 22
December). Thereafter, the point of sunrise changes direction and
starts moving towards north. The Sun is now said to be in uttarayan
(moving north). From the equator, only on two days, on the days of
the equinoxes (around 21 March and 23 September) the Sun rises
in the east. On all other days, it rises either north of east or south
of east. So, the direction of the rising Sun is not a good guide to
determine directions. The Pole Star, which defines North, is a much
better indicator of directions.
6. Form a group of students. Prepare a model of the solar system
showing the planets, and their relative sizes. For this take a large
chart paper. Make spheres representing different planets according
to their relative size (Use Table 11.1). You may use newspaper, clay
Table 11.1
Name Approximate Approximate Period Period

of Planet radius distance of of
(assuming from the Sun revolution rotation
Earth as 1 unit) (assuming
distance of
the Earth
as 1 unit)
Mercury 0.40 0.39 88 days 59 days
Venus 0.95 0.72 225 days 243 days
Earth 1.00 1.00 365.25 days 24 hours
Mars 0.55 1.50 687 days 24 hours 37 min
Jupiter 11.00 5.20 12 years 9 hours 55 min
Saturn 9.00 9.50 29.46 years 10.66 hours
Uranus 4.00 19.20 84 years 17.2 hours
Neptune 3.90 30.00 165 years 16.1 hours
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qø£åÁ‘·sêX¯ó\qT >∑T]Ô+#·&É+ H˚s¡TÃø√+&ç. n˝≤π> <Ûäe qø£åÁ‘·+ eT]j·TT dæ]j·Tdt qø£åÁ‘êìï
>∑T]Ô+#·&ÜìøÏ Á|üj·T‹ï+#·+&ç.
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kÕù|ø£å |ü]e÷D+ Á|üø±s¡+ $$<Ûä Á>∑Vü‰\qT dü÷∫+#˚ >√fi≤\qT ‘·j·÷s¡T #˚j·T+&ç
(|ü{Ïºø£ 11.1 ñ|üjÓ÷–+#·+&ç). MTs¡T yêsêÔ|üÁ‹ø£, eT{Ïº ˝Ò<ë bÕ¢dæºdæHé ì >√fi≤\T
|ü{Ïºø£ 11.1
dü÷s¡T´&ç qT+&ç
düTe÷s¡T yê´kÕs¡ú+ s¡e÷s¡$T <ä÷s¡+ |ü]ÁuÛÑeTD ø±\+
ñ|üÁ>∑Vü≤+ (uÛÑ÷$Tì 1 (uÛÑ÷$T jÓTTø£ÿ (ˇø£ #·T≥÷º
ù|s¡T j·T÷ì{Ÿ>± <ä÷s¡+ 1 ‹s¡>∑&ÜìøÏ ÁuÛÑeTD ø±\+
rdüTø√+&ç) j·T÷ì{Ÿ nì |üfÒºø±\+)
rdüTø√+&ç)
Mercury 0.40 0.39 88 days 59 days
Venus 0.95 0.72 225 days 243 days
Earth 1.00 1.00 365.25 days 24 hours
Mars 0.55 1.50 687 days 24 hours 37 min
Jupiter 11.00 5.20 12 years 9 hours 55 min
Saturn 9.00 9.50 29.46 years 10.66 hours
Uranus 4.00 19.20 84 years 17.2 hours
Neptune 3.90 30.00 165 years 16.1 hours
or plasticine to make spheres. You can cover these spheres with

paper of different colours. Exhibit your models in the class.
7. Try to make a scale model of the solar system showing distances

of the planets from the Sun (Use Table 11.1). Did you face any
difficulty? Explain it.
8. Solve the following riddle and try to make similar riddles yourself:
My first is in VAN but not in PAN
My second is in EARTH and also in HEAVEN
My third is in ONE and not in TWO
My fourth is in BUN and also in FUN
My last is in STAR but not in RADAR
I am a planet that moves round the Sun.
You can read more on the following websites :
 http://www.nineplanets.org
 http://www.kidsastronomy.com
Did You Know ?

You
In ancient times, it was believed that the Earth was at the centre of the universe and the
moon, the planets, the Sun and stars were orbiting around it. About 500 years ago, a Polish
priest and astronomer, named Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543), stated that the Sun was
at the centre of the solar system and the planets revolved around it. It was a revolutionary
idea. Even Copernicus hesitated to publish his work. His work was published in the year of
his death in 1543.
In 1609, Galileo designed his own telescope. Through this telescope Galileo
observed moons of Jupiter, phases of Venus and rings of Saturn. He argued that all the
planets must orbit the Sun and not the Earth.
Thus you can see that ideas and concepts grow and change. How about your own ideas?
Do you keep your mind open to accept new ideas when there is good evidence to support it?
Kalpana Chawla: The First Indian Woman in Space

Woman
Kalpana Chawla is the first Indian woman astronaut. She
was born on 17 March 1962 in Karnal, Haryana. She did
her Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical
Engineering from Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh.
In 1982, she moved to USA and obtained a Master of
Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the
University of Texas and Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering from
University of Colorado. In 1988, she started working in NASA
and was selected for her first flight in 1996. She was the
first Indian-born woman and the second Indian person to fly in space. Unfortunately she was
one of the seven astronauts who lost their lives in Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on
1 February 2003. She is a role model for many young women around the world.
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ø£cÕºìï m<äTs=ÿHêïsê? <ëìì $e]+#·+&ç.
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‘·j÷· s¡T #˚jT· +&ç?
Hê yÓTT<ä{Ï~ VAN ˝À ñ+~ ø±˙ PAN ˝À ˝Ò<äT
Hê ¬s+&Ée~ EARTH ˝À eT]j·TT HEAVEN ˝À ≈£L&Ü ñ+~
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Hê ∫e]~ STAR ˝À ñ+~ ø±˙ RADAR ˝À ˝Ò<äT
H˚qT dü÷s¡T´ì #·T≥÷º ‹]π> ˇø£ Á>∑Vü‰ìï.
MTs¡T ÁøÏ+~ yÓuŸôd’{Ÿ\˝À eT]ìï #·<äee#·TÃ:
 http://www.nineplanets.org
 http://www.kidsastronomy.com
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dü+ø√∫+#ê&ÉT. n‘·ì s¡#·q\T Áø°.X¯. 1543 ˝À n‘·qT eTs¡DÏ+∫q dü+e‘·‡s¡+˝À Á|ü#·T]+#·ã&çq$.
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17q Vü≤sê´Hê ˝Àì ø£sêï˝Ÿ˝À »ìà+∫+~. #·+&û>∑&Ûé˝Àì |ü+C≤uŸ Ç+õ˙]+>¥
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FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Fundamental duties: It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National
Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory
to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may
be ward between the age of six and fourteen years;
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009
The RTE Act provides for the right of children to free and Compulsory Education to every child in the
age group of 6 – 14 years which came into force from 1st April 2010 in Andhra Pradesh.
Important provisions of RTE Act
• Ensure availability of schools within the reach of the children. • Improve School infrastructure facilities.
• Enroll children in the class appropriate to his / her age.
• Children have a right to receive special training in order to be at par with other children.
• Providing appropriate facilities for the education of children with special needs on par with other children.
• No child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from
pursuing and completing the elementary education. No test for admitting the children in schools.
• No removal of name and repetition of the child in the same class.
• No child admitted in a school shall be held back in any class or expel from school till the completion of
elementary education. • No child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment.
• Admission shall not be denied or delayed on the ground that the transfer and other certificates have not been
provided on time. • Eligible candidates alone shall be appointed as teachers.
• The teaching learning process and evaluation procedures shall promote achievement of appropriate
competencies.
• No board examinations shall be conducted to the children till the completion of elementary education.
• Children can continue in the schools even after 14 years until completion of elementary education.
• No discrimination and related practices towards children belonging to backward and marginalized communities.
• The curriculum and evaluation procedures must be in conformity with the values enshrined in the constitution
and make the child free of fear and anxiety and help the child to express views freely.

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For All Classes NFor All Classes New Text Books Open Below Link

State Council of Educational Research & Training

uÛ≤s¡‘· sêC≤´+>∑+ - bÂs¡ $<ÛTä \T

Sri. S. Suresh Kumar IAS

Smt. Vetriselvi. K IAS

Dr. B. Pratap Reddy MA., B.Ed., Ph.D.

Sri. K. Ravindranath Reddy MA., B.Ed.

Asst. Subject Co-ordinator

© Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati

First Published 2022

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be

This book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. SS Maplitho

Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh

Editors for Translation

Textbook Development Committee

Dr. B. Pratap Reddy

A Note for the Students

NATIONAL ANTHEM C≤rj·T ^‘·+

Teacher Corner Student Corner

A ray of light is an idealisation. In Table 7.1 : Angles of Incidence

Fig. 7.2 : Drawing the normal

<äs¡ŒD+ô|’ \+ã+ yÓ+ã&ç ø±+‹ì

|ü≥+ 7.3 : |ü‘·qøÏs¡D+ eT]j·TT |üsêes¡Ôq øÏs¡D+

These activities can also be performed

Boojho remembered that in Class VII,

Fig. 7.6 : Parallel rays incident on

Fig. 7.5 : Image formation in a plane mirror

|ü≥+ 7.6 : Áø£eTs¡Væ≤‘· ‘·\+ô|’ düe÷+‘·s¡

|ü≥+ 7.5 : düeT‘·\<äsŒ¡ D+˝À @s¡Œ&˚ Á|ü‹_+ã+

Do We See all Objects due to Reflected Light?

Paheli recalls having constructed a

Fig. 7.9 : Mirror at the hair dresser shop

|üsêes¡Ôq ø±+‹ e\¢H˚ eTq+ nìï edüTÔe⁄\qT #·÷&É>∑\T>∑T‘·THêïe÷?

|ü≥+ 7.9 : øåös¡XÊ\˝À e⁄qï <äs¡ŒD+

Activity 7.5 Can you now explain how you can

ø£‘·´+ - 7.5 Ç|ü⁄Œ&ÉT øåös¡XÊ\˝À MTs¡T MT ‘·\ yÓqTø£ uÛ≤>±ìï

disc. At the other end, touching the

|ü≥+ 7.13 : ø±+‹ $πøå|üD+

Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens

7.8 Care of the Eyes

Did you know?

Non-optical and optical aids for visually impaired

7.10 What is the Braille Braille system has 63 dot patterns or

Fig. 7.18 : Example of dot patterns used

The present system was adopted in These patterns when embossed on

\÷sT÷dt Áu…sTT© |ü≥+ 7.18 : Áu…sTT© |ü<ä∆‹˝À ñ|üjÓ÷–+#·T _+<äT

Visually impaired people learn the character has to be memorised. Braille

Some visually impaired Indians have great achievements to their

BLIND SPOT  Diffused or irregular reflection takes place from

ø°\ø£|ü<ë\T MTs¡T @$T H˚s¡TÃ≈£îHêïs¡T

|ü‘q· øÏsD¡ ≤\T (ii) |ü‘·q øÏs¡D+, |üsêes¡Ôq øÏs¡D+ eT]j·TT

2. Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused

4. State the laws of reflection.

6. Fill in the blanks in the following.

(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be _______________ m

Choose the correct option in Questions 7 – 8

(a) Always (b) Sometimes

8. Image formed by a plane mirror is

(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged.

Extended Learning — Activities and Project

Did You Know?

nuÛÑ´düq ø=qkÕ–+|ü⁄ - ø£‘ê´\T ÁbÕC…≈£îº |üqT\T

34 CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT