Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Effect of polypropylene plastic on concrete properties as a partial

replacement of stone and brick aggregate
Md. Jahidul Islam *, Md. Shahjalal
Department of Civil Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Mirpur Cantonment, Dhaka-1216, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The application of waste materials in concrete is getting more popular in the concrete industries
Polypropylene (PP) as it can reduce the associated costs and environmental impacts. The present study investigates
Stone aggregate (SA) the performances of concrete while incorporating polypropylene (PP) plastic, derived from waste
Brick aggregate (BA)
plastic products, as a partial replacement of natural stone aggregate (SA) and burnt clay brick
Mechanical properties
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
aggregate (BA). The main variables include the percentage of PP aggregate (PPA) (0%, 10 %, 20
Cost analysis %, and 30 %), water-cement ratio (0.45 and 0.55), and types of aggregate (SA and BA). Results
Regression analysis are presented in terms of workability, hardened density, compressive, tensile strengths, modulus
of rupture, modulus of elasticity (MoE), ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and cost analysis.
Furthermore, empirical equations are proposed for predicting different properties of concrete;
especially, predicting compressive strengths from the UPV values. Results indicated that the
slump value increased with increasing the percentage of PPA. Concrete with 10 % PPA exhibited
higher compressive strength, modulus of rupture, and splitting tensile strengths, even, higher
than that of the control stone aggregate concrete (SAC) and control brick aggregate concrete
(BAC). The UPV values varied with aggregate types and PPA content. Both the compressive
strength and the UPV values decreased with the increasing percentages of PPA from 10 to 30.
Furthermore, SAC exhibited higher compressive strength and UPV values compared to BAC. A
good correlation was found between the compressive strength and the UPV values for concrete
with PPA. From the cost sensitivity analysis, it was observed that concrete containing 10 % PP
content had the highest strength over cost ratio compared to the control and other PPA concrete.
Therefore, it is recommended to use up to 10 % PPA either with stone aggregate or brick
aggregate for structural concrete. Finally, this study will open new opportunities for producing
green concrete by using non-biodegradable waste plastic materials.

1. Introduction

Sustainability is one of the primary aspects of any kind of infrastructure which is measured by its associated economic and
environmental impacts throughout its life cycle. In this regard, concrete industries and scientific communities are much concerned to
improve the sustainability of civil engineering structures. Among all the possible construction materials, concrete is one of the most
widely used materials in the world. To meet this demand each year, 13.12 billion natural aggregates are required for the concrete
construction [1]. This increasing demand for construction materials produces a scarcity of natural resources. However, to cope up with

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mjislam@ce.mist.ac.bd (Md.J. Islam), shahjalal@ce.mist.ac.bd (Md. Shahjalal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00627
Received 11 June 2021; Received in revised form 12 July 2021; Accepted 15 July 2021
Available online 17 July 2021
2214-5095/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

this demand, experts are responding positively by proposing new formulations of using alternative materials. The use of potential
plastic wastes in concrete as aggregate can reduce the dependence on natural aggregate, side by side cutting its related manufacturing
and transportation costs. Furthermore, it will eliminate the associated cost and place for disposing of the waste materials without
impacting the environment.
Plastic is the most widely used office and household item since the last century because of its low cost, lighter weight, durability,
and ease of manufacturing and fabrication. The consumption of plastic materials was raised from 5 million tons to 368 million tons
between the years 1950–2016 [2]. In America, almost 35.7 million tons of plastic wastes were produced in 2018 [3] whereas in Europe
it was 61.8 million tons [4] among which 19.3 % was polypropylene (PP), 17.5 % low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 12.2 %
high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 10 % polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 7.9 % polyurethane (PUR), 7.7 % polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
6.4 % expandable polystyrene (EPS) and 19 % others plastic resins. Within Asia, the largest users of plastic are China and India [5]. In
Bangladesh, approximately 0.75 million tons of polymer-based plastic wastes were generated during the year 2010–2011 [6]. Among
all plastics products, polypropylene (PP) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) are mostly produced materials [7]. In 2015, PP was in
the first place in Europe in terms of plastic demand (19.1 %) followed by LDPE (17.3 %) [8]. Approximately 55 million tons of PP were
produced globally in 2013 [9]. In the United States, PP was the second most widely adopted plastic (7.2 million tons) in 2012 which
was 22.6 % of the total plastic products; whereas the percentage of recycled this large amount PP was very low (0.6 %). Most of the
plastic wastes are non-biodegradable and their improper dumping turns into a great threat to soil as well as the environment [10]. To
mitigate this burning issue of waste disposal problem, proper waste management is required. The application of different types of
plastic as aggregate, both fine and coarse, for concrete has been studied comprehensively in the last couple of decades.
Islam et al. [6] worked with PET plastic where the natural coarse aggregate (NCA) was replaced by PET with a replacement level of
20 %, 30 %, 40 %, and 50 %. It was reported that up to a 10 % decrease in density can be attained with the incorporation of PET
compared to that of conventional concrete. The authors suggested using up to 20 % PET to achieve a comparable compressive strength
for concrete. Silva et al. [11] worked with fractional replacements of PET (7.5 % and 15 %) of both fine and coarse aggregate. A
declination was observed in the durability characteristics of plastic concrete (PC). The compressive strength decreased with the
increasing level of plastic content due to the weaker interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the cement mortar matrix and PET
aggregates. The same trend was also observed by Saikia and Brito [12]. Besides, Saikia and Brito [12] and Islam et al. [6] reported that
the workability of concrete increased with the inclusion of PET in concrete. The abrasion resistance of PET concrete was better than
that of reference concrete while the compressive strength, flexural strength, splitting tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity
deteriorated [12,13]. Juki et al. [14] investigated the relationship between splitting tensile and flexural strengths of PET concrete
based on the compressive strength. The reduction of compressive strength was found 15 %, 24 %, and 43 %, respectively than that of
the control mixture; and for splitting tensile strength reduction was 15 %, 32 %, and 42 %, respectively. Frigione [10] worked with
recycled PET bottles, with a 5% weight basis replacement of natural fine aggregate, using a w/c ratio of 0.45. It was observed that the
reference concrete and PET concrete showed very similar compressive strength curves. However, higher ductility and toughness were
observed in PET concrete in comparison to that of the reference concrete.
Senhadji et al. [15] incorporated waste polyvinylchloride (PVC) in concrete as a fractional replacement, 30 %, 50 %, and 70 % by
volume, of both fine and coarse aggregates. The PVC concrete showed more workability compared to the normal concrete. From the
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of concrete, a weaker ITZ was detected between the PVC and cement mortar. Kurup and Kumar
[16] pointed out that the addition of PVC fiber (up to 0.8 % of cement weight) in concrete will increase compressive, tensile, and
flexural strengths. Naik et al. [17] tried to improve the performance of HDPE plastic (0 %–5 % of the total mixture by weight) in
concrete by treating them with different chemicals, like water, bleach, bleach + NaOH. Results indicated that alkaline treatment
(bleach + NaOH) provided the best performance in terms of compressive strength. Babu and Babu [18] studied the strength and
durability performance of expanded polystyrene (EPS) concrete containing silica fume as a partial replacement for cement. It was
observed that at an early age compressive strength of plastic concrete increased significantly with increasing the percentage of silica
fume. Almost 75 %, 85 %, and 95 % compressive strength were gained after 7 days compared to 28 days for 3%, 5%, and 9% silica
fume, respectively. Ravindrarajah and Tuck [19] studied chemically coated EPS as a fine aggregate with a w/c ratio varying between
0.35 and 0.60. It was observed that the compressive strength varied from 11.9 MPa to 5.6 MPa. Besides, the tensile strength was found
at about 14.4 % of the compressive strength.
Albano et al. [20] investigated the influence of the thermal degradation of PET in the concrete at different temperatures such as 200
◦
C, 400 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C. No major changes were observed on the surface of the concrete at 200 ◦ C. However, with increasing the tem­
perature a significant change of color was pointed out on the concrete surface. It was also reported that the ultrasonic pulse velocity
(UPV) decreased after incorporating PET into the concrete. The inclusion of PET into the concrete mixture increased the porosity of the
concrete and attenuates the UPV values due to the acoustic impedance. According to Jones and Facaroau [21], the UPV is a function of
elastic properties as well as the volumetric concentrations of the components. Thus, when the wave passed through lower elastic
materials, such as PET concrete, the UPV value decreased [20]. For the same PET replacement and size, the UPV decreased with the
increasing w/c ratio due to the excess amount of water that was retained in the pores of the concrete and left cavities when evaporated,
and thus, an attenuation of pulse velocity was observed [20,21]. Ravindrarajah and Tuck [19] also observed a similar trend for EPS
contained concrete. Kan and Demirboğa [22] used thermally modified EPS as a substitute for both fine and coarse aggregates and
observed that the UPV value reduced with the increasing content of modified EPS. Senhadji et al. [15] and Kurup and Kumar [16] also
found the same trend for PVC.
Very few studies have been reported while dealing with PP as an aggregate. Sjah et al. [23] incorporated crushed PP plastic glass
waste in normal concrete at various percentages ranging between 0.10–3.00% on a volume basis. The incorporation of PP plastic waste
aggregate in concrete decreased the workability. Although the compressive and tensile strengths did not improve significantly, the

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

flexural and shear strengths of concrete improved by 17 % and 43 % for concrete with 0.5 % and 0.7 % crushed PP aggregate,
respectively. Ridwan et al. [24] found that the addition of PP waste, by 1.25 % of cement mass, decreased the compressive strength by
22.8 %; but increased the tensile strength by 21.8 % for 0.50 % PP plastic waste in concrete. Yang et al. [25] studied the influence of
used modified polypropylene particles on the fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting lightweight concrete. The PP was
introduced as a fractional replacement of sand, 10 %, 15 %, 20 %, and 30 % on a volume basis. Results showed that an improved slump
flow value could be achieved by incorporating PP into the concrete mixture. The viscosity of fresh concrete was reduced, whereas the
passing ability was enhanced up to 15 % replacement level. Besides, the different mechanical properties were increased by increasing
the replacement level of PP up to 15 %. Akinyele et al. [26] replaced fine aggregate with PP at 0%, 4%, 8%, 12 % and 16 %. A
degradation in mechanical properties was observed with increasing the PP content. However, PP concrete showed higher deflections
than the control mix. Ozbakkaloglu et al. [27] worked with recycled polypropylene as a substitution of coarse aggregates, by 10 %, 20
%, and 30 %. Results specified that though the compressive strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity decreased with an
increase in the percentage of PP. Concrete with 10 % PP content exhibited a negligible reduction in mechanical properties. The
compressive strength decreased significantly when exposed to elevated temperatures, especially the concrete having higher PP con­
tent. In addition, the workability and density of PP aggregate concrete (PAC) are lower compared to reference concrete.
Incorporating waste plastic materials in the concrete mixture is an innovative concept to produce sustainable green concrete by
saving natural resources as well as reducing the load on landfills. Besides, it will save the significant cost of money to recycle and
dispose of polymer wastes, prevent the environment from pollution, and save energy. Various research have been conducted on virgin
PP fiber [28–30] or recycled PP fibers [31,32] or replacement of PP as fine aggregate [25] but a few research have been conducted on
PP plastic as coarse aggregate [27]. Therefore, the present study focuses on the physical and mechanical properties of concrete
containing polypropylene (PP) plastic as coarse aggregate in terms of workability, hardened density, compressive strength, modulus of
elasticity, tensile strength, modulus of rupture, ultrasonic pulse velocity as well as a cost-sensitive analysis.

2. Research significance

Upon reviewing the existing literature, the effect of PP plastic as coarse aggregate in concrete had been investigated in limited
studies. In most of the studies, PP was used as a fiber or as a replacement for cement or sand. Very few research had been conducted on
PP as a partial replacement of stone aggregate as well as brick chips. This research extensively investigates different fresh and hardened
properties of PAC as a partial replacement of both natural stone and brick chips. As most of the available code equations for predicting
different mechanical properties of concrete are only valid for normal concrete, an extensive regression analysis has been done to
propose empirical equations to predict various mechanical properties of PAC considering the effect of PP content. The acceptability of
existing design equations of normal concrete is also evaluated for PAC. Moreover, the economy index and cost analysis has been done.
As PP plastic has structural potentialities to use as construction materials, further investigation is necessary to understand the actual
behavior of PAC and evaluate the optimum replacement percentage before establishing it as a potential construction material. As PP
aggregate is still not used in practice, this research may help to make a scope for construction industries to be acquainted with PAC and
inspire them to get the benefits of PP mixed concrete. Finally, it will open a new horizon of opportunities for sustainable construction
by reusing and recycling plastic waste all over the world.

3. Experimental program

This study explores the effect of PP plastic on the different concrete properties as a fractional replacement of crushed stone and
burnt clay brick aggregates in terms of workability, density, mechanical strengths, modulus of elasticity, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and
cost analysis.

3.1. Materials

In this study, cement (as a binding material), river sand (as fine aggregate), coarse aggregates, such as crushed stone, crushed burnt
brick clay, and waste plastic aggregate from PP, were used as the ingredients for concrete. Several tests were conducted for these
materials, to identify their properties and perform efficient mix proportions for concrete.

3.1.1. Cement
The cement used in this study was CEM type-II/A-M (S-V-L) 32.5 N following the BS EN 197-1: 2000, which is also known as
Portland composite cement (PCC). According to the standard BS EN 197-1: 2000, PCC contains 80–94% clinker, and in the total
quantity of granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash, and limestone powder between 6–20%, and 0–5% gypsum by mass. The addition of
cementitious materials reduces cost and increases the durability of PCC. Therefore, in Bangladesh it is readily available in the market

Table 1
Chemical composition of PCC (CEM type-II/A-M).
Oxide CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 SO3 MgO LOI IR

Percentage (%) 51.63 23.79 8.36 3.41 2.24 1.67 3.17 5.73

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

and universally used for various construction projects. The initial setting time and final setting time of the cement were 124 min and
210 min, respectively. Blaine fineness and specific gravity were 3080 m2/kg and 2.9, respectively. The compressive strength test of the
mortar was performed following the ASTM C109-13 [33], and the 3, 7, and 28 days test results were 22.3 MPa, 29.8 MPa, and 39.2
MPa, respectively. Although the cement showed early strength, the 28 days’ strength was relatively lower. The chemical composition
of the cement was performed following the ASTM C114-15 [34] and is presented in Table 1. As observed from the results, the cement
contains a relatively lower amount of calcium oxide, but a higher amount of silicon dioxide, and a large quantity of insoluble residue.

3.1.2. Fine aggregate

The reddish-brown river sand collected from the local source was used as the fine aggregate for concrete. Gradation of sand was
performed as per the ASTM C136-14 [35]. The particle size distribution of fine aggregate is presented in Fig. 1(a) which falls within the
range specified by ASTM C 33-18 [36] standard. Water absorption capacity and specific gravity of the sand were measured following
the ASTM C 128-15 [37]. The bulk specific gravity and absorption capacity of sand were determined as per ASTM C128-15 [37]. All the
physical properties of sand are summarized in Table 2.

3.1.3. Coarse aggregate

Coarse aggregate occupies the largest volume of concrete, and thus it is very important to ensure its quality for high-performing
concrete. Three types of coarse aggregates such as crushed stone, crushed burnt clay brick, and waste polypropylene (PP) were
used in this study. The crushed stone aggregate was collected from a local stone quarry having an angular shape with 100 % three or
more fractured faces. On the other hand, brick aggregates were produced by manually crushing well-burnt clay bricks. Like crushed
stone aggregates, brick aggregates also had an angular shape with 100 % three or more fractured faces. Waste PP aggregate preparation
followed the following steps: collection, sorting, washing, shredding, melting, cooling down, and finally crushed into the desired size.
Porous PP aggregate was light and had an angular shape and rough surface. Fig. 2 displays the crushed stone, brick, and waste PP
aggregates.
It is necessary to perform tests to find out the coarse aggregate properties, such as the size and shape, gradation, water absorption,
specific gravity, and compressive strength. Test results for all three types of coarse aggregate are presented in Table 2. Flakiness and
elongation indices are indication of the coarse aggregates shape. Both indices were determined for all three types of aggregate, and the
results are presented in Table 2. As observed from the test results, PP aggregate has the lowest flakiness and elongation indices.
Although brick aggregate has relatively lower flakiness index, but it showed a higher elongation index. The contact between the
aggregates and cement mortar matrix is important for concrete strength. The rough surface and angular shape of the aggregate have a
good chance to improve the bond through mechanical interlocking. In this study, all three types of aggregate had a rough surface and
angular shape due to the crushing of aggregate during the preparation phase. The strength of concrete largely depends on the strength
of its individual components, like aggregate. Water absorption capacity and specific gravity of aggregates were calculated following
the ASTM C127-15 [38]. As shown from the test results in Table 2, stone aggregate had the highest oven-dry specific gravity, whereas
PP aggregate had a specific gravity (0.85) less than the water. Water absorption capacities of stone and PP aggregate were relatively
low. However, brick aggregate had a high-water absorption capacity of 15 %.
Grading of aggregate is very important for concrete as it is directly responsible for workability and segregation and indirectly
related to concrete strength [39]. It is also recommended that aggregates with rough surfaces and angular shapes should have a finer
grading to avoid a harsh mixture. Therefore, for the present study, the same grading is used for all three types of aggregates with a
maximum nominal size of 19 mm along with a fineness modulus of 6.54. Gradation of coarse aggregate along with recommended
ASTM limits are shown in Fig. 1(b). Los Angeles abrasion (LAA) test shows a good indication of the strength of concrete, especially,
compressive and flexural strength [39]. Brick aggregate has a higher LAA value (38 %) than the stone aggregate LAA value (34 %)
which indicates lower strength for brick aggregate. Because of the compressible nature of the PP aggregate, the Los Angeles abrasion
(LAA) test does not provide any significant results for PP aggregate.

Fig. 1. Particle size distributions of (a) fine aggregate and (b) coarse aggregates along with ASTM limits.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

Table 2
Material properties of coarse aggregates.
Coarse Aggregate
Properties Standard Fine Aggregate
Stone Brick PP

Maximum aggregate size (mm) ASTM C125-20 [40] 19 19 19 2.36

Fineness Modulus ASTM C136-14 [35] 6.54 6.54 6.54 2.56
Elongation Index (%) BS 812-105.2 [41] 21 28 16 –
Flakiness Index (%) BS 812-105.1 [42] 19 17 12 –
Specific gravity (OD) 2.58 1.97 0.85 2.37
Specific gravity (SSD) ASTM C127-15 [38], ASTM C128-15 [37] 2.61 2.30 – 2.43
Water absorption capacity (%) 1.05 15.06 0.80 3.4
Loss by abrasion and impact (%) ASTM C131-20 [43] 34 38 – –

Fig. 2. Coarse aggregates: (a) crushed stone aggregate (SA), (b) crushed brick aggregate (BA), and (c) polypropylene (PP) aggregate.

Table 3
Mix proportion for the concrete with the volume of 1 m3.
Proportions of Coarse Aggregate Coarse Aggregate (kg/
W/C Ratio Designation (%) Cement (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Fine Aggregate (kg/m3) m3)

SA BA PP SA/BA PP

SC45P0 100 – 0 1251.2 0

SC45P1 90 – 10 1126.0 40.5
0.45 340 153 539.3
SC45P2 80 – 20 1000.9 81.0
SC45P3 70 – 30 875.8 121.6
SC55P0 100 – 0 1192.0 0
SC55P1 90 – 10 1072.8 38.6
0.55 340 187 513.8
SC55P2 80 – 20 953.6 77.2
SC55P3 70 – 30 834.4 115.8
BC45P0 – 100 0 1102.6 0
BC45P1 – 90 10 992.3 40.5
0.45 340 153 539.3
BC45P2 – 80 20 882.0 81.0
BC45P3 – 70 30 771.8 121.6
BC55P0 – 100 0 1050.4 0
BC55P1 – 90 10 945.4 38.6
0.55 340 187 513.8
BC55P2 – 80 20 840.3 77.2
BC55P3 – 70 30 735.3 115.8

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

3.2. Concrete mix proportions

The objective of this study is to analyze the performance of the partially replaced PP aggregate concrete and compare it to the
natural aggregate concrete (NAC). Sixteen different mixtures with two different water-cement (w/c) ratios, such as 0.45, and 0.55,
were prepared for this study. The ACI Standard Practice [44] for selecting mix proportions for normal weight concrete was adopted.
The fineness modulus of three different coarse aggregates, such as natural stone, brick chips, and PP aggregate, was the same.
However, the specific gravity of these aggregates was widely varied. As the specific gravity of PP aggregate was much lower than that
of natural stone and brick chips, hence, SA and BA were replaced with PP aggregate on a volume basis (0%, 10 %, 20 %, and 30 %). All
the coarse and fine aggregates used in the concrete mixture were in saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. No water-reducing
admixture was used. The mix proportion of various ingredients for one cubic meter volume of concrete was calculated and pre­
sented in Table 3. Each mix design is designated with a unique name for ease in referencing within the text. For example, SC45P3
means that in this combination the water-cement ratio is 0.45, and the PP aggregates are 30 % of the volume of stone chips and BC45P3
means that in this combination the water-cement ratio is 0.45, and the PP aggregates are 30 % of the volume of brick chips. The other
batches are named in the same manner.

3.3. Preparation of concrete specimens

Total 288 concrete cylinders were prepared to have a size of 100 mm diameter and 200 mm height following the ASTM C 192-15
[45] at room temperature of 25 ◦ C. Among them, 144 cylinders were used to determine the compressive strength of concrete at 7, 28,
and 90 days, 48 cylinders were used for splitting tensile strengths at 28 days, and the rest 96 cylinders were for determining the
modulus of elasticity of concrete. Hardened density and UPV data were collected from the concrete cylinders before the compressive
strength test. To calculate the modulus of rupture at 28 days, 48 prism beams were cast having a size of 150 × 150 × 500 mm. All
specimens were cast in iron molds and compaction was conducted using a vibrator. For the first 20–24 hours, after casting, specimens
were cured in a laboratory environment with 70 ± 5% humidity and 23 ± 2 ◦ C temperature. To prevent loss of water through
evaporation during this phase specimens were completely covered with wet jute cloth and sheets made of plastics. Cylindrical molds
were removed after 20–24 hours of casting and specimens were placed in a curing tank, full of water at 23 ± 2 ◦ C temperature, for 28
days as shown in Fig. 3(a).

3.4. Test procedure

Sixteen combinations of concrete mixtures were prepared in the concrete laboratory using a 5 cft concrete mixture machine and
after mixing the fresh concrete was poured on a dry surface. Immediately the mixed fresh concrete was used for slump test to quantify
the workability. The slump test was done according to the ASTM C143-15 [46]. Mechanical properties of concrete, such as compressive
and tensile strengths were conducted with a 1500 kN capacity compression testing device (Fig. 3(b)). The compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength, and hardened density of the concrete samples were evaluated following the ASTM C39-18 [47], ASTM C
496-17 [48], and ASTM C642-13 [49], respectively. Concrete beams were tested for the modulus of rupture with a universal testing
machine (UTM) of 1000 kN capacity following the ASTM C 293-16 [50] as illustrated in Fig. 3(c). The loading rate was kept at 0.25 ±
0.05 MPa/s for the compression machine, whereas the beam test displacement rate of 0.15 mm/min was adopted. By using a digital
compressometer (Fig. 3(b)), the stress-strain data were collected to calculate the elastic modulus following the ASTM C469-14 [51].
The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is a well-known non-destructive test where a strong pulse is passed through the concrete
(direct transmission) and the wave velocities through the concrete are calculated following the ASTM C597-16 [52]. In this study, UPV
values of all cylinders used for the compression test were collected.

Fig. 3. Test setup for (a) curing of concrete, (b) concrete cylinder subjected to compressive force, (c) modulus of rupture test of the concrete beam.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

4. Results and discussions

4.1. Workability

The workability of freshly mixed concrete is measured by using the slump test and the slump values are presented in Fig. 4. The
stone aggregate concrete (SAC), brick aggregate concrete (BAC), and PP aggregate concrete (PAC) show increasing workability with
increasing the w/c ratio. From the figure, it is observed that for a fixed w/c ratio the slump value increases almost proportionally with
increasing the percentage of PP aggregate (PPA). This increment may happen due to several contributing factors, such as lower ab­
sorption capacity of PPA and hydrophobic nature of PPA, which impact the rheological properties of PAC in a positive way and thus
improves the workability. Previous studies conducted by Saikia and Brito [12] and Islam et al. [6] also reported that the workability of
concrete increased with the inclusion of plastic aggregate into the concrete mixture. The same trend was also detected by other in­
vestigators [53,54]. On the other hand, Tang et al. [55] found no significant change in slump value for polystyrene aggregate concrete.
The authors reported that this was happened due to the formation of a closed cellular structure in the polystyrene aggregate concrete.
Moreover, comparing the slump value between BAC and SAC, the workability for BAC is considerably lower than that of SAC. For 30 %
of PP aggregate replaced concrete, 100 mm and 75 mm slump value is observed for SAC and BAC, respectively for the w/c ratio of 0.45.
Furthermore, for the w/c of 0.55, these values are improved to 155 mm and 145 mm, respectively. As the water absorption of brick
aggregate is greater (almost 15 %) than that of stone aggregate, it tends to absorb moisture from the concrete mixture, therefore,
reduce the workability. Besides, the elongated brick aggregates with rougher surfaces create a skeletal form, due to the formation of
higher internal friction between the aggregate particles, may also lead to the reduction in flowability of concrete.

4.2. Density

Fig. 5 demonstrates the average hardened concrete densities of different concrete specimens. Due to the reduced specific gravity
and unit weight of PPA in comparison to stone and brick aggregates, concrete density reduces with the increasing percentage of PP
content in concrete mixture and increasing w/c ratio. For the w/c of 0.45, the densities of SAC reduce 1.9 %, 6% and 8.4 % for 10 %, 20
%, and 30 % PP content, respectively. For BAC, these reduction percentages increase to 12.3, 13.3, 17.3, and 21.0 for 0%, 10 %, 20 %,
and 30 % PP content, respectively compared to the control SAC specimen. A similar trend is also observed for the specimens of 0.55 w/
c. Comparing between SAC and BAC, the BAC shows a lower density compared to SAC. The density range varies from 2367 kg/m3 to
2096 kg/m3 for SAC, and for BAC this range varies from 2075 kg/m3 to 1879 kg/m3. Thus, relatively lightweight concrete can be
produced by incorporating PP content in the concrete mixture that can reduce the self-weight of the concrete. Islam et al. [6] and Lima
et al. [56] also found the likewise tendency in density reduction for plastic concrete, like PET, and ethylene-vinyl acetate concrete.
Sabaa and Ravindrarajah [57] also found almost a linear reduction in the unit weight for EPS concrete.

4.3. Compressive strength

Fig. 6 illustrates the compressive strength of different concrete batches varying with ages (7, 28, 90 days), aggregate types (stone,
brick, and PP), and w/c ratios (0.45 and 0.55). In general, the strength of concrete increases with age and decreases with increasing
water-cement ratio. The ratio of compressive strength at 7 and 28 days is around 0.75 for SAC, and 0.65 for BAC, as observed from
Fig. 6. In previous studies, this ratio varied from 0.78 to 0.96 depending on the percentage of PP replacement level [25,27]. Generally,
strength of concrete depends on w/c ratio and cement type [39]. In the present study, PCC were used which showed slower rate of

Fig. 4. Variation in sump value of concrete with aggregate types (SA, BA, and PPA), and water-cement ratios (0.45 and 0.55).

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

Fig. 5. Variation in concrete density at 28 days with aggregate types (SA, BA, and PPA), and water-cement ratios (0.45 and 0.55).

Fig. 6. Comparison of concrete compressive strength at the age of 7, 28, and 90 days with various aggregate types (SA, BA, and PPA), and w/c ratios
(0.45 and 0.55).

strength gain at early days. Therefore, strength gain rate for SAC and BAC is at a lower end. Furthermore, BAC showed lower strength
gain compared to SAC. This is because of the high absorption capacity and porosity of brick aggregate. Lightweight brick aggregates act
as internal curing agent and contribute to the strength gain at 28 days [58]. The ratio of compressive strength at 90 and 28 days is
around 1.2 for SAC and 1.1 for BAC. At the age of 90 days, the strength of hydrated cement paste becomes high enough to show higher
strength for concrete with relatively high strength stone aggregate. Therefore, SAC showed higher compressive strength at 90 days
than the BAC.
Type and properties of aggregate affect the compressive strength of concrete. The strength initially surges for 10 % PP content but
then starts to decrease for 20 % and 30 % PP content concrete. A lower percentage of PPA can not affect the interfacial transition zone
(ITZ) but with increasing the percentage of PP aggregate the ITZ starts to become weaker. As PP is a soft material with a lower modulus
of elasticity, it can not resist a higher load. Besides, because of the hydrophobic nature of PPA, a large quantity of free water accu­
mulates near the transition zone and weakens it; and thus, resulting in a lower concrete strength for higher percentages of PP content.
At the age of 28 days, the compressive strength surges by 9.5 % for 10 % PP content and then starts to decrease by 15 % and 21.3 % for
20 % and 30 % PP content with stone aggregate, respectively for the water-cement ratio of 0.45. For brick aggregate, it is increased by
6.0 % for 10 % PP content and then decreases by 20.0 % and 34.0 % for 20 % and 30 % PP content for the same water-cement ratio. An
identical trend is also observed for w/c of 0.55 and 7 and 90 days of concrete specimens. Ozbakkaloglu et al. [27] found that concrete
with 10 % PP content as coarse aggregate did not exhibit a remarkable reduction in mechanical properties. Yang et al. [25] also re­
ported that the compressive strength was increased up to 15 % PP replacement level with sand. However, comparing between SAC and
BAC, the BAC shows relatively lower strength for the similar PP percentage and w/c ratio. The increased water absorption capacity and
higher Los Angeles abrasion value of the brick aggregate is the reason for lower strength compared to SAC. The BAC shows approx­
imately 91.0 % compressive strength of SAC averagely. Therefore, it is suggested to use 10 % PP content either with stone aggregate or
brick aggregate for achieving 25 MPa concrete using a w/c of 0.45.
The probability distribution function (PDF) and cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the compressive strengths of PP concrete

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

at the age of 28 days are determined and presented in Fig. 7. This PDF graph represents the probability to achieve a particular desired
strength by using PPA from 0% to 30 %. The probability of gaining the average strength of 20.6 MPa for SAC and 18.7 MPa for BAC is
approximately 8.1 % and 11.3 %, respectively. The standard deviation for SAC is 4.9 MPa and for BAC 3.5 MPa. Besides, the mode of
this graph is 25.3 MPa and 18.7 MPa for SAC and BAC specimens, respectively. From the CDF graph, it is seen that 50 % specimens’
compressive strength is above 20 MPa and 18 MPa for PP concrete with SA and BA, respectively.

4.4. Tensile strength and Modulus of rupture

Fig. 8 illustrates the splitting tensile strength and modulus of rupture of different concrete mixes. The variation in tensile strength
and modulus of rupture follows the identical trend as compressive strength. In general, these strengths decrease with the increasing w/
c ratios of the concrete mixture. For a fixed w/c ratio, both the values increase for 10 % PP content and then start to decrease for further
increasing the replacement percentage of PP aggregate (20 % and 30 %). In the case of tensile strength, for SAC combinations with w/c
of 0.55, the value increases by 14.5 % for 10 % PP content and then decreases by 9.7 % and 11.6 % for 20 % and 30 % PP content,
respectively. Furthermore, for BAC, it increases slightly by 0.5 % for 10 % PP content and then starts to decrease by 12.5 % and 20.8 %
for 20 % and 30 % PP content, respectively. A similar trend is also detected for the combinations of 0.45 w/c. The lower percentage of
PPA (10 %) can mix properly with the other constituents of the concrete mixture without affecting any significant change in the
transition zone. But when a significant amount of PPA is mixed in the concrete mixture, the PPA failed to initiate proper bonding with
other aggregates and cement matrices because of the relatively smooth surface texture of the synthetic PPA. The hydrophobic nature of
PPA increases the amount of water content and air voids in the concrete mixture compared to the other aggregates resulting in a lower
strength for concrete.
In the case of modulus of rupture, a slight variation is observed. For SAC combinations with w/c of 0. 45, the value increases up to
20 % PP content (19.6 % and 6.6 % for 10 % and 20 % PPA, respectively) and then decreases by 20.5 % for 30 % PP content. However,
with a w/c of 0.55, the value increases only for 10 % PP content (13.0 %) and then starts to decrease by 6.4 % and 22.6 %, for 20 % and
30 % PP content, respectively. For BAC, the modulus of rupture increases for only 10 % PP content (3.4 %) with a w/c of 0.45 and then
begins to decrease by 33.3 % and 34.0 % for 20 % and 30 % PP content, respectively. In contrast to BAC, a reduction is observed for all
percentages of PPA for w/c of 0.55. The modulus of rupture decreases by 9.2 %, 28.1 % and 28.8 % for 10 %, 20 % and 30 % PP content,
respectively. Comparing between SAC and BAC combinations, BAC exhibits approximately 88.6 % tensile strength and 84.5 %
modulus of rupture of SAC averagely. As per ASTM C330-17 [59], the splitting tensile strength of 28 days concrete with the combi­
nation of normal and lightweight aggregates should be a minimum of 2.3 MPa for a maximum density of 1840 kg/m3, 2.1 MPa for a
maximum density of 1760 kg/m3 and 2.1 MPa for a maximum density of 1680 kg/m3. Up to 10 % of PPA in concrete can satisfy this
requirement. Ozbakkaloglu et al. [27] also concluded that the effect on mechanical properties for concrete with 10 % PP content was
limited.

4.5. Modulus of Elasticity (MoE)

The variation in concrete modulus of elasticity (MoE) for various combinations is presented in Fig. 9. The MoE mostly depends on
the compressive strength, density, and PPA content in the mixture. In general, with increasing time the MoE value increases. Saikia and
Brito [12] also found that regardless of the type of PET-aggregate the MoE deteriorated with increasing the plastic content into
concrete. The 7 days MoE is approximately 78.6 % of the 28 days MoE. After incorporating PPA into the concrete, the MoE starts to
decrease with the increasing percentage of PPA. For SAC with the water-cement ratio of 0.45, the MoE decreases by 1.3 %, 29.7 %, and
37.5 % for 10 %, 20 %, and 30 % PPA at 28 days. For BAC, these reductions are 4.6 %, 11.4 %, and 26.4 %, respectively. The same trend
is also observed for the water-cement ratio of 0.55 which reduces by 4.8 %, 34.5 %, and 47.5 % for SAC and 4.6 %, 17.9 %, and 35.5 %
for BAC, respectively. As PP is a soft material, it can deform easily and exhibits a lower stiffness which is the main reason for this
reduction of MoE. This may also be due to the reduced density of PP concrete. Comparing between SAC and BAC, the BAC provides
lower MoE compared to SAC which is 75.1 % of the SAC averagely. Elongated shape and lower stiffness of brick aggregate compared to

Fig. 7. (a) Probability distribution function (PDF), and (b) cumulative distribution function (CDF) for the concrete compressive strength at 28 days.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

Fig. 8. Variation in concrete split tensile strength and modulus of rupture at the age of 28 days with aggregate types (SA, BA, and PPA), and water-
cement ratios (0.45 and 0.55).

Fig. 9. Comparison of modulus of elasticity with age (7, 28), aggregate types (SA, BA, and PPA), and water-cement ratios (0.45 and 0.55).

Fig. 10. Variation in UPV values at different ages for different concrete mixtures.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

the stone aggregate is main reason for lower modulus of elasticity for BAC.

4.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)

The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) technique is used to examine the quality of concrete without any apparent damage to the
concrete. Although there is no direct relationship exists between the compressive strength and the UPV value, the value of UPV is used
for predicting the compressive strength [39]. Fig. 10 represents the variation in UPV values at different ages for different concrete
mixtures. As shown in Fig. 10, the reduction of UPV increases with the increasing w/c ratio. Concrete with higher w/c ratios consists of
more free water resulting in higher number of capillary pores for the concrete. Therefore, when the ultrasonic wave passes through the
capillary pores the velocity decreases [20,21]. Almost 4.7 % velocity reduces for SAC containing w/c ratio of 0.55 compared to the
concrete of having w/c ratio of 0.45, and for BAC it is reduced by 2.6 %.

4.6.1. Effect of age on UPV

Fig. 11 demonstrates the effect of aggregate type on UPV for various concrete mixtures. As noticed from the figure, the UPV values
increase faster during 7–28 days’ period. However, the incremental rate decreases with age until it levels off at later days. This
phenomenon was also observed by Albano et al. [20]. As the hydration reaction is more prominent at the initial stage, more
physical-chemical changes occur in the concrete at that stage. And with the increasing age, the hydration reaction occurs slowly, thus
decrease the propagation of pulse with the increasing age.

4.6.2. Effect of aggregate type on UPV

Observing Figs. 10 and 11 it is seen that, for SAC combinations the UPV for 10 % PPA is higher than those of the control concrete.
But with the increasing percentage of PPA from 10 to 30, the UPV value decreases. The UPV depends on the porosity, aggregate type,
the density of the materials, etc. As previously mentioned, the surface of PPA is relatively smooth which does not provide significant
frictional resistance between the aggregate particles, thus creates a higher void between the concrete mixes. These voids developed by
the PPA particles enfeeble the transmitted pulse because of the acoustic impedance. Albano et al. [20] also reported that the inclusion
of PET into the concrete mixture increased the porosity of the concrete and attenuates the UPV values. A similar observation was also

Fig. 11. Effect of aggregate type on UPV for (a) SAC with w/c = 0.45; (b) SAC with w/c = 0.55; (c) BAC with w/c = 0.45; (d) BAC with w/c = 0.55.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

identified by Kan and Demirboğa [22] for EPS, Senhadji et al. [15], and Kurup and Kumar [16] for PVC. At a low percentage of PP (10
%), the PP particles are dispersed enough to cause any pulse impedance. However, for a higher percentage of PP content (20 % and 30
%), particles are well distributed and created more cavities between the aggregates. For BAC combinations, the UPV decreases with
increasing the percentage of PP particles. Besides, comparing between SAC and BAC combinations, the UPV is much lower for BAC.
According to Jones and Facaroau [21], the UPV is a function of elastic properties as well as the volumetric concentrations of the
components. When the wave passed through lower elastic materials, the UPV value decreased [20]. Thus, the UPV decreases for BAC
with PPA due to their lower modulus of elasticity and lower density.

Fig. 12. Failure pattern of concrete under compressive strength (a – h), splitting tensile strength (i – l), and modulus of rupture test (m & n).

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

4.7. Failure pattern

The failure phenomena of concrete cylinders and beams subjected to various load testing, such as compressive strength, splitting
tensile strength, and modulus of rupture test are presented in Fig. 12. It is observed that the concrete cylinders with PPA show the same
failure pattern as reference concrete (without PPA). However, the PAC shows a relatively slow and ductile failure in comparison to the
brittle failure observes for the control specimens. Because of the soft nature of PPA compared to stone and brick chips, it shows better
deformability thus provides a gradual failure mode. The same pattern is also observed in the splitting tensile strength and modulus of
rupture test. To examine the failure lines, the concrete cylinders and beams were split into pieces as shown in Fig. 12(a) – (n). The
failure lines pass through the PPA causing combined failure. Moreover, no mortar failure is observed in any combinations.

4.8. Prediction of strength equation using regression analysis

It is useful to have different empirical equations to predict various strengths of concrete. Though there are some available equations
in various codes to predict different types of strength of concrete, none of them incorporate the effect of recycled aggregate like PP.
Using the experimental data regression analyses are performed and several equations are proposed to assess different mechanical
properties of concrete while considering the effect of PPA.

4.8.1. Relationship between compressive and tensile strengths

Analysis of experimental data reveals that the splitting tensile strength mostly varied with the percentage of PPA like the trend
observes for the compressive strength. Therefore, an attempt is made to propose empirical equations to predict the splitting tensile
from the data of compressive strength while considering the effect of PP particles. Two equations are developed for SAC and BAC with
PPA (Eqs. (1) & (2)) using multiple regression analyses of the experimental data [60–62].
√̅̅̅̅
Proposed Equation for SAC with PPA : fsp,S = 0.50 f ’c − 0.0029PP (1)

√̅̅̅̅
Proposed Equation for BAC with PPA : fsp,B = 0.48 f ’c − 0.0053PP (2)

ACI 318-14[60] : fsp = 0.556√fC’ (3)

( )2
fib2010[61] : fsp = 0.3 fC’ 3 (4)

EC2[62] : fsp = 0.556αsp √fC’ (5)

where fsp = splitting tensile strength in MPa, fC’ = compressive strength of concrete in MPa, αsp = 0.9, and PP is the polypropylene
aggregate in percentage.
These equations are compared with the equations proposed by various codes, such as ACI 318-14 [60], fib2010 [61], and EC2 [62]
as presented in Eqs. (3)–(5). It is to be noted that the reported equations (Eqs. (1) & (2)) are valid only for the prediction of splitting
tensile strength for PAC. Fig. 13 provides plots for the experimental data and linear lines representing the proposed equations. A good
correlation is found between the experimental data and proposed equations, where the coefficients of determination (R2) are 0.9962
and 0.9961 for SAC and BAC, respectively. Fig. 14 represents the comparison of the experimental splitting tensile strength with
different codes as well as the proposed equation. Based on the comparison data, it is revealed that the available code equations
overestimate (theoretical vs experimental ratio is greater than 1) the tensile strength, whereas the proposed equations can predict it
more accurately.

Fig. 13. Comparison of splitting tensile strength between experimental and regression model for (a) SAC with PPA and (b) BAC with PPA.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

Fig. 14. (a) Comparison of splitting tensile strength with different equations, and (b) ratio between theoretical and experimental values of splitting
tensile strength.

Fig. 15. Comparison of modulus of rupture between experimental and regression model for (a) SAC with PPA and (b) BAC with PPA.

4.8.2. Relationship between compressive strength and Modulus of rupture

The modulus of rupture also depends on the percentage of PPA like tensile strength. Thus, using the multiple regression analysis
two equations are proposed for SAC and BAC (Eqs. (6) & (7)), where the modulus of rupture is a function of compressive strength and
PP percentage. Fig. 15 provides the comparison between the experimental data and forecasted values of modulus of rupture. As shown
in the figures, good correlations are found where the coefficients of determination (R2) are 0.9926 and 0.9963 for SAC and BAC,
respectively. Fig.16 represents the comparison of modulus of rupture data with data from different code-predicted equations, as
represented in Eqs. (8)–(10). It is seen that though the available code equations underestimate (theoretical vs experimental ratio is less
than 1) the modulus of rupture of PAC, the proposed equations can predict it more accurately [60,61,63].
√̅̅̅̅
Proposed Equation for SAC with PPA : fr,S = 1.03 f ’c − 0.017PP (6)

√̅̅̅̅
Proposed Equation for BAC with PPA : fr,B = 0.97 f ’c − 0.029PP (7)

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

Fig. 16. (a) Comparison of modulus of rupture with different equations, and (b) ratio between theoretical and experimental values of modulus
of rupture.

Fig. 17. Comparison of MoE between experimental and regression model for (a) SAC with PPA and (b) BAC with PPA.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

ACI 318-14[60] : fr = 0.62√fc’ (8)

( )2
0.3 fC’ 3
fib2010[61] : fr = (9)
αfl
√̅̅̅̅
CSA A23.3-14[63] : fr = 0.6λ f ’c (10)

0.06h0 · 7
where fr = modulus of rupture in MPa, fC’ = compressive strength of concrete in MPa, αfl = 1+0.06hb 0 · 7 , hb = beam depth in mm, λ = 1.0 for
b

regular density concrete, and PP is the polypropylene aggregate in percentage.

4.8.3. Relationship between compressive strength and Modulus of elasticity (MoE)

Besides PPA content in concrete, the MoE also depends on the density of concrete. Incorporating this issue, a linear relationship is
being made among the MoE, the compressive strength, the percentage of PPA, and the density of concrete. Two proposed equations for
SAC and BAC are presented in Eqs. (11) & (12). Fig. 17 presents the comparison between the tested and predicted values of MoE,
whereas Fig. 18 provides the comparison of MoE with different code equations (Eqs. (13)–(15)). It is seen that the available code
equations underestimate the MoE of PAC significantly. The proposed equations can predict the MoE with the R2 value of 0.9981 and
0.9972 for SAC and BAC, respectively [60,61,63].
√̅̅̅̅
Proposed Equation for SAC with PPA : ES = 3.43 f ’c − 0.46PP + 0.01wc (11)

√̅̅̅̅
Proposed Equation for BAC with PPA : EB = 5.41 f ’c − 0.12PP + 0.001 wc (12)

ACI 318-14[60] : E = w1.5

c 0.043√fc
’ (13)

Fig. 18. (a) Comparison of MoE with different equations, and (b) ratio between theoretical and experimental values of MoE.

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

( )13
fc
fib2010[61] : E = E0 αE (14)
10

( √̅̅̅̅ )( wc )1 · 5
CSA A23.3-14[63] : E = 3300 f ’c + 6900 (15)
2300

where E = modulus of elasticity in GPa, wc = density of concrete ranges from 1440 kg/m3 to 2560 kg/m3 for ACI 318-14 and 1500 kg/
m3 to 2500 kg/m3 for CSA A23.3-14, fC’ = compressive strength of concrete in MPa, E0 αE is 21500 MPa, and PP is the polypropylene
aggregate in percentage.

4.9. Prediction of compressive strength from UPV

The UPV depends on the porosity in concrete, elastic properties of the medium, size of ingredients, and the density of the materials.
Considering that the compressive strength of PAC can be predicted from the UPV, percentage of PPA, and the density of concrete
without any destructive testing. Most of the previous studies expressed the compressive strength of concrete as an exponential function
of UPV such as fc’ =0.8944e0.8V for brick aggregate [64], fc’ =1.2277e0.66V for stone aggregate [64], fc’ =0.12e1.36V for EPS [19], fc’
=0.071e1.597V for EPS [65]. Thus, four equations have been proposed (Eqs. (16)–(19)), where two sets of equations are prepared
without considering the density, and the other two are prepared with the density. Considering the effect of density, the R2 value is
increased slightly from 0.9858 to 0.9889 for SAC and 0.9853 to 0.9918 for BAC which is shown in Fig. 19.

SAC with PPA (without density) : fcs’ = 0.27eV + 0.16PP (16)

BAC with PPA (without density) ’

: fcB = 0.63eV − 0.07PP (17)

SAC with PPA (with density) : fcs’ = 0.35eV + 0.26PP − 0.003 wc (18)

BAC with PPA (with density) : ’

fcB = 0.96eV + 0.005PP − 0.006 wc (19)

where fC’ = compressive strength of concrete in MPa, V = ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) in km/s, wc = density of concrete, and PP is
the polypropylene aggregate in percentage.
Eqs. (20)–(25) are used for determining statistical parameters for the proposed equations and Table 4 summarizes the statistical
parameters of the proposed equations.
fexp
Performance factor, PF = (20)
fpre

fstd
(21)
PF
Coefficient of Variation, COV (%) = × 100
favg PF

( ) ( )
Σ fexp − fexp avg × fpre − fpre avg
Covariance = (22)
n− 1

1 ⃒ ⃒
Mean Absolute Error, MAE = Σ ⃒fpre − fexp ⃒ (23)
n
⃒ ⃒
1 ⃒⃒fexp − fpre ⃒⃒
Average Absolute Percentage Error, AAPE = Σ ⃒ ⃒ (24)
n ⃒ fexp ⃒

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
Σ( fexp − fpre
Root Mean Squared Error, RMSE = (25)
n

4.10. Cost analysis

The sustainability of a product is measured by its associated costs and environmental impacts during its lifetime. A cost analysis has
been done to determine the acceptability of this new type of concrete in terms of the total cost as well as the economy index (strength/
cost). The economy index and total cost of concrete materials for different concrete are presented in Table 5. For estimating the total
cost of a particular batch, the cost of cement, SA, BA, and fine aggregate are taken into full consideration, whereas the water is not
considered. As the PP aggregate is fabricated from the plastic waste product, it is free of cost. Only the preparation cost of PP aggregate
is counted. Fig. 20(a) represents the total cost in USD for 1 cubic meter volume of various combinations of concrete, and Fig. 20(b)
demonstrates the ratio of compressive strength and total cost concrete with various combinations. From Fig. 20(a), it is seen that when

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

Fig. 19. Comparison of compressive strength between experimental and regression model for (a) SAC based on UPV and PPA, (b) BAC based on UPV
and PPA, (c) SAC based on UPV, PPA, and density, and (d) BAC based on UPV, PPA, and density.

Table 4
Statistical parameters of the proposed equations.
PF
Aggregate
Proposed Equation Variables Avg. PF Std. PF COV Covariance MAE AAPE RMSE R2
Type
(%)

Splitting Tensile SAC 1.0015 0.062 6.202 0.091 0.108 4.611 0.138 0.9962
f’c and PPA
Strength BAC 0.9937 0.067 6.702 0.079 0.110 5.641 0.125 0.9961
SAC 1.0080 0.093 9.201 0.395 0.325 7.526 0.382 0.9926
Modulus of Rupture f’c and PPA
BAC 1.0001 0.069 6.937 0.515 0.178 5.216 0.230 0.9963
SAC 0.6817 0.141 20.737 23.466 10.231 54.217 11.666 0.9981
Modulus of Elasticity f’c, PPA and Density
BAC 0.8062 0.053 6.566 12.923 4.397 24.497 4.528 0.9972
SAC 0.9803 0.125 12.801 23.909 1.826 10.418 2.487 0.9858
Compressive Strength UPV and PPA
BAC 0.9777 0.126 12.880 17.565 1.616 10.360 2.168 0.9853
SAC UPV, PPA and 0.9999 0.116 11.572 29.318 1.734 9.256 2.199 0.9889
Compressive Strength
BAC Density 1.0007 0.100 10.000 22.977 1.254 7.936 1.616 0.9918

Note: R2 = Coefficients of Determination.

PPA is incorporated into the concrete mixture, the cost is relatively decreased with increasing the percentage of PPA. For the SAC
combinations, the total cost is decreased by a maximum of 7.7 % for the batch of SC55P3 compared to the SC45P0. For BAC com­
binations, the maximum reduction of the cost is 4.8 % for the batch of BC55P3 compared to the BC45P0. Fig. 20(b) and results of the
economy index suggest that concrete containing 10 % PP content might be the optimum limit both for SAC and BAC. Therefore, it is
suggested to use up to 10 % PPA that will help to produce sustainable green concrete by recycling plastic wastes and reducing the cost
of materials of concrete.

5. Conclusions

This study comprehensively explores the fresh and hardened properties of PP aggregate concrete (PAC). The main variables include
the percentage of PP aggregate (PPA) (10 %, 20 %, and 30 %), water-cement ratios (0.45 and 0.55), types of aggregate (stone
aggregate, brick chips). The results are presented in terms of workability, hardened density, compressive strength, modulus of elas­
ticity (MoE), splitting tensile strength, modulus of rupture, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), and cost analysis. Besides, an extensive
regression analysis is done to propose several empirical equations for predicting different mechanical properties of concrete by
considering the effect of PPA. The key findings from the work are abridged as follows:

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

Table 5
Economy index for 1 m3 concrete mixtures.
Batch Code Cement SA BA Fine Aggregate PP Total cost of Compressive Economy Index
kg (USD) kg (USD) kg (USD) kg (USD) kg (USD) Concrete/m3 (USD) Strength (MPa) (Strength/Cost)

340.0 1251.2 – 539.3

SC45P0 – 98.21 25.3 0.26
$48.96 $42.66 $6.58
340.0 1126.0 – 539.3 40.5
SC45P1 96.37 27.7 0.29
$48.96 $38.39 $6.58 $2.43
340.0 1000.9 – 539.3 81.0
SC45P2 94.53 21.5 0.23
$48.96 $34.13 $6.58 $4.86
340.0 875.8 – 539.3 121.6
SC45P3 92.70 19.9 0.21
$48.96 $29.86 $6.58 $7.30
340.0 1192 – 513.8 –
SC55P0 95.88 14.4 0.15
$48.96 $40.64 $6.27
340.0 1072.8 – 513.8 38.6
SC55P1 94.13 25.3 0.27
$48.96 $36.58 $6.27 $2.32
340.0 953.6 – 513.8 77.2
SC55P2 92.38 15.9 0.17
$48.96 $32.51 $6.27 $4.63
340.0 834.4 – 513.8 115.8
SC55P3 90.63 14.6 0.16
$48.96 $28.45 $6.27 $6.95
340.0 1102.6 539.3 –
BC45P0 88.05 23.5 0.27
$48.96 $32.50 $6.58
340.0 992.3 539.3 40.5
BC45P1 87.23 24.9 0.29
$48.96 $29.25 $6.58 $2.43
340.0 882.0 539.3 81.0
BC45P2 86.41 18.8 0.22
$48.96 $26.00 $6.58 $4.86
340.0 771.8 539.3 121.6
BC45P3 85.59 15.5 0.18
$48.96 $22.75 $6.58 $7.30
340.0 1050.4 513.8 –
BC55P0 86.20 18.6 0.22
$48.96 $30.97 $6.27
340.0 945.4 513.8 38.6
BC55P1 85.42 18.7 0.22
$48.96 $27.87 $6.27 $2.32
340.0 840.3 513.8 77.2
BC55P2 84.64 15.3 0.18
$48.96 $24.77 $6.27 $4.63
340.0 735.3 513.8 115.8
BC55P3 83.86 14.6 0.17
$48.96 $21.68 $6.27 $6.95

Note: All the materials were collected from local market, during the period of December 2019 to March 2020, using local currency (BDT). For the
analysis purpose local currency was converted to USD, as 1 BDT = 0.012 USD.

Fig. 20. (a) The total cost of materials of different concrete batches, and (b) ratio of compressive strength to cost.

• For a fixed w/c ratio, the slump value increased with the increasing percentage of PPA. On the other hand, comparing the slump
value between BAC and SAC, the workability for BAC was comparatively much lower than that of SAC. Almost 33 % and 50 %
slump value were increased for SAC and BAC with 30 % PPA for a lower w/c ratio (0.45).
• The density of concrete reduced with the increasing percentage of PPA as well as increasing the w/c ratios. However, this reduction
in density was not enough to consider it as lightweight concrete. Approximately 10 % density reduction can be achieved with 30 %
PPA. Comparing between SAC and BAC, the BAC showed a comparatively lower density.
• Concrete with 10 % PPA exhibited better bonding between the aggregates and cement paste results in a higher compressive
strength compared to conventional concrete. A reduction in compressive strength was observed for 20 % and 30 % PPA

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Md.J. Islam and Md. Shahjalal Case Studies in Construction Materials 15 (2021) e00627

combinations. Approximately 9.5 % and 6% compressive strength were increased for SAC and BAC with 10 % PPA for the water-
cement ratio of 0.45. However, with the higher w/c ratios and PPA contents, the reduction in compressive strengths was significant.
• For a fixed w/c ratio, the splitting tensile strength and modulus of rupture increased for 10 % PP content and then started to
decrease for 20 % and 30 % PPA content. Up to 10 % PPA could satisfy the ASTM C330-17 [59] requirement for splitting tensile
strength. The splitting tensile strength was increased by 23.2 % and 10 % for SAC and BAC with 10 % PPA for the lower
water-cement ratio of 0.45. For modulus of rupture, these were increased by 19.6 % and 3.4 %, respectively.
• The modulus of elasticity decreased by 1 %–47 % for SAC, and 5 %–36 % for BAC depending on the percentage of PPA and w/c
ratios. Comparing between SAC and BAC, the BAC provided lower modulus of elasticity compared to SAC which was 75.1 % of the
SAC averagely.
• The UPV increased very fast at an early age, but this incremental rate decreased with curing time. For the combinations of SAC, the
UPV for 10 % PPA was higher than those of conventional concrete but then decreased with the increasing percentage of PPA from
10 to 30. On the other hand, for BAC combinations, the UPV decreased after incorporating the PPA into the concrete mix and this
reduction increased with increasing the percentage of PP particles. Concrete with higher w/c ratios provided lower UPV compared
to a lower w/c ratio. Almost 4.7 % velocity reduced for SAC containing w/c ratio of 0.55 compared to the concrete of having w/c
ratio of 0.45 and for BAC it was reduced by 2.6 %.
• All available equations for predicting different mechanical properties of conventional concrete underpredicted or overpredicted the
experimental results of PAC. The proposed equations consider the effect of PPA and can predict different mechanical properties of
PAC more accurately.
• Though the cost is relatively reduced with increasing the percentage of PPA into the concrete mix, results of the economy index
suggest that concrete containing 10 % PP content might be the optimum limit both for SAC and BAC.

Incorporating PP as coarse aggregate into the concrete mixture for producing sustainable green concrete is a new concept in the
field of construction. Based on the experimental results, it is suggested to use up to 10 % PPA either with stone aggregate or brick
aggregate for achieving 25 MPa concrete using a w/c of 0.45. However, it is necessary to examine all the characteristics of PAC before
establishing it as a safe and viable alternative to natural aggregates. Future studies will investigate the short-and long-term durability
properties of polypropylene concrete. Besides, the fire resistance and bond behavior between steel-concrete interfaces will be studied.
Mechanical properties of various structural elements like beams and columns made with PPA are needed to be studied thereafter.

Data availability statements

Some or all data, models, or codes that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon
reasonable request.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors report no declarations of interest.

Acknowledgments

The research was funded by the Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST). The research is undertaken at the Concrete Lab
of Civil Engineering Department, MIST, Dhaka, Bangladesh. A special thanks to them for giving unparalleled support during the whole
experiment.

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