T193 Part2 Chapter6

Part 2: Chapter 6 Energy
conversion and power generation

Introduction
Introduction
Part 2 of T193 considers the question of energy conversion, with an emphasis
on electrical power production.
In this chapter, Section 6.1 provides a brief introduction to power generation
from conventional fossil fuel sources such as coal and gas, and makes the
important distinction between primary and secondary energy.
Section 6.2 explores the chemistry behind fossil fuel combustion, and
introduces methods for balancing chemical equations and calculating the
energy released when a fuel is burned.
Section 6.3 discusses two major problems with relying on fossil fuels as
energy sources: depletion of resources and climate change.
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t 2: Chapter 6 Energy conversion and power generation
6.1 Global energy demand

A primary energy source is one that occurs naturally. Coal, oil, solar
radiation and nuclear fuels are a few examples, and others will be described
in the next section. By contrast, a secondary energy source is produced
using a primary source. Electricity is an example of a secondary energy
source that can be generated from a wide range of primary sources.
As a reminder, two important quantities related to energy conversion and use
are energy and power.
Energy and power

The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
Power is the rate at which energy is supplied, used or generated. Its SI
unit is the watt (W), which is equal to 1 J s−1. So
or
The International Energy Agency (2016) estimated that global energy use in
2014 was equivalent to the energy content of 13 699 million barrels of oil or
159 000 TWh. This is a huge quantity: a terawatt hour (TWh) is equal to one
million million watt hours, or 1012 Wh.
Energy demand has increased dramatically over the centuries, through the
combined influences of population growth and increased consumption per
person. Figure 6.1 shows some examples of typical annual energy use for a
person in different societies in different periods of history, as new
applications of energy have been developed. People in each of the societies
shown consume more energy than in the previous one, yet it is not a matter
of using more energy for every category of use – rather, new uses arise and
expand over time. These new uses are likely to arise in one country, such as
the beginning of agricultural industry in Egypt (1500 BCE) or the growth of
mechanised industry in Victorian Britain (1880 CE), and then spread across
the world.
You will already be familiar with the principle of conservation of energy,
which states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed from
one form to another. Although you will often see the terms ‘energy
production’ or ‘energy consumption’ used, a more accurate way to describe
these processes is as a transformation of energy from one form to another.
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food domestic energy industry transport services
UK 2000 CE
England 1880 CE
Europe 1300 CE
China 100 BCE
Egypt 1500 BCE
Europe 10 000 BCE
0 50 100 150 200

Per capita primary energy consumption (GJ y –1)
Figure 6.1 Per capita energy consumption for different societies (adapted from
Smil, 1994)
6.1.1 Primary sources of energy

The principal primary sources of energy are fossil fuels, ‘renewable sources’
and nuclear. Figure 6.2 shows how different energy sources contribute to
global primary energy consumption. The information is displayed as a pie
chart, where the area of each segment is proportional to the size of the
contribution. The distribution will vary from country to country and is
influenced by the natural resources available, as well as political decisions
about energy policy.
nuclear 4.4% other renewable 2.8%

hydro 6.8%
oil 33%
natural gas 24%
coal 29%
Figure 6.2 Percentage breakdown of global primary energy consumption, 2014
(data taken from BP, 2015)
Note that ‘other renewable’ includes commercially produced biomass, wind,

solar, geothermal and wastes.
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Part 2: Chapter 6 Energy conversion and power generation
Pie charts
The pie chart is an effective way of presenting statistical information in
a readily understandable form. The size of each segment (or ‘slice’ of
the pie) shows the proportion of the quantity represented by the segment
as a fraction of the whole. The total quantity can represent 100% or
some other quantity.
Figure 6.3 shows an example of a pie chart. You may notice that the
values here, which are quoted to the nearest whole per cent, do not quite
add up to 100%. This is a result of rounding errors and is not
uncommon.
Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IOM3) 3%

Chartered Institute for IT (BCS) 3% Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers (CIBSE) 3%
Institution of Structural
Institution of Engineering
Engineers (IStructE) 5%
and Technology (IET) 26%
Institution of Chemical
Engineers (IChemE) 6%
other professional
bodies 11%
Institution of Civil Institution of Mechanical

Engineers (ICE) 20% Engineers (IMechE) 22%
Figure 6.3 Percentage breakdown of Chartered Engineers registered with
the UK’s Engineering Council by institution (data taken from ECUK, 2016)
Spreadsheet packages usually include the pie chart as an option for

displaying information in a graphical format.
When drawing a pie chart, it is important to make sure that the
segments are labelled, or a key is included, to show what they represent
and (if necessary) their size.
Fossil fuels include all the carbon-based fuels extracted from the ground that
were laid down millions of years ago. As such, they represent a finite
resource and are classed as non-renewable energy sources. Figure 6.2
shows that the principal fossil fuels are oil, coal and natural gas. These are
sometimes broken down into sub-categories based on their properties
(categories of coal include lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite) or their
source.
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Activity 6.1
According to Figure 6.2, what proportion of the world’s energy is derived
from fossil fuels?
Renewable energy sources or fuels share the common feature that they are
not finite resources and can be used indefinitely (to all practical purposes).
There are many sources of renewable energy. These are discussed further in
Chapter 7, but in summary, the principal ones are:
. biomass – burning wood or plant material grown as a fuel, plant residues
such as straw, and/or other organic wastes that are regenerated through
new plant growth in a relatively short time period
. wind power – generating power from the wind’s rotation of turbine blades
or the sails on windmills
. hydroelectric power – generating power through the flow of water from a
storage reservoir to a lower level, or from the natural flow of a river
. tidal power – generating power from the flow of seawater into and out of
estuaries or artificial ponds under the action of tides
. wave power – generating power by using the upwards and downwards
motion of waves on open bodies of water
. geothermal energy – extracting the heat from geological deposits,
typically by pumping water through them
. solar energy – converting the heat of the sun into electrical power or
using it to heat water.
Nuclear fuels in current use are based either on naturally occurring uranium
or on uranium that has been ‘enriched’ by processing to increase the
proportion of the isotopes that undergo nuclear fission (i.e. break down,
releasing energy). Isotopes were introduced in Section 1.2. Other potential
nuclear fuels are thorium, which is a naturally occurring material, and
plutonium, which is produced as a byproduct in nuclear reactors. In the
longer term, nuclear fusion – where the nuclei of small atoms combine,
releasing energy – may become technically and economically possible. This
subject is covered in more detail in Chapter 7.
Nuclear energy terms

Isotopes are forms of an element that have different numbers of
neutrons in the nucleus and therefore different atomic masses (note that
isotopes have the same number of protons – otherwise they would be
different elements).
Nuclear fission is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus
breaks down by dividing into two smaller nuclei, producing different
elements. This process releases subatomic particles and large amounts of
energy.
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Nuclear fusion occurs when two elements collide with sufficient energy
for their nuclei to combine, forming a heavier element. Again, this
process is accompanied by the release of large amounts of energy.
These three terms are illustrated in Figure 6.4. Note that only the atomic
nuclei are shown in each diagram.
carbon-12 carbon-13
6 protons 6 protons
6 neutrons 7 neutrons
(a)
neutron uranium-235 uranium-236 fission neutrons

products
(b)
deuterium
+
helium neutron
tritium
(c)
Figure 6.4 Nuclear energy terms: (a) the nuclei of two isotopes of carbon;
(b) nuclear fission of uranium; (c) nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium
(both isotopes of hydrogen)
6.1.2 Energy conversion processes

To convert the energy from a primary energy source into a useful form, often
the first step is to use the fuel to generate heat – that is, convert its energy
into thermal energy. This thermal energy is useful for many purposes,
including space heating, carrying out physical and chemical processes such as
iron and steel production, and cooking. However, there is often a need to
further convert the heat into electrical energy – a much more flexible form of
secondary energy. The conversion of the energy from fuels into heat and then
into electrical energy requires input from many branches of engineering. This
is illustrated in the case of generating power from burning coal in the
following case study.
8
By 2015 coal-fired electrical power generation in the UK had fallen to about

22% of the total, and the UK government had announced plans to phase it
out completely by 2025. The closure of several coal-fired power stations in
2016 led to further reductions. However, coal is still widely used in many
other countries, and many of the features of a coal-fired power station apply
to those using other fossil fuels, biofuels, nuclear energy and wastes.
Generating electrical power from coal and gas

The main components of a coal-fired power station are shown in
Figure 6.5.
Initially, the coal has to be delivered from the mine (if home produced)
or port (if imported) and stored in a bunker (1). Transport can be by
road, rail or water and is a major undertaking. The largest coal-fired
power stations in the UK consume around 19 500 t of coal each day.
The coal is then ground in a mill (2) to a particle size of less than
0.1 mm to produce ‘pulverised fuel’, which is swept in a controlled flow
of air to the burner jets (3) located in the walls of the furnace (4). These
fine particles burn completely in a very short time.
The furnace itself consists of a large chamber (typically 30 m by 10 m
by 40 m high) built from refractory bricks (bricks designed to withstand
high temperatures). The walls are lined with metal tubes (5) containing
water under pressure, which is heated and boiled. The alloys used to
make the tubes need careful selection; they must be good conductors of
heat and withstand high temperatures and corrosion attack from the hot
acidic combustion gas.
Combustion air is added to the furnace along with the pulverised fuel,
and also through nozzles in the furnace walls (6). These are positioned,
and the air flow is controlled, to ensure that combustion is completed
efficiently and in a way that does not allow the flames to hit the surface
of the water tubes.
At the top of the furnace is a second set of tubes (7) that ‘superheat’ the
steam generated in the first set of tubes. Superheating (further heating
of the steam to increase its energy content and remove any vapour
droplets) is necessary to increase the efficiency of the power generation
process and to ensure that the steam is free from water droplets when it
enters the turbines.
From the top of the furnace, the combustion gases flow downwards,
passing more sets of heat-transfer tubes (8). These tubes recover more
heat from the (now cooler) combustion gas by either reheating the steam
after it has passed through the first stage of the turbine or heating the
feedwater before it enters the main boiler section. The combustion gases
pass through a precipitator (9), which helps to remove dust particles,
before they pass through the final exhaust fan (10) and exit through the
chimney stack (11).
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The superheated steam passes through one or more steam turbines (12),
where the flow of the steam over the turbine blades causes the turbine
shaft to rotate. As the steam passes through the stages of the turbine, the
temperature and pressure reduce. On leaving the turbine, the steam is
condensed using tubes circulating cold water (13) and returns to the
boiler.
The turbine shaft is connected to an alternator (14) that converts the
rotational energy into electrical energy, which is then exported to the
grid.
Gas can be used to generate power in a staged process that is more
efficient than coal-fired power generation, known as the combined cycle
gas turbine (CCGT). The basic principles are illustrated in Figure 6.6.
The gas is burned in the combustion chamber (1), and the hot (1100–
1200 °C) combustion gases pass through a turbine (2) that converts
thermal energy (heat) into the kinetic energy of the rotating shaft. The
turbine is connected to a compressor (3) that provides the air for the
combustion chamber, and to the alternator (4) that generates the
electrical power.
The exhaust gases from the turbine (at around 650 °C) pass through a
boiler (5), in which heat is transferred to water flowing through heat
exchanger tubes to generate steam with a temperature of around 540 °C.
The steam is passed through a steam turbine (6), where more energy is
converted to kinetic energy that is used to drive the alternator (4). The
steam leaves the turbine at a low pressure and temperature of 25 °C, is
condensed back to water (7) and is returned to the boiler.
Coal- and gas-fired power stations have the potential to cause
environmental pollution in several ways, so measures are taken to
reduce the emissions to air through the chimney stack. For example,
particulate material is removed using electrostatic filters: the gas is
passed over wires carrying an electrical charge; this charges the dust
particles, which are then collected on oppositely charged plates.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) are removed by injecting ammonia into
the furnace, which reacts with the nitrogen oxides and converts them to
nitrogen. Finally, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and other acidic gases are
removed by spraying lime (mostly calcium oxide, CaO, which forms
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, in water) or another alkaline solution
through the combustion gas to absorb them.
Activity 6.2
Make a list of the different engineering disciplines involved in power
generation and the particular areas where their expertise is required.
10
8 11
5
4 10
bunker
1
14
3
air
6
12 cooling power
water to the
2 grid
13
mill
Figure 6.5 Diagram of a coal-fired power station (the numbered items are referred to in the text)
flue
gases 7
5
cooling water
natural 1
gas
3 2 4 6
electrical
air output to grid
Figure 6.6 Simple diagram of the CCGT at Shoreham Power Station (the numbered items are referred to in the
text)
Generating the electricity is just the first stage in the process. It then has to
be fed into the National Grid, transmitted to the users (undergoing changes to
the voltage along the way), passed through a meter and then used
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(Figure 6.7). Balancing the total supply to the grid with demand is a complex
process, because the grid has very little storage capacity for electrical energy.
This is becoming even more challenging as the contribution from renewable
energy is increased, since much generation from renewable sources (such as
wind and solar) is dependent on weather conditions.
primary secondary energy delivered useful

energy energy energy
chemical heat kinetic electrical energy

energy energy energy
Figure 6.7 Simplified electricity distribution system showing energy
transformations at different stages
Energy generation efficiency

The efficiency of any power generation process is defined as
For a thermal power station (one converting heat into electrical power), the
maximum efficiency is is limited to 1 − , where the hot steam entering the
turbine is at temperature and the cold steam leaving it is at temperature
(both in K). This is known as the Carnot efficiency. Therefore the hotter the
steam generated by the boilers, the higher the efficiency. Typical values of
power station efficiency are shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Typical efficiencies of different power

stations
Type of power station Efficiency

Combined cycle gas turbine 47.0%
Nuclear 39.6%
Coal 35.9%
Biomass/waste 20–25%
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6.2 Chemistry, combustion and energy calculations
6.2 Chemistry, combustion and energy

calculations
Section 1.3 introduced some of the basic principles of the chemistry of
combustion. This section develops this topic in two areas.
. Balancing chemical equations to allow calculation of the quantities of
each reactant needed and the amount of each resulting product. For
combustion reactions, this enables you to calculate the oxygen needed to
burn a particular fuel and the amount of carbon dioxide generated (the
significance of carbon dioxide as the principal greenhouse gas will be
explored in Section 6.3).
. Calculating the heat released by the combustion of a particular fuel.
The following example and activity revise the material in Section 1.3. If you
have any difficulty with the activity, you should revisit that section.
Example 6.1 Combustion of carbon

The chemical reaction for the combustion of carbon is
How much oxygen is required to burn 50 g of carbon, and how much

carbon dioxide will be produced? Give your answers to the nearest g.
Solution
The equation shows how many atoms and molecules interact, so the first
stage in the calculation is to calculate the masses involved. This is done
by using the periodic table from the Handbook, which gives the relative
atomic masses (often just called ‘atomic masses’) of all the elements.
Note that these masses are often reported to several decimal places, but
for most practical purposes, it is acceptable to work to the nearest whole
number. In this case, the masses are 12 for carbon and 16 for oxygen.
From this, the molecular masses of the products and reactants are as
follows.
. Reactants:
mass of carbon (C) = 12;
mass of oxygen (O2) = 16 × 2 = 32.
. Products:
mass of carbon dioxide (CO2) = 12 + 16 × 2 = 44.
In other words, the equation above states that 12 g of carbon reacts with
32 g of oxygen to give 44 g of carbon dioxide.
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Dividing all these terms by 12, you can say that or 1 g of carbon
reacts with or 2.666… g of oxygen to give or 3.666… g of
carbon dioxide.
Therefore, to burn 50 g of carbon requires 2.666… g × 50 = 133 g of
oxygen and produces 3.667 g × 50 = 183 g of carbon dioxide (both to
the nearest g).
Activity 6.3
The combustion of methane can be represented by the following equation.
Use the periodic table in the Handbook to:

(a) find the relative atomic mass (rounded to the nearest whole number) of
each of the three elements involved in the reaction
(b) calculate the molecular mass of each of the reactant and product
compounds
(c) calculate the mass of oxygen consumed and carbon dioxide produced by
the combustion of
(i) 4 mol of methane (give your answer to the nearest g)
(ii) 5 kg of methane (give your answer to the nearest kg).
6.2.1 Balancing chemical equations

All the atoms present at the start of a reaction must be accounted for at the
end of the reaction. For instance, consider the reaction for the complete
combustion of carbon:
The left-hand side of the equation contains one atom of carbon and two
atoms of oxygen, and so does the right-hand side. The equation is said to be
‘balanced’.
If carbon is burned in conditions where there is insufficient oxygen for
complete combustion, it is possible for the carbon to undergo incomplete or
partial combustion to produce carbon monoxide (CO), a toxic gas present in
vehicle exhausts and released from combustion processes that are poorly
maintained or operated.
To begin with, this reaction can be represented by
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This equation does not balance because there are two oxygen atoms on the
left-hand side and only one on the right-hand side. To try to correct this
imbalance, another CO molecule can be added to the right-hand side:
or
Counting the atoms again shows that the oxygen is balanced (two on each
side), but there are now two carbon atoms on the right and only one on the
left. This can be corrected by adding another carbon atom to the left-hand
side:
or
Counting the atoms again shows that the equation is balanced, with equal
numbers of carbon and oxygen atoms on each side. So this is the correct
equation for the incomplete combustion of carbon.
Chemical formulas and equations

. In the formula of a chemical compound, a subscript number refers
only to the element that it follows, not the whole compound. For
example, a molecule of CH4 consists of 1 carbon atom and
4 hydrogen atoms.
. A number in front of the formula applies to all the elements in the
compound. For example, 2CH4 represents two molecules of CH4,
containing 2 carbon atoms and 8 hydrogen atoms in all.
. A subscript number after brackets around a group of symbols refers
to everything inside the brackets. For example, in the molecule
there are 2 nitrogen atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, 1 sulphur
atom and 4 oxygen atoms.
. When balancing equations, you can’t change the subscript numbers
or insert numbers into the middle of a formula; you can only add or
alter numbers in front of the formula.
The balancing technique described below can be applied to all chemical

equations, whether simple or complicated. It may appear rather long-winded,
but a careful, painstaking approach can ensure that mistakes are avoided.
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Balancing chemical equations

1 Write out the unbalanced equation in symbols with the reactants on
the left-hand side and the products on the right-hand side.
2 Draw up a table showing how much of each element there is on each
side of the equation.
3 Identify the first unbalanced element you come to and, on whichever
side is lower, add a number into the equation to make that element
balance.
4 Amend the table, altering all elements affected by the new number.
5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all elements balance.
Example 6.2 Balancing a chemical equation

A particular chemical reaction is written in words as hydrogen sulphide
(H2S) reacts with sulphur dioxide (SO2) to produce water (H2O) and
sulphur (S). Find the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
Solution
1. Write out the unbalanced equation in symbols with the reactants on
the left-hand side and the products on the right-hand side.
As a chemical equation, the given reaction reads
2. Draw up a table showing how much of each element there is on each

side of the equation.
Left Right
H 2×1=2 2×1=2
S 1+1=2 1
O 2×1=2 1
3. Identify the first unbalanced element you come to and, on whichever

side is lower, add a number into the equation to make that element
balance.
In this case, the first unbalanced element is S (sulphur). The table shows
that the quantity of sulphur on the right-hand side is lower, so this is
adjusted to make it equal on both sides:
16
(Remember that if sulphur had been part of a compound on the right-

hand side, the adjustment would apply to all elements in that compound,
and this would need to be reflected in the table.)
4. Amend the table, altering all elements affected by the new number.
Left Right
H 2×1=2 2×1=2
S 1+1=2 2×1=2
O 2×1=2 1
Sulphur is now balanced, with two atoms on each side.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until all elements balance.
The next unbalanced element is oxygen. Again, the quantity of oxygen
on the right-hand side is lower, so this is adjusted to make it equal on
both sides:
Again the table is amended, with all elements affected by the new
number being altered. This time, although oxygen now balances,
hydrogen has been thrown out of balance – there are 4 hydrogen atoms
on the right, but only 2 on the left.
Left Right
H 2×1=2 2×2=4
S 1+1=2 2×1=2
O 2×1=2 2×1=2
So repeat again to balance the hydrogen by adding another molecule of

H2S to the left-hand side:
and amend the table.
Left Right
H 2×2=4 2×2=4
S 2×1+1=3 2×1=2
O 2×1=2 2×1=2
There are now 4 hydrogen atoms on both sides, but sulphur has been
thrown out of balance, with 3 sulphur atoms on the left and only 2 on
the right.
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So repeat again to balance the sulphur:
and amend the table.
Left Right
H 2×2=4 2×2=4
S 2×1+1=3 3×1=3
O 2×1=2 2×1=2
At this point, everything is balanced, so the correct form of the equation

is
Activity 6.4
Balance the following chemical reactions:
(a) the combustion of propane gas in oxygen,
(b) a reaction used to remove sulphur dioxide from power station flue gases,
(c) the oxidation of an organic molecule, important in such processes as

combustion or biological degradation,
(note that over 20 chemical compounds have the formula C6H12,

depending on how the individual atoms are arranged – many of these
compounds can be found in liquid fuels)
(d) a reaction used in waste treatment for the removal of cyanide from
plating and metal finishing processes,
6.2.2 Calculating the heat released by

combustion
Deliberate combustion reactions can be used to convert the chemical energy
from a fuel into heat, some of which may be used to create movement or be
emitted as light. The heat released will be referred to here as the heat of
combustion, although you may also see it called the calorific value or
enthalpy of combustion.
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Heat of combustion
The heat of combustion is defined as the amount of heat energy released
per unit amount of fuel (or other substance) burned. The SI unit of
energy is the joule (J), while the amount of fuel can be measured in mol
(or kmol), kg or m3. Therefore the heat of combustion is expressed in SI
units as J kg−1, J m−3 or J mol−1 – though for convenience, kilojoules
(kJ) or megajoules (MJ) are often used in places of joules.
To calculate how much heat will be released from a particular amount of
fuel, the heat of combustion is multiplied by the amount of fuel, making
sure that both use the same units:
For example, the heat of combustion of methane can be expressed as

55.5 MJ kg−1, 888 MJ kmol−1 or 39.8 MJ m−3. A typical bituminous coal has a
heat of combustion in the range 24–33 MJ kg−1.
The rate at which energy is released, the power, is expressed in units of watts
(W), where 1 watt represents a rate of 1 joule per second (1 J s−1). Physically,
this quantity is too small for practical purposes so multiples are generally
used. For example, a domestic electric fire might have an output of 1 kilowatt
(1 kW), a wind turbine could produce 1 megawatt (1 MW) and a large power
station could produce 1 gigawatt (1 GW, equivalent to 1000 MW).
Example 6.3 Generating heat from coal

(a) How much heat is released when 1 t of coal with a heat of
combustion of 25 MJ kg−1 is burned?
(b) If a furnace burns 2 t of coal per hour, what is the rate of heat
release (the power) in MW?
(c) If the heat generated is used to generate steam in a boiler and the
efficiency of the boiler is 80%, how much heat is supplied by the
steam generated in the boiler?
Give your answers to 2 s.f.

Solution
(a) The heat released from 1 t (1000 kg) of coal is 25 MJ kg−1 × 1000 kg
= 25 000 MJ.
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(b) The furnace is burning 2 t per hour, which means heat is being
released at a rate of 50 000 MJ h−1.
The power in MW (or MJ s−1) is given by the heat output in one
hour divided by the number of seconds in one hour:
(c) The efficiency of the boiler is 80%. So heat supplied by the steam
generated in the boiler is given by
Example 6.4 Calculating fuel consumption

A boiler burning coal with a heat of combustion of 25 MJ kg−1 has an
efficiency of 75%. If the useful heat output is 5 MW, how much coal
must be burned each hour? Give your answer to 2 s.f.
Solution
First rearrange the equation for efficiency to make heat input the subject
of the equation:
and therefore
The useful heat output is 5 MW and the efficiency is 75%. Putting these
values into the equation gives
20
This represents 6.666… MJ s−1 and the coal has a heat of combustion of
25 MJ kg−1. Since the heat input to the boiler is equivalent to the
amount of heat released by the coal, an appropriate heat of combustion
equation can be used. The amount of coal needed per second is given by
the heat input in MJ s−1 divided by the heat of combustion in MJ kg−1:
This is converted to an amount of coal per hour by multiplying by the

number of seconds in an hour:
Activity 6.5
A boiler burns natural gas (which for all practical purposes is methane, CH4)
that has a heat of combustion of 55.5 MJ kg−1. If the boiler has an efficiency
of 85% and an output of 3 MW:
(a) How much methane is burned per hour?
(b) How much CO2 is released per hour?
Give your answers to 3 s.f.
Example 6.5 CO2 release from a gas-fired power

station
Natural gas has a heat of combustion of 55.5 MJ kg−1 and a carbon
content of 75%. If natural gas is burned in a CCGT with a thermal
efficiency of 47%, how much CO2 is released per MJ of power
generated?
Solution
Consider 1 kg of natural gas.
The chemical equation for the combustion of carbon is
As shown in Example 6.1, this means that 12 g of carbon combines with

32 g of oxygen to give 44 g of carbon dioxide, or 1 g of carbon reacts to
give = 3.667 g of CO2.
1 kg of natural gas contains 0.75 kg of carbon, so the amount of CO2

produced is 0.75 × 3.667 kg = 2.75 kg.
21
Burning 1 kg of natural gas releases 55.5 MJ of thermal energy. The

thermal efficiency of the power station is 47%, so the power generated
per kg of natural gas is
This means that generating 26.085 MJ of power also releases 2.75 kg of

CO2. So generating 1 MJ of power releases
Activity 6.6
How much CO2 is released by a coal-fired power station burning a coal with
80% carbon content and a heat of combustion of 28 MJ kg−1 if the thermal
efficiency of the power station is 33%? Give your answer to 2 s.f.
Calculations such as these are widely used when assessing different fuels and
their relative CO2 releases. The importance of this is explained in the next
section.
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6.3 The need for non-fossil energy

Fossil fuels provided one of the key inputs to the Industrial Revolution and
are used to provide the bulk of the world’s electricity, heat and transport
fuels. In recent years, the use of fossil fuels has been found to have two
major drawbacks: the finite nature of fossil reserves and the greenhouse gas
emissions associated with their combustion.
6.3.1 Fossil fuel resources

As explained in Section 6.1, all fossil fuels have a finite supply. This means
that ultimately the answer to the question ‘Will we run out of fossil fuels?’
has to be ‘Yes’. However, a more meaningful answer to the question is much
more complex.
The size of the world’s fossil fuel reserves is debatable and depends on many
factors. When fuel prices are high, it becomes worthwhile to extract reserves
that would otherwise not be considered economic to recover, so the reserves
available effectively increase. Conversely, during periods of low fuel prices,
some reserves are no longer considered to be economic to recover and the
reserves available are effectively reduced. Technologies also change. The
development and use of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) – the injection of
high-pressure water, sand and other chemicals into underground gas or oil
deposits to increase the porosity of the rock and enhance the recovery of the
fuel – has greatly increased the availability of natural gas reserves in the
USA and Europe. On the other hand, oil and gas exploration is expensive,
and many companies do not consider it necessary to investigate potential new
sources as long as they have known reserves that will last a few decades. So
there may be additional reserves that have yet to be identified.
BP publishes an annual survey of fossil fuel reserves, extraction rate and
prices. Some of its findings from 1994–2014 are shown in Table 6.2. The
figures shown represent the number of years’ reserves at current consumption
rates that are ‘recoverable from known deposits under existing operational
and economic conditions’. Notice that the amount of oil and natural gas
reserves appears to be increasing – a consequence of the economic and
technological factors discussed above.
Table 6.2 Global fossil fuel reserves (in years)
Fuel 1994 2004 2014

Oil 35 42 53
Natural gas 34 45 54
Coal 128 112 110
(Source: BP, 2015)
23
Although there is no doubt that fossil resources are finite, this table does not
present a strong case for developing non-fossil fuel technologies in the
immediate future. When environmental considerations are taken into account,
the case becomes much stronger. This will be explained shortly, after a brief
exploration of the nature of light and other waves.
6.3.2 Light and other waves

The Earth is warmed by incoming radiation, mainly in the form of visible
light from the Sun. About 30% of this incoming radiation is reflected back
into space by the atmosphere and the clouds. The remaining 70% is absorbed,
warming the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. The Earth in turn
radiates light back into space. Under steady-state conditions, where the
amounts of energy absorbed and released by the Earth are the same, there is
no change in the Earth’s temperature. To understand this process you need to
know a little more about the nature of light, which is one example of a wave.
Reflection and scattering of light

When a ray of light hits a solid object or the surface of a liquid, it is
reflected back at the same angle that it hit the surface. Figure 6.8 shows
how the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are defined as the
angles the ray of light makes with the normal to the surface.
normal
light ray angle of angle of

incidence reflection
surface
Figure 6.8 Light hitting a surface is reflected so that the angle of

incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
If the surface is smooth (a mirror, a polished surface or still water, for

example) then when a beam of light hits it, the majority of the rays are
reflected at the same angle – since even on a microscopic scale, most
parts of the surface are oriented in the same direction. This is known as
specular reflection (Figure 6.9(a)). However, if the surface is rough, then
light rays hit parts of the surface with different orientations, so the rays
are reflected in many different directions. This is known as diffuse
reflection (Figure 6.9(b)).
24
specular reflection diffuse reflection

Figure 6.9 (a) Specular reflection; (b) diffuse reflection
The laws of reflection of light state that:

1 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
2 The angle of incidence, the angle of reflection and the normal to the
surface are all in the same plane.
When light passes through a gas, it may be scattered by hitting the

molecules in the gas or small particles of dust or water droplets. The
amount of scattering depends on the relative size of the particles in the
gas and the wavelength of the light. If the wavelength of the light is
small in relation to the particles, there is more scattering. This explains
why the sky looks blue: shorter-wavelength blue light is scattered more
than the other colours, and this scattering takes place in all directions
(Figure 6.10).
white
light
Figure 6.10 As light passes through the atmosphere, blue light is scattered
more than other colours, which is why the sky looks blue
Light energy can be considered to be made up of a series of discrete bundles

of energy known as photons that travel as electromagnetic waves. These
waves are characterised by two properties: their wavelength and their
frequency.
25
Wave–particle duality
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, a number of experiments were
carried out to try to understand the nature of light. Two contrasting
models were proposed to describe light:
. a stream of particles
. a wave.
The experiments produced conflicting results and seemed to suggest that

light had the properties of both particles and waves. The later
development of the theories of quantum physics has reinforced this idea
of the dual nature of light.
This is why the best way to think of light, and any other type of
electromagnetic radiation, is as a collection of energy-carrying particles
called photons travelling through space as electromagnetic waves.
A similar model also describes the nature of electrons.
To understand light fully, it is necessary to treat it as consisting of particles

in some instances and waves in other cases. To understand the interaction of
sunlight with the Earth’s atmosphere and the role of this interaction in
climate change, it is most helpful to treat light as a wave. The key terms and
equations useful for working with waves are summarised below.
Properties of waves
There are two basic types of wave. Electromagnetic waves (such as light
and radio waves), and waves in fluids such as the ripples caused by
dropping a stone into a pond, are known as transverse waves because
the vibrations of the waves are at right angles to the direction in which
the wave is travelling. In contrast, sound waves are known as
longitudinal waves because the molecules that the sound is passing
through vibrate in the same direction as the wave itself.
Both types of wave can be demonstrated with a ‘Slinky spring’, as
shown in Figure 6.11. If the person holding the spring moves their
hands up and down, a transverse wave is produced; if they move their
hands backwards and forwards, a longitudinal wave results.
Any wave (electromagnetic radiation, water waves or sound waves, for
example) can be described graphically as shown in Figure 6.12.
26
wavelength
transverse wave
compression expansion
wavelength
longitudinal wave
Figure 6.11 Transverse and longitudinal waves illustrated using a Slinky
spring
y
wavelength, λ
amplitude, A
distance, x
(a)
y
period, T
amplitude, A
time, t
(b)
Figure 6.12 Characteristics of waves: (a) variation with distance;
(b) variation with time
In both graphs in Figure 6.12, the vertical axis represents the quantity
that is varying (the strength of an electric or magnetic field, the position
of a water surface, air pressure, etc.). The first graph represents the path
27
of a wave from its starting position, while the second represents the
form of the wave at a fixed point in space with respect to time.
The properties of a wave can be described in the following terms:
. wavelength, (the Greek letter lambda) – the distance between two
consecutive peak values of the wave, measured in metres
. period, – the time interval between two consecutive peak values of
the wave, measured in seconds
. frequency, – the reciprocal of the period, which can be thought of
as the number of cycles per second and is measured in hertz (Hz),
where 1 Hz = 1 s−1
. amplitude, A – the maximum value of the varying quantity (pressure,
voltage, current, etc.), where the units will depend on the nature of
the wave.
The period is related to the frequency by the equation
or
The wavelength and frequency are related by
For electromagnetic radiation, this is written as
where is the speed of light. This has the value 2.998 × 108 m s−1 (to
4 s.f.). Note that represents the speed of light in free space, which
means light travelling through a vacuum. In most cases you can assume
the same value for light travelling through air. The value of is often
approximated to 3.00 × 108 m s−1.
The energy, (in joules), carried by a photon travelling in a wave is
proportional to its frequency, . It is given by
where is the quantity known as Planck’s constant and is equal to

6.626 × 10−34 J s.
Light is one form of electromagnetic radiation, which can be described

either in terms of waves (made up of variations in electric and magnetic
fields) with frequency , or as a stream of photons with energy . The
equation provides a link between the two models.
28
Electromagnetic radiation is given different names depending on the

wavelength of the waves, or the energy of the photons: examples are gamma
rays, X-rays, light waves, microwaves and radio waves. All electromagnetic
waves travel at the speed of light. The electromagnetic spectrum shown in
Figure 6.13 and included in the Handbook shows how the different types are
related, and provides some examples to put the scale of the wavelengths into
context. The example and activity that follow will give you some practice at
using the different equations that can be applied to any waves.
human
buildings humans insects cells molecules atoms atomic nuclei
10 m 100 mm 1 mm 10 µm 100 nm 1 nm 10 pm 0.1 pm

wavelength
visible
radio microwave infrared ultraviolet X-ray gamma ray
107 109 1011 1013 1015 1017 1019 1021

frequency (Hz)
Figure 6.13 The electromagnetic spectrum, including indications of scale for
comparison
Example 6.6 Calculating the properties of light

A source emits red visible light with a wavelength of 700 nanometres
(nm). What is the light’s frequency, and how much energy does each
photon carry? Take to be 3.00 × 108 m s−1 and give your answers to
3 s.f.
Solution
For electromagnetic radiation, wavelength and frequency are related by
In this case, = 700 nm (or 700 × 10−9 m = 7 × 10−7 m) and

= 3.00 × 108 m s−1. So
So the frequency of the light is 4.29 × 1014 Hz (to 3 s.f.).
29
The energy is given by
where h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s, so
So the energy carried by each photon is 2.84 × 10−19 J (to 3 s.f.).
Activity 6.7
A microwave radiation source produces photons with energy 1.986 × 10−23 J.
What is the frequency and wavelength of this radiation? Take c to be
3.00 × 108 m s−1 and give your answers to 3 s.f.
6.3.3 Climate change

Using the wave model, the colour of visible light depends on the wavelength
(or frequency) of the wave, while the amplitude is a measure of the intensity
of the light and is related to the amount of energy carried by the wave. The
wavelength of light depends on the temperature of the source of the light.
The light radiated by the Sun is characterised by a low wavelength
(0.2–4 μm) and a high proportion of ultraviolet light. Conversely, the light
radiated by the Earth (which has a much lower temperature than the Sun) has
a higher wavelength (2–40 μm) with a peak intensity at 10 μm in the infrared
region of the spectrum.
The incoming radiation from the Sun and the outgoing radiation from the
Earth are affected in different ways by the atmosphere because of the
different range of wavelengths they contain. A large proportion of the
outgoing radiation from the Earth is absorbed by the water vapour and carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. This effect accounts for the temperature on the
surface of the Earth: in the absence of an atmosphere that traps this energy,
the Earth’s temperature would be around −18 °C.
This effect also explains how greenhouses work: the incoming ultraviolet
light passes through the glass, but the outgoing infrared radiation is trapped
by the glass. For this reason, the mechanism that causes the Earth to have the
climate it does is sometimes known as the greenhouse effect.
30
Although water vapour and CO2 both absorb some of the light radiated from
the Earth, their absorbency depends on the wavelength of the radiation. In
particular, water vapour absorbs hardly any light with a wavelength in the
range 8–14 μm (Figure 6.14). However, CO2 absorbs some of the energy that
falls between 12 μm and 14 μm, with the amount of energy absorbed
increasing as the amount of CO2 present increases.
gap in H2O
energy of absorption
impinging
sunlight
partial
cover
of H2O
gap
by CO2
7 12 14
Figure 6.14 Radiation from the Earth
Samples of CO2 from ice cores show that over the period 800 000 BCE to
1750 CE, CO2 levels ranged from 190 ppm to 290 ppm, and – after allowing
for ice ages – the temperature was more or less constant. Figure 6.15 shows
historic CO2 levels since 1000 CE. A very large and sudden increase is
apparent from about 1900 to 2000. From the nineteenth century, the burning
of fossil fuels grew rapidly, with the Industrial Revolution causing the
atmospheric CO2 levels to rise. This rise disrupted the previous steady
conditions by reducing the amount of infrared energy leaving the Earth’s
atmosphere. As a result, the amount of energy entering the Earth and its
atmosphere exceeds the amount being lost, so the average temperature is
rising.
31
340
Atmospheric CO2 level (ppm)

320
300
280
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Year
Figure 6.15 Historic atmospheric CO2 levels determined by taking samples of

air trapped in ice deposits (ppm stands for parts per million by volume, so that
1 ppm = 0.0001%)
Since 1958, continued measurements of atmospheric CO2 levels have been
carried out, showing a continuing upward trend (Figure 6.16).
390 390
380 380
370 370
CO2 concentration (ppm)
360 360
350 350
340 340
330 330
320 320
310 310
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
Figure 6.16 Measured atmospheric CO2 concentration (note that the y-axis does not start at zero)
32
The resulting increase in the global mean temperature has led to many
extreme weather events in recent years. Some of the current and potential
future impacts of rising temperature are:
. reduced crop yields in nations at low latitudes (close to the equator)
. increased water availability in moist tropics and high latitudes, but
decreased water availability and increased drought in mid- and low-
latitude areas
. increased coastal damage from floods and storms
. species extinction
. damage to coral reefs and associated ecosystems
. increased extreme weather events (storms, floods, drought and heatwaves)
. mass migrations of people away from low-lying and drought-stricken
areas.
CO2 is not the only gas that absorbs infrared radiation; other gases emitted
from human activities (known as anthropogenic sources) also play an
important part. These different gases are characterised by their ability to
absorb infrared radiation in comparison with CO2 (known as the CO2
equivalent). They are listed in Table 6.3, while Figure 6.17 shows the relative
contribution of these gases to global warming.
Table 6.3 The greenhouse gases
Gas Chemical Global warming Main anthropogenic

formula potential (compared sources
to the same mass of
CO2)a
Carbon dioxide CO2 1 Fossil fuel
combustion, forestry
and farming
Methane CH4 25 Fossil fuel extraction,
distribution and use
Dinitrogen monoxide N2O 298 Livestock farming
(often referred to as
nitrous oxide)
Sulphur hexafluorideb SF6 22 800 Leakage from and
disposal of
Hydrofluorocarbons – 100–14 800
refrigeration
(HFCs)b
equipment
Perfluorocarbons – 7390–12 300
(PFCs)b Foam blowing
a
Note that the global warming potential of a given gas depends on its ability to
absorb infrared radiation, the time it takes for the gas to decompose, and whether the
frequency of IR absorbed is also absorbed by other gases in the atmosphere.
b
Note that these three categories are often grouped together under the term
‘F-gases’.
33
dinitrogen monoxide 6% F-gases 2%
methane 16% carbon dioxide (fossil fuel

and industrial processes) 65%
carbon dioxide (forestry

and other land use) 11%
Figure 6.17 Contributions to climate change emissions

The effects of increasing greenhouse gas emissions are potentially
catastrophic and irreversible. The main contributor to these emissions is the
use of fossil fuels for power generation, transport and other purposes.
Engineers will play a vital role in improving the efficiency of energy
conversion and use processes, and in developing low-carbon energy sources.
However, this can happen only if the nations of the world can agree and
implement binding targets to address global climate change.
International discussions on decreasing the emissions of greenhouse gases
have taken place over many years. These began with the Kyoto Protocol of
1997 and a series of subsequent agreements. At the time of writing
(early 2017) the latest agreement, from the Paris conference in 2015, is a
legally binding agreement signed by 195 nations to take the measures
necessary to limit the long-term global temperature increase to well below
2 °C above pre-industrial levels. The agreement came into force in
November 2016, and all the governments that ratified it at that time (which
included the USA, China, India and the European Union) made a
commitment to reduce their emissions so that the target can be met.
The next two chapters consider some of the ways of reducing the carbon
intensity of energy production through the development of renewable and
nuclear energy sources.
34
References
References
BP (2015) Statistical Review of World Energy [Online], UK, BP. Available at
www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-
world-energy.html (Accessed 6 September 2016).
ECUK (2016) Pocket Guide to Professional Registration for Engineers and
Technicians, London, Engineering Council UK.
International Energy Agency (2016) Key World Energy Statistics, Paris, IEA.
Smil, V. (1994) Energy in World History, Boulder, CO, Westview Press.
35
Solutions to activities in Chapter 6
Solution to Activity 6.1

The proportions of oil, natural gas and coal are 33%, 24% and 29%,
respectively, giving a total of 86%.

Virtually all engineering disciplines are involved in power generation, and
many areas require the collaboration of several disciplines. A few examples
are given below.
. Transport – infrastructure for delivery of solid fuel and oil, removal of
solid residues, delivery of plant and materials for construction.
. Civil – design, construction and maintenance of plant buildings, fuel
storage, cooling towers, etc.; piping for delivery of gas.
. Mechanical – design, manufacture, installation and maintenance of pumps,
solid handling equipment, etc.
. Electrical – design of alternators, transformers, interconnectors to the grid,
etc.; design and installation of power supplies to plant (fans, pumps, etc.).
. Electronic and computer – plant control system design.
. Chemical/combustion – fuel handling and storage systems, furnace design,
plant control systems, gas scrubbing plant.
. Materials – design, manufacture and installation of metals for boiler
tubing, turbine blades, etc.
. Environmental – atmospheric pollution control equipment; storm water
and liquid effluent treatment systems; design of chimneys.

(a) From the periodic table, the relative atomic masses of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen are 12, 1 and 16, respectively (rounding to whole numbers).
(b) Based on the answers to part (a), the molecular masses of the reactants
are
mass of CH4 = 12 + 1 × 4 = 16,
mass of O2 = 16 × 2 = 32;
and for the products,
mass of CO2 = 12 + 16 × 2 = 44,
mass of H2O = 1 × 2 + 16 = 18.
36
(c)
(i) The methane combustion equation shows that the combustion of
1 mol of methane requires 2 mol of oxygen and produces 1 mol
of carbon dioxide. Therefore the combustion of 4 mol of methane
requires 8 mol of oxygen and produces 4 mol of carbon dioxide.
Using the molecular masses already calculated, the mass of 8 mol of
oxygen is 8 × 32 g = 256 g and the mass of 4 mol of carbon dioxide
is 4 × 44 g = 176 g.
(ii) As calculated above, the mass of 1 mol of methane is 16 g, so
the number of moles of methane in 5 kg is = 312.5.
Combustion of 312.5 mol of methane requires 312.5 × 2 = 625 mol
of oxygen, which has a mass of 625 × 32 g = 20 000 g or 20 kg.
Combustion of 312.5 mol of methane releases 312.5 mol of carbon
dioxide, which has a mass of 312.5 × 44 g = 13 750 g, or 14 kg to
the nearest kg.

The balanced equations for parts (a) to (d) are given below. These include
fully worked answers to parts (a) and (b).
(a) The unbalanced reaction is .
The initial table is:
Left Right
C 3 1
H 8 2
O 2 3
The first stage is to balance the carbon by adding 2 molecules of CO2 to

the right-hand side:
Left Right
C 3 3
H 8 2
O 2 7
The carbon is now balanced, but 3 more water molecules need to be

added to the right-hand side to balance the hydrogen:
37
Left Right
C 3 3
H 8 8
O 2 10
All that remains is to balance the oxygen by adding 4 more molecules to

the left-hand side:
As a final check, complete the table:
Left Right
C 3 3
H 8 8
O 10 10
(b) The unbalanced reaction is .

The initial table is:
Left Right
Ca 1 1
C 1 1
O 7 6
S 1 1
The calcium and carbon are balanced, but it appears that one oxygen atom
needs to be added to the right-hand side. This is impossible without
adding half a CO2, which starts to get confusing, so instead add another
CaCO3 molecule to the left-hand side. This gets rid of the odd number of
oxygen atoms on that side, making things easier:
Left Right
Ca 2 1
C 2 1
O 10 6
S 1 1
38
This has unbalanced the calcium, so add one molecule of CaSO4 to the
right-hand side:
Left Right
Ca 2 2
C 2 1
O 10 10
S 1 2
Next add one CO2 to the right-hand side to rebalance the carbon:
Left Right
Ca 2 2
C 2 2
O 10 12
S 1 2
To balance the oxygen, another O2 could be added to the left-hand side.

However, this would do nothing to balance the sulphur. On the other hand,
adding another SO2 to the left-hand side should balance the whole
equation:
This is confirmed by the final table:
Left Right
Ca 2 2
C 2 2
O 12 12
S 2 2
(c) The unbalanced reaction is .

The balanced equation is .
(d) The unbalanced reaction is
.
The balanced equation is
.
39

(a) The useful heat output is 3 MW and the efficiency is 85%. Putting these
values into the rearranged efficiency equation:
The amount of methane needed per second is given by the heat input in
MJ s−1 divided by the heat of combustion in MJ kg−1:
This is converted to an amount of methane per hour by multiplying by

the number of seconds in an hour:
So the amount of methane burned per hour is 229 kg h−1 (to 3 s.f.).
(b) The chemical equation for the combustion of methane is
. This means that one mole of methane
combines with two moles of oxygen to give one mole of CO2 (and two
moles of water).
One mole of methane has a mass of 12 g + 4 × 1 g = 16 g, and one mole
of CO2 has a mass of 12 g + 2 × 16 g = 44 g.
This means that 16 g of CH4 releases 44 g of CO2, or 1 g of CH4 releases
= 2.75 g of CO2 (and 1 kg of CH4 releases 2.75 kg of CO2).
Therefore if 229 kg of methane is burned per hour, the amount of CO2
released per hour is 2.75 × 229 kg = 630 kg (to 3 s.f.).

As in Example 6.5, burning 1 kg of carbon releases 3.667 kg of CO2.
1 kg of coal with 80% carbon content contains 0.8 kg of carbon, so the
amount of CO2 produced is 0.8 × 3.667 kg = 2.9336 kg.
Burning 1 kg of coal releases 28 MJ of thermal energy. The thermal efficiency
of the power station is 33%, so the power generated per kg of coal is
This means that generating 9.24 MJ of power also releases 2.9336 kg of CO2.
So generating 1 MJ of power releases
40

Energy is related to frequency by , so the frequency is given by
So the frequency of the radiation is 3.00 × 1010 Hz (to 3 s.f.).

Frequency and wavelength are related by , so the wavelength is
given by
So the wavelength of the radiation is 1.00 × 10−2 m (to 3 s.f.).

In other words, this radiation has a frequency of around 30 GHz and a
wavelength of around 10 mm.
41

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Part 2: Chapter 6 Energy

conversion and power generation

6.1 Global energy demand

Energy and power

food domestic energy industry transport services

China 100 BCE

Egypt 1500 BCE

Europe 10 000 BCE

0 50 100 150 200

6.1.1 Primary sources of energy

nuclear 4.4% other renewable 2.8%

natural gas 24%

Note that ‘other renewable’ includes commercially produced biomass, wind,

Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining (IOM3) 3%

Institution of Civil Institution of Mechanical

Spreadsheet packages usually include the pie chart as an option for

Nuclear energy terms

neutron uranium-235 uranium-236 fission neutrons

6.1.2 Energy conversion processes

By 2015 coal-ﬁred electrical power generation in the UK had fallen to about

Generating electrical power from coal and gas

primary secondary energy delivered useful

chemical heat kinetic electrical energy

Energy generation efficiency

Table 6.1 Typical efﬁciencies of different power

Type of power station Efﬁciency

6.2 Chemistry, combustion and energy

Example 6.1 Combustion of carbon

How much oxygen is required to burn 50 g of carbon, and how much

Use the periodic table in the Handbook to:

6.2.1 Balancing chemical equations

Chemical formulas and equations

The balancing technique described below can be applied to all chemical

Balancing chemical equations

Example 6.2 Balancing a chemical equation

2. Draw up a table showing how much of each element there is on each

3. Identify the ﬁrst unbalanced element you come to and, on whichever

(Remember that if sulphur had been part of a compound on the right-

Sulphur is now balanced, with two atoms on each side.

So repeat again to balance the hydrogen by adding another molecule of

and amend the table.

So repeat again to balance the sulphur:

and amend the table.

At this point, everything is balanced, so the correct form of the equation

(c) the oxidation of an organic molecule, important in such processes as

(note that over 20 chemical compounds have the formula C6H12,

6.2.2 Calculating the heat released by

For example, the heat of combustion of methane can be expressed as

Example 6.3 Generating heat from coal

Give your answers to 2 s.f.

Example 6.4 Calculating fuel consumption

This is converted to an amount of coal per hour by multiplying by the

Example 6.5 CO2 release from a gas-fired power

As shown in Example 6.1, this means that 12 g of carbon combines with

1 kg of natural gas contains 0.75 kg of carbon, so the amount of CO2

Burning 1 kg of natural gas releases 55.5 MJ of thermal energy. The

This means that generating 26.085 MJ of power also releases 2.75 kg of

6.3 The need for non-fossil energy

6.3.1 Fossil fuel resources

Table 6.2 Global fossil fuel reserves (in years)

Fuel 1994 2004 2014

(Source: BP, 2015)