Lesson 9: Virtue Ethics
normative moral theory hinges on
1. Metaethics- descriptive in nature; aims to
understand the nature and dynamics of ethical
principles; asks questions about the nature and
origin of moral facts, as well as the way in
which we learn and acquire moral beliefs
2. Normative Ethics-prescriptive in nature as it
seeks to set norms or standards that regulate
right and wrong or good and bad conduct;
normally attempts to develop guidelines or
theories that tell us how we ought to behave
3. Applied Ethics-the actual application of
ethical or moral theories for the purpose of
deciding which ethical or moral actions are
appropriate in a given situation
 Virtue Ethics is a normative moral
theory which emphasizes right
disposition and character of the agent
over right action.
 Instead of asking the question "What is
the right thing to do?", it asks "How
ought I to live my life?" or "What kind
of person ought I to be?".
 Though a normative ethics, virtue
ethics does not set up rules or
principles for moral behavior but
instead stresses the importance of
cultivating the right character,
disposition, attitude, reason and
emotion without which a moral agent
can hardly do the right thing, follow
moral rules and do his moral duties.
 Some people who support virtue ethics
claim that the development of moral
virtues is more fundamental than the
establishment of norms or principles
based on duty (deontological ethics) or
consequences (consequentialist ethics).
 Thus, the strength of virtue ethics as a
character formation and moral
education.
 There is a need to know how virtues are
formed in the life of its possessor, how
they are acquired, how they are
cultivated, what circumstances are
conducive to virtue formation, what is
the effective way to train or educate a
person to become virtuous, among
others.
 There are, however, issues raised
against this stand of virtue ethics.
Most often, the issue raised against
virtue ethics is its inability to guide
actions.
✓ According to this criticism, virtue
ethics cannot provide definite rules for
moral behavior.
o However, this criticism seems to
overlook the fact that what is
fundamental in the virtue ethics
approach is not following rules.
o Rule-following will only work if the
moral agent has the character and
disposition to follow rules.
 Another criticism is that it is self-
centered.
 According to this view, virtue ethics
focuses on the agent's character and
not, for example, on the duty one owes
to another or the promotion of another
person's benefit.
o Virtue ethics is self-centered because it
is basically about acquiring virtues for
the moral agent's well-being or
flourishing.
 o However, not all virtues are self-
regarding (e.g. courage, perseverance)
because there are other virtues which
are other-regarding (e.g. kindness).
Aristotle on Virtue and the Good
Life
 Aristotle argued that through an
understanding of human nature, one is
able to discern his purpose in life.
 He claimed that the attainment of this
purpose is at the same time the living of
the good life.
 But this purpose can only be achieved by
living well, that is to say. by acquiring and
possessing those good qualities and
excellences that enable a person to
function well as a human being.
 Hence, a well-functioning human being is
a good human being.
 But what is meant by a well-functioning
human being?
 Aristotle thus offers a theory of human
nature which became the basis for the
good life.
 According to Aristotle, human beings by
nature seek the good. The good is the aim
of every human endeavor.
 Thus, every human action, whatever it is,
always tends towards some end and that
end is somehow good.
 The good is sought either because it is a
means to another end or it is an end in
itself. The good as a means is subordinate
to the good as an end in itself.
 The good as a means is considered as such
primarily because of its usefulness to
attain another good.
 Aristotle however argues that good which
is desired for its own sake and because of
which all other goods are pursued is the
highest, which he calls 'supreme good.
 This, for him, is the good as an end itself.
 The good as an end in itself is the highest
good because man no longer seeks beyond
it, this highest good is man's happiness.
 Thus, the good life is a happy life.
Happiness is man's ultimate purpose in
life.
 For Aristotle, men seek happiness either
in pleasure, honor, and contemplation.
 Happiness derived from pleasure and
honor is not lasting. Both of these forms
of happiness largely depend on external
things.
 What gives man true happiness, according
to Aristotle, is that which benefits human
nature. For man to live the good life, he
must function well as a human being.
 If reason is the distinguishing
characteristic in man which separates him
from plants and animals, then it is reason
which must be developed and cultivated in
order for man to be happy. This is to say
that man must not only develop the basic
functions that sustain his biological life:
he must also employ his reason in order to
know what the good life is and how to live
it
 Simply, man must not only focus on
physical activities but must give
importance on intellectual, moral, and
spiritual activities, for these activities
spring from man's reason.
 For Aristotle, it is a fact however that man
does not live alone; he lives with others in
a community.
 This implies that man can only pursue the
good life in cooperation with his fellow
men.
 Thus, promoting the well-being of the
community therefore is more important
than promoting the well-being of an
individual.
 Though it is not bad to promote one's
well-being, promoting the well-being of
 the community is more noble and
important.
 Since the good life is connected with the
cultivation of virtues in life, then man
must use his reason to acquire them.
 Aristotle argues that man must
acquire both intellectual and moral
virtues in life.
o The main intellectual virtues are
understanding, science and wisdom
for the speculative part.
Understanding is knowledge of fist
principles and self-evident truths.
Science is the virtue that enables man
to draw conclusions based on and
derived from first principles Wisdom
a knowledge of things in their
ultimate explanations and causes
whereby all principles, truths and
conclusions are synthesized into a
unity or coherent whole. Art is
knowledge of how to produce and
make things. Prudence is knowledge
of how to perform actions in the right
way, how to make good choices and
decisions
 Intellectual virtues are cultivated and
acquired through education while moral
virtues through habit and training, guided
by prudence.
 Virtues are dispositions which develop
a man's character and attitude. They are
traits in man that makes him into a fully
developed person thereby making him
attain the good life.
 In conclusion, if a person is able to
cultivate the intellectual and moral virtues,
then he functions well as a human being.
Only then can he live the good lite. But
again, he only acquires these virtues
through education and practice since virtues
are not acquired immediately.
Lesson 10: Natural Law
What is law?
 St. Thomas Aquinas defines law as
"nothing else than an ordinance of reason
for the common good, made by him who
has care of the community, and
promulgated".
 This Thomistic understanding leads to the
essential properties of law, namely:
a. to be directed to the common good
b. to direct human behavior according to the
order of rightness
c. to urge people to do what is juridically
prescribed
The Kinds of Law
1. Eternal Law
 the divine and rational model
according to which God created the
world.
 The divine plan of universe.
 Aquinas argued that the world is ruled by
Divine Providence or 'Divine Reason',
that is, the whole community of the
universe is governed by Divine Reason
 Aquinas argued, however, that nobody
except God and the blessed can know
this law in itself.
 Nevertheless, "every rational creature
knows it in its reflection, greater or less.
For every knowledge of truth is a kind of
reflection and participation of the eternal
law".
o By participation in cognition of truth,
man learns something about eternal
law, for this law "is the unchangeable
truth".
 o So, according to the order of eternal
law, all creatures participate in eternal
law, because each creature has some
imprint of Divine Reason.
2. Divine Law
 derived from God and guides man to
perform acts in order to reach his or her
end, which is 'eternal happiness'
 the divine revelation expressed in the
Holy Scriptures which assists man in
understanding the requirements of law
and morality
 Aquinas said that it was necessary for four
reasons:
a. man is ordained to a supernatural end which
surpasses his natural reason
b. because of the uncertainty of human
judgments, different and contradictory laws
result
c. human law could not sufficiently direct
interior acts
d. human law cannot punish or forbid all evil
deeds
 He argued that the Divine Law is given
directly by God, therefore it is not the
result of human judgment but the gift of
Divine Grace.
 At the same time, Divine Law does not
contradict human reason, but completes it
by presenting additional rules for life and
behavior.
3. Natural Law
 the process whereby man, as a rational
being, participates in the Eternal Law
 Aquinas said that the natural law is
"something appointed by reason" and
"nothing else than the rational creature's
participation of the eternal law".
 Aquinas argued that Natural Law is called
'law' only because of man's participation.
While irrational beings are subject to the
Eternal Law, they cannot participate in a
rational manner.
 He further argued that natural law in men,
because of the participation of Divine
Reason, reveals itself by the inclination to
seek for good and shun evil, but first of all, it
directs human actions to the end.
 Aquinas said that the first principle of
practical reason is one founded on the notion
of good, that is, "good is that which all
things seek after."
Hence, this is the first precept of law, that
"good is to be done and pursued, and evil
is to be avoided".
o Natural law simply implies three
essential points: it is appointed by
reason, it is an inclination towards the
good (to do good and avoid evil), and it
is man's participation of the eternal
law.
4. Human Law
 emerges when a public person entrusted
with 'care of the community' exercises
human reason in order to interpret the
Eternal Law and create laws
 the application of natural law to particular
societies by way of "conclusions" and
"determinations"
A private person cannot make laws because he
or she does not have coercive power, or the
power to 'inflict penalties'.
A Human Law creates a moral obligation if it
has been promulgated to men by the law-
maker, and if it is just or consistent with
'divine' reason (i.e., promotes the common
good, does not exceed law-maker's authority
and does not impose a disproportionate
burden on individuals).
The Ethics of Natural Law
o Man possesses reason - speculative  Aquinas indicates two of them: "to know
(intellect) and practical (will). the truth about God, and to live in
o Man's intellect is always inclined towards society".
the Truth while his will, towards the Good.  This level involves faith, truth and social
o The concept of good is the most relations.
fundamental concept of the practical sphere
which is related to the fundamental precept
of natural law that "good is to be done and  This classification shows that first of all, a
pursued, and evil is to be avoided". human person strives for self-preservation;
o Practical reason understands the precepts of secondly, he seeks to live in community,
natural law as human good, and is able to especially in a family. Life in a family
decide how to fulfill them without recourse presupposes an understanding of the
to evil actions. instinct of self-preservation not only for
o This way, natural law is understood as one's own sake but also for others. This
practical reason's innate inclination, which way the notion of the common good comes
enables reason to make moral decisions. into being, which on the third level is
o Understanding the inclinations of human understood as the good of society.
nature as good, reason directs them towards
corresponding actions.
 Thus, the compatibility of action with the
o Therefore, the order of natural inclinations
demands of natural law, i.e., with the
corresponds with the order of the directives
common good, is an extremely important
of natural law, that is, man has innate
criterion for defining its righteousness.
orientations on how to live and behave in
 Only those actions which meet that criterion,
this world.
does Aquinas call moral, and by this aspect
o He then classified man's natural inclinations
natural law is moral law.
as a natural and rational being:
1. The first natural inclination to preserve its
own being is common to all substances.
 Therefore, "whatever is a means of
preserving human life, and of warding
off its obstacles, belongs to the natural
law".
 Hence, man is obliged to preserve his own
existence.
2. The second natural inclination is directed to
the preservation of the species.
 Thus, "in virtue of this inclination, those
things are said to belong to the natural
law, 'which nature has thought to all
animals', such as sexual intercourse,
education of offspring and so forth".
3. The third level of inclinations belong those
which are according to reason.

Lesson 11: Deontological/Duty
Ethics
Deontological Ethics is a normative moral
theory which places special emphasis on the
relationship between duty and the morality of
human actions.
o This implies that an action is considered
morally good because of some
characteristics of the action itself, not
because the product of the action is good.
o It holds that at least some acts are morally
obligatory regardless of their consequences
for human welfare.
o Moreover, it focuses on the rightness or
wrongness of actions themselves, as
opposed to the rightness or wrongness of
the consequences of those actions
(Consequentialism) or to the character and
habits of the actor (Virtue Ethics).
o Deontological ethics is duty-based.
Deontology comes from the Greek word
deon, which means duty.
Immanuel Kant's Deontology
 His Categorical Imperative is the
basis of his deontological ethics, or
specifically, his view of a moral law.
 He defined an imperative as any
proposition that declares a certain
action (or inaction) to be necessary,
that is, it is a command addressed to
agents who could follow it but might
not.
 There are two kinds of imperatives:
hypothetical and categorical
A hypothetical imperative (HI) would
compel action in a given circumstance.
o Thus, he called any action based on
desires a hypothetical imperative, i.e., it
is a command of reason that applies
only if one desires the goal in question.
A categorical imperative (CI) would denote
an absolute, unconditional requirement that
exerts its authority in all circumstances, both
required and justified as an end in itself.
o Thus, the command "Be honest, so that
people may think well of you." is an HI
while the command "Thou shall not
steal." is a Cl.
 Kant argues that the commands of morality
must be categorical imperatives: they must
apply to all rational beings, regardless of
their wants and feelings.
o From this line of thought, he saw the
moral law as a categorical imperative -
i.e., an unconditional command - and
believed that its content could be
established by human reason alone.
 Kantian Ethics then is composed of the
following core concepts:
a. The idea of the GOOD WILL
b. DUTY and the moral worth of an act
c. Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
The Good Will
 For Kant, it is that which facilitates a
human act. It is that makes enables every
agent to do an act.
 Good will is called good by virtue of its
intrinsic value and not that it produces good
result or it is done for the greatest number
of people likely to be affected.
o This means to say the good will is good
without qualification; it is good without
any condition.
o But how is this demonstrated?
For Kant, the good will is demonstrated when
the agent performs an act for the sake of
duty.
o An illustration is this: When you want
to help a friend in need and expect
something in return, your good will IS
NOT good without qualification. But
when you offer help because you
believe that it is your DUTY to do so,
then, your good will IS good without
qualification.
 Thus, he argued that the will is
autonomous, that is, self- legislating.
o The autonomy of the will implies that it
is not influenced by outside factors.
Hence, when you do an act, your will is
autonomous if you are not forced to do
it.
Duty and the Moral Worth of an Act
 According to Kant, DUTY must be the
motive of a moral act. Hence, inclinations
or self-interest must not be the motive in
the performance of any moral act.
o An illustration is this: If I conduct a
class discussion, my motive should be
duty, that is, I am moved to do this act
because it is my obligation as a teacher
and not my interest of the salary that I
will get in doing so.
 Thus, an act has a moral worth (a moral act)
if it is done for the sake of duty; but if it is
done out of self-inclination, then it has no
moral worth (an immoral act).
Formulations of the Categorical Imperative
 First Formulation (Principle of
Universality)
"Act only on that maxim through which you
can, at the same time will, that it should
become a universal law."
 This commands that every maxim (a short
statement expressing a general truth or rule
of conduct) someone acts on must be such
that others are willing to make it the case,
that is, all must do the same act as
commanded by the maxim.
 If the maxim cannot be universalized,
then the action has no moral worth.
 Consider this example:
o The act of stealing the properties of the
rich and distribute them to the poor.
The maxim of stealing/to steal cannot
be universalized. Even if someone is
willing to steal, dictate of reason tells
us that we cannot force everyone to
will the same. Hence, stealing is
always impermissible and morally
wrong.
 Consider this other example:
o Helping a friend in need.
The maxim of helping/to help is
obviously universalizable because we
can expect everyone to will the same.
Thus, the act of helping a friend is
morally right.
 Second Formulation (Humanity Formula
or Formula of the End)
"Act that you use humanity, whether in your
own person or in the person of any other,
always at the same time as an end, never
merely as a means".
 Kant argued that every human being has
an inherent value and should never be
treated as means to a particular end.
 For him, once a human being is treated
merely as means, then, he is reduced into
things or on the level of animals.
 Therefore, any act that treats humanity as
a means is not morally right, that is, it is
always immoral use other persons to attain
your own personal and selfish ends.
 Third Formulation (Autonomy Formula)
 "Act so that through your maxims you could
be a legislator of universal laws".
 The focus here is that human beings are
the universal law givers rather than
universal law followers.
 This is the source of the very dignity of
humanity Kant speaks of in the second
formulation as man's inherent value.
‘
The Autonomy Formula presumably puts on
display the source of our dignity and worth,
our status as free rational agents who are the
source of the authority behind the very moral
laws that bind us.
 The Kingdom of Ends Formula
"Act in accordance with the maxims of a
member giving universal laws for a merely
possible kingdom of ends".
 This implies that our fundamental moral
obligation is to act only on principles which
could earn acceptance by a community of
fully rational agents each of whom have an
equal share in legislating these principles for
their community
Other Types of Deontology
1. Divine Command Theory
 This states that an action is right if God
has decreed that it is right, and that an act
is obligatory if and only if (and because) it
is commanded by God. Thus, moral
obligations arise from God's commands.
2. Natural Rights Theory
 This holds that humans have absolute
natural rights (in the sense of universal
rights that are inherent in the nature of
ethics, and not contingent on human actions
or beliefs). Thus, moral obligations arise
from human rights.
3. Moral Theory of Contractarianism
 It holds that moral acts are those that we
would all agree to if we were unbiased, and
that moral rules themselves are a sort of a
contract, and therefore only people who
understand and agree to the terms of the
contract are bound by it. Thus, moral
obligations arise from contract or mutual
agreement.
4. Pluralistic Deontology
 This was advocated by William David
Ross (1877-1971), who argues that there
are seven prima facie duties which need
to be taken into consideration when
deciding which duty should be acted
upon.
 They are:
I. Duty of Beneficence (to help other people
to increase their pleasure, improve their
character, etc.)
II. Duty of Non-maleficence (to avoid
harming other people)
III. Duty of Justice (to ensure people get what
they deserve)
IV. Duty of Self-improvement (to improve
ourselves)
V. Duty of Reparation (to recompense
someone if you have acted wrongly towards
them)
VI. Duty of Gratitude (to benefit people who
have benefited us)
VII. Duty of Promise-keeping (to act
according to explicit and implicit promises,
including the implicit promise to tell the truth)

Lesson 12: Consequentialism:
Utilitarianism
 Consequentialism argues that morality is
all about producing the right kinds of
overall consequences.
 It judges whether or not something is right
by what its consequences are.
 As a normative ethics, consequentialism
has a lot of variants. Arguably the most
popular and perhaps the most important is
Utilitarianism.
 The general stand of utilitarianism holds
that an act is moral if and only if the action
produces the highest possible utility.
o This is to say that the morally right
action is the action that produces the
most good.
o Thus, one ought to maximize the overall
good, that is, consider the good of others
as well as one's own good.
 The natural foundation of utilitarianism is
not based on a human being's interpretation
of any Divine Will or Eternal Law, but
rather on what is generally experienced by
man in the world, his experience with
nature.
 There are two classical approaches:
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
 He famously contended that nature has
placed humans under the governance by
two sovereign masters - pain and pleasure -
and "it is for them alone to point out what
we ought to do, as well as to determine
what we shall do."
 He argued that "our actions, our ethics,
must be founded on this natural inclination
to pursue pleasure and avoid pain."
 He thus promulgated the "principle of
utility" as the standard of right action.
 He wrote, "By the principle of utility is
meant that principle which approves or
disapproves of every action whatsoever,
according to the tendency which it appears
to have to augment or diminish the
happiness of the party whose interest is in
question: or, what is the same thing in other
words, to promote or to oppose that
happiness."
 Utility is construed here as the "property in
any object, whereby it tends to produce
benefit, advantage, pleasure, good or
happiness to prevent the happening of
mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness to the
party whose interest is considered: if that
party be the community in general, then the
happiness of the community: if a particular
individual, then the happiness of that
individual."
 Thus, this normative ethics presents an
ethical judgment of an action based on the
amount of pleasure and pain that an act
produces.
 Moreover, any act that produces pleasure or
happiness and/or prevents pain or
unhappiness is deemed as moral or
ethical.
o However, there are instances where
actions do not only produce pleasure.
There are some actions that could give
some amount of pain that accompanies
the pleasure they produce.
o How can the agent justify his act as
moral or utilitarian if that act also
produces some amount of pain?
 When an agent faces this situation and is
called up to make a moral decision,
Bentham's calculus is the basis.
 His decision will be based on the following:
a. intensity (how strong the pleasure or pain
is)
b. duration (how long it lasts)
c. certainty (how likely the pleasure or pain is
to be the result of the action)
d. proximity (how close the sensation will be o The approval or disapproval of an
to performance of the action) action is based on the amount of pain
and pleasure brought about.
e. fecundity (how likely it is to lead to further
o He equates good with pleasure and evil
pleasures or pains)
with pain.
f. purity (how much intermixture there is with o He asserts that pain and pleasure are
the other sensation) capable of quantification, hence, the
g. extent (the number of people affected by the parameters: intensity, duration,
action) certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or
remoteness, fecundity, purity, and
extent.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
 John Stuart Mill
 In his classical text Utilitarianism (1861), o He emphasizes that what is central in
he justified the utilitarian principle (actions utilitarianism is not the quantity of
are right in proportion as they tend to pleasure but the quality of happiness.
promote overall human happiness) as the o Qualities cannot be quantified but
foundation of morals. distinguished as 'higher' and 'lower'
 He defines utilitarianism as the creed that pleasures, thus, Bentham's calculus is
considers a particular "theory of life" as the unreasonable.
"foundation of morals". o Utilitarianism refers to the "Greatest
 His view on the 'theory of life' is that there
Happiness Principle", which promotes
is one thing, and one thing only, that is
the capability of achieving happiness
intrinsically desirable, namely pleasure.
(higher pleasures) for the most amount
 In contrast to Bentham, he argued that some
of people.
types of pleasure are more valuable than
others in virtue of their inherent qualities.
This view is often called as qualitative
hedonism.
 Mill contended that the more valuable
pleasures are those which employ "higher
faculties" such as "the pleasures of intellect,
of the feelings and imagination, and of the
moral sentiments".
 His basis for such view is the empirical
claim he made that all or almost all people
prefer a "manner of existence" that uses
higher faculties to a manner of existence
which does not.
 Thus, for him, the best human life ("manner
of existence") is one in which the higher
faculties play an adequate part.
In Sum:
 Jeremy Bentham's Principle of Utility
o He recognizes the fundamental role of
pain and pleasure in human life
 Categorical

Deontological Ethics
 It argues that the morality, that is, the
rightness or wrongness, of a human act
depends on whether such act fulfills a duty
or not, rather than on its consequences.
 One of the basic ideas in deontological
ethics is that some actions are right or
wrong in themselves, regardless of their
consequences.

For example, people have the obligation to

tell the truth even if doing so might
produce some unfavorable results.

 If an action is right in itself, then we

have the duty or the moral obligation to
act on it.
 If an action is wrong itself, then we are
under a moral obligation to act
accordingly.

IMMANUEL KANT
“The categorical imperative is the supreme
principle of morality”
Morality means acting in accordance with the
categorical imperative.

The Categorical Imperative

Command
2 types:

“You have to
fulfill your Hypothetical
promises”

“Don’t
cheat”