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Mechanical and durability properties of concrete with recycled polypropylene waste

plastic as a partial replacement of coarse aggregate

Md Jahidul Islam, Md Shahjalal, Niaz Md Ashraful Haque

PII: S2352-7102(22)00610-6
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104597
Reference: JOBE 104597

To appear in: Journal of Building Engineering

Received Date: 3 February 2022

Revised Date: 16 April 2022
Accepted Date: 29 April 2022

Please cite this article as: M.J. Islam, M. Shahjalal, N.M. Ashraful Haque, Mechanical and durability
properties of concrete with recycled polypropylene waste plastic as a partial replacement of coarse
aggregate, Journal of Building Engineering (2022), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104597.

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 1 Mechanical and Durability Properties of Concrete with Recycled
2 Polypropylene Waste Plastic as a Partial Replacement of Coarse Aggregate
3 Md Jahidul Islam*, Md. Shahjalal, Niaz Md Ashraful Haque

4 Department of Civil Engineering, Military Institute of Science and Technology (MIST), Mirpur
5 Cantonment, Dhaka-1216, Bangladesh

6 * Corresponding author: E-mail address: mjislam@ce.mist.ac.bd

7

8 Abstract. Reusing non-biodegradable plastic waste materials can be a viable solution towards
9 minimizing the consumption of natural resources for construction purposes and reducing

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10 environmental hazards. Thus, this study inspects the potentialities of polypropylene (PP) plastic as
11 coarse aggregate in concrete. This study aims to evaluate the mechanical and durability properties

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12 of PP concrete. It focuses mainly on workability, hardened density, compressive strength, modulus
13 of elasticity (MoE), splitting tensile strength (STS), flexural strength, bond strength, temperature
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effect on compressive strength, shrinkage properties, and chloride ion penetration. The
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15 experimental work includes a varying percentage of PP aggregate as 10% and 20% of the volume
16 of coarse aggregate and the water-cement ratios as 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50. The experimental
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17 results reveal that the workability of concrete increased with the addition of PP aggregate into the
18 mixture. Almost 5% and 10% density reduction can be achieved using 10% and 20% PP content,
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19 respectively. In terms of compressive strength, MoE, STS, and flexural strength, all the properties
20 were decreased after incorporating PP aggregate into the concrete. At elevated temperatures,
21 compressive strength decreased up to 10.8% and 34% at 100°C and 200°C, respectively. Besides,
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22 the shrinkage percentage increased with increasing the percentage of PP aggregate. However, the
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23 chloride ion penetrability of all PP concrete was fell in the moderate category. Regarding bond
24 strength, 10% PP concrete exhibits better strength and a higher slip bearing capacity than the other
25 percentages. Moreover, the PP concrete cylinders exhibited comparatively ductile failure than that
26 of brittle failure of the reference concrete. Finally, to produce efficient and eco-friendly concrete,
27 it is suggested to use PP aggregate up to 10% in structural concrete.

28 Keywords: Polypropylene waste plastic; mechanical properties; bond strength; temperature

29 effect; shrinkage

30 1. Introduction

31 With the world's increasing population, demand for high-rise buildings and infrastructures
32 increases day by day. Thus, due to this demand for construction, more materials are required.
33 Among all the possible construction materials, concrete is the most widely used structural material
34 globally. Almost 13.12 billion tons of aggregates are used worldwide per year to meet this demand
35 [1]. This increasing demand for construction materials creates a considerable load on natural

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36 resources. However, experts respond positively by proposing new formulations using alternative
37 materials to cope with this demand.

38 Civilization has made waste disposal and waste management a primary natural concern
39 worldwide. Nowadays, plastic is one of the most widely used household materials, mostly non-
40 biodegradable, and improper dumping of this plastic waste is a real threat to soil and the
41 environment [2]. Recycling these plastic wastes will help achieve several sustainable development
42 goals (SDGs) proposed by the United Nations (UN). For example, SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation,
43 and Infrastructure), SDG 11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities), SDG 12 (Responsible
44 Consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate Action) [3]. Plastic waste can be used as a
45 potential construction material considering the sustainability of construction materials and the
46 sustainability of the environment [4, 5].

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47 The consumption of plastic materials was increased from 5 million tons to 368 million tons

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48 during the year 1950-2016 [6]. In Western Europe, the annual consumption rate of plastic is 23
49 million tons [7]. In America, almost 35.7 million tons of plastic wastes were generated in 2018

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50 [8]. Within the Indian subcontinent, China and India consume the maximum plastic [5], whereas
51 Bangladesh consumed approximately 0.75 million tons of polymer-based plastic from 2010-2011
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52 [4]. This production and consumption of plastic has increased every year and consequently creates
53 waste, the central part of municipal solid waste (MSW). It is a burning issue to dispose of them
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54 properly, and waste management is required. Besides, some forms of plastic, especially
55 polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), have the potential to use as sustainable
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56 construction material [4, 5]. Among all plastics products, polypropylene (PP) and high-density
57 polyethylene (HDPE) are mainly produced materials [9]. In 2015, PP stood in the highest position
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58 in Europe in terms of plastic demand at 19.1% [10]. In the United States, it was the second most
59 widely used plastic in 2012, 22.6% of the total plastic products [11]. PP is one kind of
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60 thermoplastic that can be melted through heating and hardened by cooling. Due to its higher
61 melting point (160°C or 320°F) compared to other plastics has a higher heat resistance capacity.
62 Besides, it is a mechanically rugged material and has high chemical resistance [12]. The use of
63 this recycled PP presents a way to reduce the difficulties related to the disposal of polymer wastes,
64 prevention of environmental pollution, energy-saving as well as reduce the load on natural
65 aggregates.

66 Plastic aggregate (PA) significantly influences the workability of fresh concrete. Ismail and
67 Al-Hashmi [13] observed that the slump value decreased with increasing PA content, and up to
68 95% reduction was measured for 20% substitution of natural fine aggregate (NFA) with PA. Lower
69 workability was attributed to the lower fluidity of concrete mix due to PA's angular and non-
70 uniform shapes. In other work, it was found that PA had no significant influence on the slump
71 value [14, 15]. Tang et al. [14] reported that the slump value of fresh, lightweight concrete
72 containing 20–80% polystyrene aggregate was generally similar to that of the corresponding
73 normal weight concrete. They formulated that it happened due to forming a closed cellular

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 74 structure in the polystyrene aggregate concrete. On the other hand, Saikia and Brito [16] and Islam
75 et al. [4] found an increased slump value with the incorporation of pellet-shaped PET-aggregate.

76 Due to the lower specific gravity of PA, it is possible to reduce the self-weight of concrete
77 containing PA. Sabaa and Ravindrarajah [17] reported that the increase in the substitution level of
78 waste expanded polystyrene (EPS) caused almost a linear reduction in the unit weight of concrete.
79 For the 70% substitution level of waste EPS, the unit weight was reduced by 31%. A similar
80 observation was observed by Lima et al. [18] for ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) waste. It was
81 reported that lightweight concrete could be produced using EVA waste having semi-structural
82 properties. Another study conducted by Islam et al. [4] on PET found a 10% reduction in density
83 compared to conventional concrete.

84 Silva et al. [19] worked with PET to partially replace NFA and natural coarse aggregate (NCA)

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85 separately with 7.5% and 15% replacement ratios for both cases. A tendency to decrease the

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86 compressive strength was observed with the increasing replacement level of PET content due to
87 weak interfacial transition zones (ITZ) between the PET aggregates and cement paste.

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88 Compressive strength reduced up to 42.1% than the control mixture for a 7.5% replacement level
89 of PET as coarse aggregate. Juki et al. [20] also observed that the reduction in compressive
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90 strengths of concrete with PET at replacement ratios of 25%, 50%, 75% compared to the reference
91 concrete were 15%, 24%, and 43%, respectively. Besides, for splitting tensile strength (STS), these
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92 reductions were 15%, 32%, and 42%, respectively. Saikia and de Brito [16] found that regardless
93 of the type of PET-aggregate and curing time, the compressive strength, STS, modulus of elasticity
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94 (MoE), and modulus of rupture reduced with the increasing PET content. However, the abrasion
95 resistance of PET concrete was better than that of reference concrete. Islam et al. [4] used PET as
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96 coarse aggregate with a replacement level of 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. It was suggested that
97 using up to 20% PET, a comparable compressive strength could be gained. Ferreira et al. [21]
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98 investigated the influence of curing conditions such as laboratory conditions, wet conditions, and
99 external environmental conditions on different mechanical properties of plastic concrete. It was
100 observed that, though the curing condition had a significant influence on the performance of plastic
101 concrete, the mixed curing environment improved the bond between the cement mortar and plastic
102 aggregates.

103 Babu et al. [22] tried to produce lightweight concrete with EPS beads. It was found that the
104 stiffness of the stress-strain curve increased with decreasing the percentage volume of EPS. EPS
105 concrete's failure pattern was more gradual than the control concrete. Thus, the higher EPS
106 percentage concrete showed more ductility than lower EPS concrete. Frigione [2] also observed
107 the same pattern for PET, where the PET mixed concrete exhibited higher ductility and toughness
108 than the control mixture. Lima et al. [18] also reported that concrete mixed with EVA aggregates
109 provided more ductile behavior, whereas NAC showed comparatively brittle behavior.

110 Sabaa and Ravindrarajah [17] investigated EPS concrete's drying shrinkage and creep. With
111 the increasing substitution level of EPS waste, the drying shrinkage increased. Approximately 40%

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112 shrinkage was increased for a substitution level of 70% at 240 days. The ultimate creep coefficient
113 of EPS concrete varies from 1.90 to 3.04 for different density ranges and cement content. Another
114 study conducted by Ravindrarajah and Tuck [23] revealed that the shrinkage of polystyrene
115 concrete was higher than that of normal-weight concrete due to the low stiffness of the polystyrene
116 beads. Akçaözog˘lu et al. [24] and Chen and Liu [25] also observed an increase in shrinkage for
117 concrete containing PET and EPS, and it increased with the increasing amount of PET and EPS.
118 At 90 days, for the EPS concrete with a 55% substitution level, the drying shrinkage was almost
119 twice that of the conventional concrete [25]. In a study with PET concrete, Silva et al. [19]
120 observed a declination in the durability properties of PET concrete compared to conventional
121 concrete. The chloride ion permeability and the chloride migration coefficients of concrete mixed
122 with PET were higher than the reference concrete. Albano et al. [26] investigated the effect of
123 elevated temperature on PET concrete at 2000C, 4000C, and 6000C. It was observed that at 200°C,

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124 there was no significant change on the surface of the concrete. There was a change in concrete’s
125 surface color from gray to brown, with temperature increasing from 2000C to 4000C. At 6000C,

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126 thermal dilation of the regular concrete and PET concrete were found 8.5×10-6 m/m°C and 7.0×10-

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127 m/m°C, respectively, which indicates that regular concrete dilates a broader ratio than PET
128 concrete.
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129 Although significant research has been conducted with various types of plastic aggregates,
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130 very few studies have dealt with PP plastic as an aggregate in the concrete. Sjah et al. [27] studied
131 the effect of usage crushed polypropylene plastic glass waste. The crushed PP was added as a
132 volume fraction of the mixture, ranging from 0.10 to 3%. Results showed that the slump value
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133 decreased after incorporating PP plastic. Furthermore, only 11% compressive strength and 5%
134 tensile strength were increased by adding 1% and 0.3% PP plastic, respectively. In another study,
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135 Ridwan et al. [28] used PP waste as a replacement percentage of cement. It was found that the
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136 compressive strength was decreased by 22.8% for 1.25% of PP waste, whereas the tensile strength
137 was increased by 21.8% for 0.50% PP waste. Yang et al. [29] incorporated PP as a fractional
138 replacement of fine aggregate by 10%, 15%, 20%, and 30% on a volume basis. It was reported
139 that the compressive strength, STS, and flexural strength were improved up to 15% PP replacement
140 level. Besides, the viscosity of fresh concrete was reduced, whereas the passing ability was
141 enhanced up to 15% replacement level. Akinyele et al. [30] also added PP as a partial replacement
142 of fine aggregate at 0%, 4%, 8%, 12%, and 16% in reinforced concrete beams. It was found that
143 the control beam exhibited the highest bending capacity while the beams containing 12% and 16%
144 PP provided the lowest bending capacity. The deflection capacity was comparatively higher in the
145 PP beams than the control beam, but the crack width increased proportionally with increasing PP
146 content. It was concluded that recycled PP fine aggregate should be limited below 4% for getting
147 a comparable result. Ozbakkaloglu et al. [31] replaced natural coarse aggregate with recycled
148 polypropylene by 10%, 20%, and 30% to investigate the effect of elevated temperature on PP
149 concrete. Results specified that though the compressive strength, STS, and MoE decreased with
150 increased PP, concrete with 10% PP content did not exhibit a remarkable reduction (below 6%) in
151 mechanical properties. When exposed to elevated temperatures, the compressive strength

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152 significantly decreased significantly, especially the higher PP content concrete. In addition, the
153 workability and density of PP concrete were comparatively lower than that of control concrete.

154 Most of the research has been conducted on different types of plastic waste like PET plastic
155 [4, 5, 16, 19, 32], HDPE [33], expanded polystyrene (EPS) [23, 34], polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
156 waste [15, 35], ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) [18]. Besides, in most cases, PP is used as a virgin
157 fiber [36-39] or recycled fiber [40-42] or replaced as a partial replacement of fine aggregate [29,
158 30] or as a percentage of cement mass [28]. A few studies have been conducted on PP plastic as
159 coarse aggregate [31, 43]. This study focuses on the physical, mechanical, and durability properties
160 of concrete containing PP waste plastic as a coarse aggregate in terms of workability, hardened
161 density, compressive strength, MoE, STS, flexural strength, bond strength, shrinkage, chloride
162 penetration, and temperature effect.

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163 2. Research Significance

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164 Limited research has been taken endeavor to achieve the desired performance of PP as a recycling

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165 material for concrete. Many of those were conducted on the mechanical properties of concrete with
166 different replacement levels of PP as fine aggregate or fiber or percentage of cement mass. To the
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167 authors' best knowledge, limited research has been conducted on PP as a coarse aggregate. Besides,
168 the researchers have yet to report concrete's mechanical and durability properties with PP as coarse
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169 aggregate. The present research aims to provide experimental results regarding the physical,
170 mechanical, and durability properties of concrete containing PP and its effect on compressive
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171 strength at elevated temperatures. Besides, the bond behavior between the steel-concrete interface
172 of PP concrete has been investigated, which was not identified yet. The acceptability of available
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173 code equations for normal concrete has also been recognized for PP concrete. This study will lay
174 out the path to utilizing PP waste for sustainable and eco-friendly construction. The concrete
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175 industry will directly benefit from the discovery, and researchers will be motivated to work with
176 PP aggregate and solidify its application in concrete. The results will also encourage application
177 in other fields in different climates and situations. Moreover, this study will help the world save
178 many natural resources by recycling plastic waste. Besides, it will save the high cost to recycle the
179 waste and disposal of polymer wastes, help with environmental pollution, and energy saving.

180 3. Experimental Investigation

181 3.1 Materials

182 For this study, stone chips and recycled wastes PP were used as coarse aggregates having a
183 maximum nominal size of 19 mm. Shredded PP was used as a partial replacement of coarse
184 aggregate by 10% and 20% on a volume basis. The specific gravity and unit weight of PP was
185 almost 3.2 times and 2.5 times lower than that of natural stone chips, even lower than the distilled
186 water. Thus the volumetric replacement was done with stone chips. Besides, the water absorption
187 capacities of PP were found slightly lower than the stone chips. The preparation of PP aggregates
188 was as follows: firstly, they were collected from the local market and then sorted and cleaned by

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189 washing with water. After that, they were shredded into small pieces. Then they were melted and
190 cooled into a brick shape. Those cooled plastic bricks are then crushed and sieved into four
191 different sizes, 19 mm, 12 mm, 9.5 mm, and 4.75 mm. The preparation process of PP aggregates
192 is summarized in Fig. 1. A locally available well-graded sand with a nominal maximum size of
193 4.75 mm has been used.

194 Gradation of the coarse aggregates and fine aggregate was performed. Particle size distribution is
195 compared with the ASTM C33-18 [44] recommended values shown in Fig. 2. Physical properties,
196 such as specific gravity, unit weight, water absorption capacity, and mechanical properties, like
197 Los Angeles abrasion (LAA) value, aggregate impact value (AIV), and aggregate crushing value
198 (ACV), were measured for aggregates. The ACV and AIV were very low for PP aggregates, which
199 indicates a lower crushing strength and impact resistance of PP. Besides, the LAA test did not

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200 provide any significant results due to the compressible nature of the PP aggregate. Thus, the LAA
201 test result is not presented in Table 1. All the other results are tabulated in Table 1.

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202 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) had been used as binding material for this study. The cement

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203 was CEM type-I following the BDS EN 197-1:2003 [45]. The cement was tested for physical and
204 mechanical properties. Normal consistency, initial and final setting time was 27.9%, 85 minutes,
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205 and 170 minutes, respectively. Specific gravity and Blaine fineness were measured following the
206 ASTM C 188 [46] and C 204 [47], and the values were 3.15 and 304 m2/kg, respectively.
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207 Compressive strength of the cement mortar was performed according to ASTM C 109 [48], and
208 strength at 28 days was 44 MPa.
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(a) (b) (c)

209 Fig. 1. Preparation of polypropylene (PP) aggregates: (a) scraped waste polypropylene plastic,
210 (b) melting and cooling process, (c) PP aggregates.

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 120 120
Stone Sand

100 PP 100 ASTM Upper Limit

Percent Passing (%)

Percent Passing (%)

ASTM Upper Limit ASTM Lower Limit
80 ASTM Lower Limit 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1.0 10.0 100.0 0.1 1.0 10.0
Sieve Openning (mm) Sieve Openning (mm)
(a) (b)
211 Fig. 2. Particle size distributions of (a) coarse aggregate and (b) fine aggregates along with

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212 ASTM limits.

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213 A high-range water-reducing admixture was used to increase the workability of concrete while
214 using lower water-cement ratios. It was a naphthalene sulphonate-based admixture with a dark
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brown appearance. The specific gravity of the admixture was 1.21. It satisfied the standard of EN
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216 934-2 [49] and ASTM C-494 Types A and F [50]. Mild steel rebar with a nominal diameter of 12
217 mm was used to determine the bond strength between steel-concrete interfaces. Tensile test of
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218 rebar was performed in a 1000 kN capacity universal testing machine. The mechanical properties
219 of mild steel rebar are summarized in Table 2.
220
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221 Table 1 Properties of aggregates

Properties Standard Coarse Aggregate Fine
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Stone PP Aggregate
Maximum aggregate size (mm) ASTM C125 [51] 19 19 4.75
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Fineness Modulus ASTM C136 [52] 6.87 6.17 2.76

Specific gravity (OD) 2.59 0.81 2.43
ASTM C127 [53],
Specific gravity (SSD) 2.61 - 2.48
ASTM C128 [54]
Water absorption capacity (%) 0.36 0.30 2.8
Loose condition unit weight (kg/m3) 1423 573 1516
ASTM C29 [55]
Compacted condition unit weight (kg/m3) 1560 622 1604
Los Angeles abrasion, LAA (%) ASTM C131 [56] 34 - -
Aggregate impact value, AIV (%) BS-812-112 [57] 22 4 -
Aggregate crushing value, ACV (%) BS-812-110 [58] 20 1 -
222
223 Table 2 Mechanical properties of mild steel
Sl. No Nominal Actual Yield Average Yield Ultimate Average Fu/Fy Elongation
Diameter Diameter Strength Strength Strength Ultimate (%)
(mm) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) Strength (MPa)
1 12.21 475 565
2 12 12.28 440 457 520 538 1.18 21
3 12.23 445 530

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224
225 3.2 Mixture proportions

226 Twelve different concrete mixtures were prepared considering the concrete's desired strength,
227 durability, and workability. Mix design for the concrete specimens was proposed considering stone
228 chips with three different partial replacements of PP (0%, 10%, and 20%) along with four different
229 water-cement ratios (0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50). The target slump value was 100 mm, and thus a
230 water-reducing admixture was used for the lower water-cement ratios such as 0.35 and 0.40. All
231 the aggregates used in this study were in saturated surface dry (SSD) condition. The mix
232 proportions of different mixes are summarized in Table 3. Each mix design is designated with a
233 unique name for referencing within the text. For example, WC35P10 means that in this
234 combination, the water-cement ratio is 0.35, and the PP replacement level is 10%. The other

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235 batches are named in the same manner.

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236 Table 3
237 Proportion of aggregates for concrete mixtures per cubic meter

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Designation w/c PP (%) Water (kg) Cement (kg) CA (kg) PP (kg) FA (kg) Admixture (ml)
WC35P0 0.35 206 589 977 0 487 1854
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WC40P0 0.40 206 514 975 0 552 1233
0
WC45P0 0.45 205 456 972 0 605 0
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WC50P0 0.50 205 410 972 0 643 0

WC35P10 0.35 206 589 879 39 474 1854
WC40P10 0.40 206 514 877 39 539 1233
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WC45P10 0.45 205 456 875 39 592 0
WC50P10 0.50 205 410 875 39 630 0
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WC35P20 0.35 206 589 781 78 461 1854

WC40P20 0.40 206 514 780 78 526 1233
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WC45P20 0.45 205 456 778 77 579 0

WC50P20 0.50 205 410 778 77 617 0

238 3.3 Concrete Specimens

239 A total of 288 concrete cylinders having a dimension of 100 mm diameter × 200 mm height were
240 cast to determine the compressive strength, STS, hardened density, MoE, bond strength, and
241 chloride penetration test of concrete at different ages. The compressive strength test was done at
242 room temperature at 7 days, 28 days, and 90 days. To determine the compressive strength
243 alleviated temperature, such as 100ºC and 200ºC, 90 days old concrete cylinders were used. The
244 STS test was done at 28 days and 90 days, whereas the hardened density, pull-out, and chloride
245 penetration tests were done at 28 days. Hardened density and chloride ion penetrability data were
246 collected from the concrete cylinders before the compressive strength test. In total, 72 concrete
247 beams with a size of 100 × 100 × 500 mm were prepared to determine this flexural strength and
248 the shrinkage of concrete. The flexural strength was done at 28 days, whereas the shrinkage test
249 was done between 1 to 28 days after casting.

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250 3.4 Testing Procedure

251 A concrete mixture machine mixed the concrete. Half of the aggregates were wetted initially with
252 a part of the mixing water. Then the cement, remaining water, and aggregates were then poured
253 into the concrete mixture machine. After mixing for 3 min at low speed, the admixture was added.
254 It is imperative to ensure the cohesiveness of the mixture. The lighter PP aggregates will not be
255 uniformly distributed without a proper mix. Therefore, the concrete mixture was mixed for another
256 2 – 3 minutes, depending on the mixture condition. The fresh concrete was poured on a dry surface
257 and strictly prevented mixing with additional water. The freshly mixed concrete was then used for
258 the slump test to check the workability of concrete immediately after and after 15 min of mixing.
259 The slump test was done according to ASTM C143 [59]. All specimens were cast in steel molds
260 and compacted using an internal vibrator. After preparing the samples, they were stored in a

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261 temperature-controlled humid room for 24 hours, then removed from the molds, and kept into a
262 water-filled tank in submerged conditions at a controlled temperature of 23±2°C.

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263 The compressive strength and STS test were performed according to ASTM C39 [60] and
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ASTM C496 [61]. A compression machine of 1500 kN capacity was used for conducting the
compressive strength test keeping a constant loading rate of 0.25 ± 0.05 MPa/s. Stress-strain data
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266 was collected, shown in Fig. 3 (a), using a digital compressometer. The temperature effect was
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267 evaluated by heating the concrete cylinders evenly in an enclosed furnace chamber for about 60
268 minutes at 100ºC and 200ºC and then kept in a dry condition to cool at room temperature. After
269 that, the sample was tested for compressive strength by the compression machine. The flexural
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270 strength and pull-out test were performed using a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The tests
271 were done as per ASTM C78-16 [62] and ASTM C900-19 [63], respectively. A displacement
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272 loading rate of 0.15 mm/min and 1 mm/ min was used, respectively. The test set up for flexural
273 strength and pull-out test is shown in Fig. 3 (b) & (d). The detailing of pull-out specimens is shown
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274 in Fig. 3 (c). The hardened density of concrete was determined according to ASTM C642-13 [64].

275 The shrinkage value of concrete beams was determined following ASTM C157-17 [65].
276 The shrinking value was taken using the digital shrinkage testing machine shown in Fig. 3 (e).
277 After casting the beam samples, they were submerged for 7 days in lime water. Then the initial
278 value was taken. After that, the beam samples were kept dry for 28 days. After 28 days, the final
279 data was taken. The chloride penetration test was done to determine the durability properties of
280 concrete against chloride penetration. Before performing the test, the cylinder was cleaned up very
281 carefully. Then, with the help of the surface resistivity meter, the value of surface resistance was
282 recorded at the right-angle around the cylinder. Then the data was linked with the chloride ion
283 penetrability chart guided in AASHTO TP 95 [66]. The test setup is presented in Fig. 3 (d).

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(c) (d)

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(e) (f)

284 Fig. 3. Test setup; (a) compressive strength test, (b) flexural strength test, (c) pull-out specimens
285 detailing, (d) pull-out test, (e) surface resistivity test for chloride ion penetration, and (f)
286 shrinkage test.

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287 4. Results and Discussions

288 The effects of using PP as a coarse aggregate are presented in this section in terms of fresh,
289 mechanical, and durability properties.

290 4.1 Workability

291 The slump test has been done to measure the workability of the fresh concrete. The variation in
292 slump values of different concrete mixtures is presented in Fig. 4. In the present study, an approach
293 has been taken to quantify the degree of workability and the slump class based on the slump value.
294 The correlation between the workability and slump value and the slump class is summarized in
295 Table 4. For the lowest water-cement ratio (0.35), the slump value for 0% PP replaced concrete is
296 85 mm immediately after mixing, indicating a high performance of workability of fresh concrete

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297 with a class of S2. But after 15 minutes of mixing, the value of the slump becomes low (26 mm)
298 with the class of S1. With increasing the PP percentage in the concrete from 0% to 20%, the slump

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299 value increases, thus the workability of the concrete becomes very high, and the class of slump is

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300 S3 and S4 for 10% and 20% PP aggregate, respectively. Besides, after 15 minutes of the mixing,
301 these slump values are still in the high range. The same trend is also observed for other
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302 combinations. The slump values are increased for a higher water-cement ratio, which gets slightly
303 lower after 15 minutes. Therefore, it is evident from the test results that the PP concrete showed
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304 better workability for a longer time. Thus, a comparatively higher workable concrete can be
305 produced with PP aggregate.
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306 A water-reducing admixture is used with lower water-cement ratios of concrete to improve the
307 workability. All the combinations fall under the high to very high workability category
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308 immediately after casting. As slump value increases with increasing the percentage of PP
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309 aggregate and water-cement ratio, 20% PP concrete with a water-cement ratio of 0.50 shows the
310 highest slump value of 225 mm and 182 mm immediately and 15 minutes after the mixing,
311 respectively. Previous studies also confirmed that the workability of concrete increased after the
312 inclusion of plastic aggregate into the concrete mixture [4, 16]. It is due to the lower absorption
313 capacity of PP aggregate. A lower percentage of water is consumed by the PP aggregate from the
314 mixture, thus improving the workability. The rheological properties and homogeneity of the
315 concrete matrix work positively by adding PP aggregates due to their hydrophobic nature [1].
316 However, other studies found that plastic aggregate had no significant influence on the slump value
317 [14, 15]. Tang et al. [14] reported that the slump value of fresh, lightweight polystyrene concrete
318 was generally similar to that of the normal weight concrete.

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 250 250
(a) (b)
200 200
Slump (mm)

Slump (mm)
150 150

100 100

50 P0 50 P0
P10 P10
P20 P20
0 0
0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Water Cement Ratio Water Cement Ratio
319
320 Fig. 4. Variation in slump values of different concrete mixtures at (a) 0 min, and (b) after 15
321 mins.

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322 Table 4

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323 Degree of workability and class of slump
Bartos et al. [67] EN 206-1 [68]
Slump (mm)
0
-p
Degree of workability
No Slump, Zero Slump
Slump (mm) Class
re
0 – 10 Very Low 10-40 S1
10 – 30 Low 50-90 S2
lP

30 - 60/80 Medium 100-150 S3

60/80 - 120/150 High 160 S4
120/150 – collapsed Very High
na

324 4.2 Hardened Density

ur

325 The effect on concrete density for different percentages of PP aggregate is presented in Fig. 5. The
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326 results indicate that with the increase of PP percentage, the density of the concrete decreases
327 linearly. For the water-cement ratio of 0.35, concrete density reduces 4% and 8% for 10% and
328 20% PP aggregate concrete compared to the control mixture (0% PP aggregate concrete). For the
329 water-cement ratio of 0.40, 0.45 and 0.50, these density reductions are 5% & 9%, 5% & 10% and
330 4% & 8%, respectively. From Table 1, it is seen that the specific gravity of PP aggregate is almost
331 3.2 times lower than that of stone aggregate. Due to this lower specific gravity and unit weight of
332 PP aggregate, this reduction in density increases with increasing the percentage of PP aggregate in
333 the concrete mixture. Averagely 5% and 10% density can be reduced by using 10% and 20% PP
334 content. This observation agrees with the previous research conducted by Islam et al. [4]. It was
335 reported that almost 4% to 10% density could be reduced depending on the replacement percentage
336 of PET from 20% to 50%. Sabaa and Ravindrarajah [17] also found a linear reduction trend in
337 density for EPS waste. Up to 31% density was reduced for 70% EPS concrete. However, though
338 the density of the concrete reduces with increasing the percentage of PP aggregate, this reduction
339 cannot be classified as lightweight concrete. Besides, the water-cement ratio does not affect
340 significantly on density. The density varies from 2460 kg/m3 to 2210 kg/m3 depending on the
341 percentage of PP aggregate and the water-cement ratio.

12
 2500

2400

Density (kg/m3)
2300

2200

2100

2000
P0 P10 P20 P0 P10 P20 P0 P10 P20 P0 P10 P20
w/c: 0.35 w/c: 0.40 w/c:0.45 w/c:0.50
342
343 Fig. 5. Effect on concrete density for different percentages of PP aggregate.

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344 4.3 Compressive Strength

ro
345 The compressive strength of different batches of concrete is shown in Fig. 6. With increasing the
346
347 -p
percentage of PP aggregate, the compressive strength decreases. From Fig. 6 (a), it is seen that, for
the water-cement ratio of 0.35, the compressive strength at 7 days is reduced by 29% and 30% for
re
348 10% and 20% PP aggregate concrete compared to 0% PP aggregate concrete. At 28 days, these
lP

349 reductions are 20% and 21.8%, and at 90 days, these are 12.8% and 21.9%, respectively. The
350 compressive strength reduces by incorporating the PP aggregate into the concrete mixture, but the
351 compressive strength for 10% and 20% PP concrete are nearly the same. The same trend is also
na

352 observed for the compressive strength concrete for a w/c ratio of 0.40. For the water-cement ratio
353 of 0.35, about 1.54 and 1.40 times, strength is gained from 7 days to 90 days for 10% and 20% PP
ur

354 aggregate concrete. Similar strength is also observed for the water-cement ratio of 0.40e ratios are
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355 1.56 and 1.39.

356 The compressive strength of concrete with the water-cement ratio of 0.45 and 0.50 is shown
357 in Fig. 6 (b). From the figure, it is observed that, for the water-cement ratio of 0.45, the compressive
358 strength at 7 days is decreased by 23.2% and 27.2% for 10% and 20% PP aggregate concrete
359 compared to 0% PP aggregate concrete. At 28 days, these reductions are 13.8% and 20%, and at
360 90 days, these are 16.4% and 26.4%, respectively. The same trend is also observed for the water-
361 cement ratio of 0.50. Besides, the increase of strength with time for 10% and 20% PP aggregate
362 concrete specimens are 1.52 times and 1.41 times higher for 90 days strength compared to 7 days
363 concrete strength with the water-cement ratio of 0.45. For the water-cement ratio of 0.50, these
364 ratios are 1.51 and 1.47. Moreover, with increasing the water-cement ratio, the compressive
365 strength decreased slightly.

366 The reduction in compressive strength with increasing the percentage of PP aggregate was
367 also observed in previous studies [28, 31]. The same observation was followed by Silva et al. [19],
368 Juki et al. [20], and Saikia and Brito [16] for PET concrete. Reduction in compressive strength
369 may be attributed to the lower MoE of plastic concrete than natural aggregate concrete. Silva et al.

13
370 [19] reported that due to the formation of weak interfacial transition zones (ITZ) between the
371 plastic aggregates and cement paste, this reduction in strength could be observed. Besides, the
372 hydrophobic nature of PP aggregate restrains the hydration reaction of cement near the ITZ in PP
373 concrete and generates a weaker bonding between the aggregates and cement paste, and thus,
374 resulting in a lower compressive strength for PP concrete [1, 13, 69]. However, all the
375 combinations exhibit higher compressive strength than the design strength of 30 MPa.

60 60
(a) 7 days 7 days
(b)
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Compressive Strength (MPa)

28 days 28 days
50 90 days 50 90 days

40 40

30 30

of
20 20

ro
10 10

-p
0 0
WC35P0 WC35P10 WC35P20 WC40P0 WC40P10 WC40P20 WC45P0 WC45P10 WC45P20 WC50P0 WC50P10 WC50P20
376
re
377 Fig. 6. Variation in compressive strength of concrete for different mixtures, (a) w/c: 0.35 and
378 w/c: 0.40 with admixture, and (b) w/c: 0.45 and w/c: 0.50 without admixture.
lP

379 4.4 Stress-Strain Behavior

na

380 The stress-strain curves of different concrete mixes are shown in Fig. 7. The figure shows that all
381 the graphs follow the typical stress-strain curve of normal concrete. The initial stiffness of the
ur

382 graphs is almost the same, but the ultimate point varies with the percentage of PP content for which
383 the change in compressive strength occurs. However, all the graphs are identical initially. After
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384 incorporating the PP aggregate, the strain bearing capacity increases. Thus a ductile behavior is
385 observed when PP aggregate is included in a reference concrete. Similar behavior is also marked
386 by Babu et al. [22] for EPS concrete, Frigione [2] for PET concrete, and Lima et al. [18] for EVA
387 concrete. The plastic particles are relatively compressible to take more strain than the natural stone
388 aggregate. However, the 10% and 20% PP concrete behave almost similarly before reaching the
389 ultimate point, but 10% of PP concrete can take additional strain before fracture. For the water-
390 cement ratio of 0.50, the strain at the fracture point is 0.0022, 0.0037, 0.0027, which indicates that
391 incorporating PP aggregate can increase the strain bearing capacity, and 10% PP concrete is more
392 ductile than that of 20% PP concrete. The same trend is also observed for other water-cement
393 ratios.

394 The toughness of the concrete is measured from the stress-strain curves of the concrete.
395 The area under the curve indicates the toughness of concrete and is presented in Fig. 8. It is seen
396 that concrete with 10% PP will produce a higher toughness value compared to regular concrete
397 and 20% PP concrete. The toughness value is increased by 1.1%, 33.1%, 39.5%, and 59.8% for
398 10% PP concrete compared to 0% PP concrete for the water-cement ratio of 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and

14
399 0.50, respectively. On the contrary, for 20% PP concrete these values are reduced by 24.2%, 21%,
400 24.1%, and 10.1%, respectively. It is also observed that the combinations with the water-cement
401 ratio of 0.50 exhibit a higher toughness value compared to others.
45 45 45 45
(a) (b) (c) (d)
40 40 40 40

35 35 35 35

Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
30 30 30 30

25 25 25 25

20 20 20 20

15 15 15 15

of
10 10 10 10
WC35P0 WC40P0
WC45P0 WC50P0
5 WC35P10 WC40P10 5 5 WC50P10

ro
WC35P20 5 WC45P10
WC40P20 WC50P20
WC45P20
0 0 0 0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.000 0.002 0.004

-p
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.000 0.002 0.004
Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm) Strain (mm/mm)
402
re
403 Fig. 7. Stress Strain behavior of concrete for different mixtures, (a) w/c: 0.35, (b) w/c: 0.40, (c)
lP

404 w/c: 0.45, and (d) w/c: 0.50.

120000
na
Toughness Index (J/m3)

P0
100000 P10
P20
ur

80000

60000
Jo

40000

20000

0
0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
Water Cement Ratio
405
406 Fig. 8. Toughness value of concrete for different mixtures.
407
408 4.5 Modulus of Elasticity (MoE)

409 Modulus of elasticity (MoE) of concrete is measured from the stress-strain curve of concrete. The
410 tangent of the stress-strain curve of concrete within the proportion limit indicates the MoE of
411 concrete. From Fig. 9, it is seen that after incorporating the PP aggregate into the concrete mixture,
412 the MoE decreases, and this reduction increases with increasing the percentage of PP aggregate.
413 For the water-cement ratio of 0.35, the MoE of PP concrete is decreased by 21.6% and 25.6% for

15
414 10% and 20% PP aggregate compared to 0% PP concrete. For the water-cement ratio of 0.40, 0.45,
415 and 0.50 these reductions are 10.9% & 11.6%, 4.3% & 8.9%, and 3.2% & 13.3% for 10% and 20%
416 PP concrete, respectively. This trend can be attributed to the PP aggregate's lower MoE than the
417 natural stone aggregate. PP is a soft material. It produces comparatively a compressible material
418 for which elastic incompatibility and stress concentration has occurred at the ITZ, resulting in a
419 weaker ITZ between PP aggregate and cement paste [16, 31, 69]. Besides, Frigione [2] reported
420 that, as plastic particles are relatively compressible, they can prevent interaction between cement
421 paste and the stiff aggregate, resulting in a lower stiffness of the concrete. Previous researchers
422 also observe this reduction in MoE for incorporating plastic content [16, 17, 20, 21, 26, 31].
423 Besides, the water-cement ratio has a negative effect on MoE. With increasing the water-cement
424 ratio, the MoE decreases. For 0% PP concrete, the MoE decreases 22.3%, 24.1%, and 25.9% for
425 the water-cement ratio of 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50 compared to 0.35, respectively. The same trend is

of
426 also observed for other water-cement ratios. In a concrete containing a higher water-cement ratio,
427 more water is present at the ITZ, resulting in preferential fracture planes. Thus the compressive

ro
428 strength decreases, showing a lower stiffness curve.

-p
429
35000
re
P0
P10
30000
lP

P20
MoE (MPa)

25000
na

20000
ur

15000
Jo

0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50

Water Cement Ratio
430

431 Fig. 9. MoE concrete for different mixtures.

432 4.6 Effect of High Temperature on Compressive Strength

433 Exposure to high temperatures affects the compressive strength of concrete. Therefore, in this
434 study, concrete cylinders were heated evenly in an enclosed furnace chamber at 100°C and 200°C,
435 and the effects of elevated temperature on the compressive strength of concrete were evaluated.
436 The temperature loading curves are shown in Fig. 10. The cylinders were heated almost for one
437 hour. Fig. 11 represents the variation in compressive strength of concrete for different mixtures at
438 elevated temperatures. Overall, it is seen that the compressive strength is decreased after exposure
439 to high temperatures, and it decreases linearly with increasing the temperature. For the control
440 specimen and w/c ratio of 0.35, compressive strength is decreased by 2.6% and 7.2% after
441 exposure to 100°C and 200°C temperatures, respectively. For 10% PP concrete these reductions

16
442 are 2.5% and 19%; and for 20% PP concrete these are 8.2% and 33.2%, respectively. The same
443 trend is also observed for other water-cement ratios. Up to 10.8%, strength reduction is observed
444 at 100°C depending on the percentage of PP, water-cement ratio; whereas up to 34% compressive
445 strength has been reduced at 200°C. A negligible strength reduction is observed at 100°C compared
446 to ambient temperature. Conversely, significant strength reduction was observed when the
447 temperature was raised to 200°C. A similar finding was observed by Ozbakkaloglu et al. [31],
448 where up to 44.7% and 62.95% compressive strength was reduced with variable percentage of PP
449 aggregate at 100°C and 200°C temperature.

450 For the temperature below 100°C, the water does not start to turn into vapor. When the concrete is
451 burnt over 100°C temperature, a significant amount of water vapor is generated inside the concrete.
452 This water vapor creates pore pressure into the concrete matrix for which the propagation of micro-

of
453 cracks can cause easily, leading to a lower compressive strength [70]. Besides, the first-stage
454 dehydration of the crystal structure of calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H) occurs at 170°C. So, when

ro
455 the temperature is more than 170°C, a porous concrete matrix is created compared to that under
456 ambient temperature. This may be another reason behind this significant reduction of compressive
457
-p
strength at 200°C [71]. It is also observed that the reduction of compressive strength is more
re
458 prominent for 20% PP concrete compared to 10% PP concrete. For 100°C, compressive strengths
459 decreased by 12.7% and 26.4% with 10% and 20% PP concrete, and for 200°C, reductions were
lP

460 23.9% and 43.9%, respectively. When the PP concrete is exposed to a higher temperature than that
461 of its heat deflection temperature of PP aggregate ((i.e., 66.8°C) [72], the MoE of PP decreases
462 and progressively approaches zero at its melting point of 160°C. Thus, due to this reduction in
na

463 MoE of PP aggregate, the PP concrete experiences a significant reduction of compressive strength
464 at 200°C [31]. Similar to the compressive strength pattern, a higher water-cement ratio has a
ur

465 negative effect on the compressive strength at elevated temperatures due to the formation of higher
Jo

466 pore pressure for a higher water-cement ratio. However, more than 20 MPa compressive strength
467 can be achieved even after exposure to 200°C for an hour.

250
200° C
200
Temperature (° C)

100° C

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200
TIme (min)
468
469 Fig. 10. Temperature loading graph.

17
 60 60

Compressive Strength (MPa)

Compressive Strength (MPa) P0
(a) (b) P0
P10 P10
P20 P20
40 40

20 20

0 0
Room Temp 100°C 200°C Room Temp 100°C 200°C

470 Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

60 60
Compressive Strength (MPa)

Compressive Strength (MPa)

(c) P0 (d) P0

of
P10 P10
P20 P20
40 40

ro
20
-p 20
re
0 0
lP

Room Temp 100°C 200°C Room Temp 100°C 200°C

471 Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

na

472 Fig. 11. Variation in compressive strength of concrete for different mixtures at elevated
473 temperature, (a) w/c: 0.35, (b) w/c: 0.40, (c) w/c: 0.45, and w/c: 0.50.
ur

474 4.7 Splitting Tensile Strength (STS) and Flexural Strength

Jo

475 The splitting tensile strength (STS) and flexural strength of different concrete mixtures are
476 presented in Fig. 12 and 13. The figure shows that after the inclusion of PP aggregate into the
477 concrete mixture, both the STS and flexural strength decrease, decreasing with increasing the
478 percentage of PP content. At 28 days and a water-cement ratio of 0.35, the STS is reduced by
479 14.6% and 24.4% with 10% and 20% PP aggregate than the control concrete. For the water-cement
480 ratio of 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50, these reductions are 7.6% & 21.5%; 2.6% & 19.7%; and 8.6% &
481 22.9% for 10% and 20% PP content, respectively. A similar trend is also observed for concrete at
482 90 days.

483 Flexural strength is decreased by 15.6% and 38.6% for 10% and 20% PP aggregate compared to
484 0% PP aggregate for the water-cement ratio of 0.35. Again, for the water-cement ratio of 0.40,
485 0.45, and 0.50, it is reduced by 19.1% & 36.6%; 21.8% & 40.5%; and 11% & 24.3% for 10% and
486 20% PP content, respectively. This observation agrees with previous research [2, 16, 26, 31, 32].
487 Due to the hydrophobic nature and smooth surfaces of PP aggregates, the cement hydration
488 reaction is restrained near the surface of PP aggregates. Thus, the cement paste creates a weaker
489 bond [16, 31]. However, STS and flexural strength reduction do not significantly pronounce 10%
18
490 PP concretes. Up to 14.6% and 20.8%, STS and flexural strength are reduced only for 10% PP
491 concrete, respectively. This relatively low reduction is seen due to the partial compensation of the
492 losses of bond strength by the lower percentage of PP aggregate. In addition, with increasing the
493 water-cement ratio, both the STS and flexural strength decrease linearly. For 0% PP concrete, the
494 reduction of STS is 3.7%, 7.3%, and 14.6% for the water-cement ratio of 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50
495 compared to 0.35, respectively. In terms of flexural strength, it is decreased by 4.7%, 10.2%, and
496 31.4% for the water-cement ratio of 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50 compared to 0.35, respectively for 0% PP
497 concrete. A similar trend is observed for 10% and 20% PP concrete.

498 From the load-deflection curves of concrete beams presented in Fig 14, it is evident that
499 there is a significant difference between PP concrete graphs and normal concrete graphs. The initial
500 stiffness of the normal concrete graphs is much higher than those of the PP concrete graphs. This

of
501 is another symbol of the lower MoE of PP concrete previously discussed in the modulus of
502 elasticity section. The graphs containing PP content provide a ductile phenomenon. After reaching

ro
503 the ultimate point, the graphs go a long way than reference concrete providing much warning
504 before reaching its fracture point. On the contrary, the concretes containing any PP content fail
505
-p
suddenly without taking an additional load after its ultimate point. Thus, better ductility can be
re
506 expected from the PP concrete.
5
lP

(a) 28 days 5
90 Days (b) 28 days
90 Days
4 4
na
STS (MPa)

3
STS (MPa)

2
ur

1 1
Jo

0 0
WC35P0 WC35P10 WC35P20 WC40P0 WC40P10 WC40P20 WC45P0 WC45P10 WC45P20 WC50P0 WC50P10 WC50P20
507
508 Fig. 12. Variation in STS of concrete for different mixtures, (a) w/c: 0.35 and w/c: 0.40 with
509 admixture, and (b) w/c: 0.45 and w/c: 0.50 without admixture.

8
Flexural Strength (MPa)

P0
P10
6 P20

0
0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
510 Water Cement Ratio

511 Fig. 13. Flexural strength of concrete for different mixtures.

19
 16 16
(a) (b)
P0 P0
12 P10 P10
P20 12 P20
Load (kN)

Load (kN)
8 8

4 4

0 0
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
512 Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

(c) 16
16 P0 (d)

of
P0
P10 P10
P20 12
Load (kN)

P20
12

ro
Load (kN)
8 8

4
-p 4
re
0 0
lP

0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2

513 Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)
514 Fig. 14. Load vs deflection responses of concrete beams for different mixtures: (a) w/c: 0.35, (b)
na

515 w/c: 0.40, (c) w/c: 0.45, and (d) w/c: 0.50.
ur

516 4.8 Bond Strength

Jo

517 The load versus slip responses of different concrete specimens under the pull-out test is presented
518 in Fig. 15. All the graphs are identical except the initial stiffness. The graphs are divided into two
519 segments. A sharp ascending portion is visible up to the almost linear peak point. The mechanical
520 interlocking between rebar and concrete is more predominant in this segment. After the peak point,
521 a nonlinear descending segment is pointed out where the frictional force is the prominent part.
522 However, though all the graphs are identical, the concrete containing 10% PP aggregate exhibits
523 better bond strength and a higher slip bearing capacity. Table 5 summarizes the different bond
524 properties of specimens. The table shows that the bond strength increases linearly from 0% to 10%
525 PP replaced concrete but decreases for 20% PP concrete. The slip behavior also follows the same
526 trend. The bond strength is increased by 15%, 18%, 46%, and 13% for the water-cement ratio of
527 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50, respectively compared to 0% PP concrete. On the contrary, for 20% PP
528 concrete it is reduced by 45%, 31.7%, 24%, and 13.6% compared to 10% PP concrete. A lower
529 percentage of PP aggregate works positively without hampering the mechanical interlocking and
530 frictional force at the steel-concrete interface. But when the percentage is much higher, it creates
531 a negative impact due to its softness. Regarding the water-cement ratio, 0.40 provides higher bond

20
532 strength than others. This may be attributed to the formation of good cement hydration for optimum
533 water content. Thus a better bond strength is created with this water-cement ratio.

50 50
(a) P0 (b) P0
P10 P10
40 P20 40 P20

30 30

Load (kN)
Load (kN)

20 20

10 10

0 0

of
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
534 Slip (mm) Slip (mm)

ro
50 50
P0 (d) P0
(c)

-p
P10 P10
40 40 P20
P20
re
30 30
Load (kN)
Load (kN)

lP

20 20
na

10 10

0 0
ur

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Slip (mm) Slip (mm)
535
Jo

536 Fig. 15. Load−slip response of concrete for different mixtures.

537 Table 5
538 Average bond properties of different specimens.
SL Designation Average Max Average Bond Slip at SD COV (%) Normalized
Load, Pmax Strength, τmax Maximum (MPa) Bond
(kN) (MPa) Load (mm) Strength, τN
(MPa½)
1. WC35P0 36.80 5.17 3.50 4.74 12.9 0.76
2. WC35P10 42.34 5.95 4.30 3.41 8.0 0.98
3. WC35P20 23.35 3.28 2.03 1.00 4.3 0.55
4. WC40P0 38.05 5.34 3.62 3.62 9.5 0.83
5. WC40P10 44.84 6.30 4.56 1.22 2.7 1.08
6. WC40P20 30.61 4.30 3.10 1.21 4.0 0.74
7. WC45P0 24.77 3.48 3.03 1.37 5.5 0.55
8. WC45P10 36.18 5.08 3.62 3.90 10.8 0.87
9. WC45P20 27.48 3.86 3.06 2.13 7.7 0.68
10. WC50P0 24.62 3.46 2.93 1.00 4.1 0.57
11. WC50P10 27.81 3.91 3.37 1.53 5.5 0.70
12. WC50P20 24.09 3.38 1.94 1.00 4.2 0.65

21
539 4.9 Effect on Shrinkage

540 The comparison of shrinkage percentage for different concrete mixtures is presented in Fig 16.
541 Overall, the shrinkage percentage increases after incorporating PP aggregate into the concrete
542 mixture and increases with the percentage of PP aggregate. For the water-cement ratio of 0.35, the
543 shrinkage percentage are 0.030%, 0.038% and 0.053% for 0%, 10%, and 20% PP aggregate,
544 respectively. For the water-cement ratio of 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50 these percentages are 0.030%,
545 0.035%, 0.037%; 0.014%, 0.021%, 0.061%; and 0.018%, 0.031%, 0.034%, respectively. This
546 increasing rate of shrinkage percentage for plastic concrete was found to be in line with the
547 published literature [2, 23-25]. According to Mehta [73], drying shrinkage is largely influenced by
548 the MoE of concrete and other factors and mechanical properties. Ravindrarajah and Tuck [23]
549 reported that the shrinkage of polystyrene concrete was higher than that of normal-weight concrete

of
550 due to the low stiffness of the polystyrene beads. Generally, the drying shrinkage increases with
551 decreasing the MoE of concrete [2]. As the MoE of PP concrete decreases with increasing the

ro
552 percentage of PP content, the shrinkage percentage also decreases. However, the variations of
553 shrinkage values are acceptable for several uses of structural concrete [74].
(a) (b)
-p (c) (d)
re
0.030 0.035 0.037 0.014 0.021 0.061 0.018 0.034
0.030 0.038 0.053 0.031
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
lP
Percentage (%)

99.9 99.9 99.9 99.9

Percentage (%)
Percentage (%)
Percentage (%)

na

99.8 99.8 99.8 99.8

99.982 99.969
99.970 99.986 99.979 4 99.966
99.970 99.962 99.947 99.965 99.963 99.939 2
99.7 99.7 99.7 99.7
ur

99.6 99.6 99.6 99.6

Jo

99.5 99.5 99.5 99.5

P0 P10 P20 P0 P10 P20 P0 P10 P20 P0 P10 P20
554
555 Fig. 16. Comparison of shrinkage percentage for different concrete mixtures, (a) w/c: 0.35, (b)
556 w/c: 0.40, (c) w/c: 0.45, and (d) w/c: 0.50.

557 4.10 Effect on Chloride Ion Penetration Test

558 The chloride ion penetrability is determined by an indirect method. The surface resistance value
559 of concrete has been determined as per AASHTO TP 95 [66] and then correlated with the
560 AASHTO TP 95 [66] guideline. Fig. 17 presents the specific resistance value of different concrete
561 mixes. The figure shows that after the inclusion of PP content into the concrete mixture, the value
562 of specific resistance decreases and decreases with increasing the percentage of PP content. For
563 the water-cement ratio of 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50 the value of specific resistance is decreased by
564 1.9% & 6.8%; 10.9% & 18.4%; 9.1% & 17.1%; and 6.4% & 11.3% for 10% and 20% PP concrete,
565 respectively. Besides, with increasing the water-cement ratio, the specific resistance value

22
566 decreases. For 0% PP concrete, the specific resistance value is decreased by 3.6%, 9.7%, and
567 15.8% for the water-cement ratio of 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50 compared to 0.35, respectively. For 10%
568 and 20% PP concrete, this reduction percentage is 12.4, 16.3, 19.7, and 15.7%, 19.7%, 19.8%,
569 respectively. As per AASHTO TP 95 [66] guidelines, the chloride ion penetrability is assumed to
570 be moderate when the specific resistance value is 12-2121 kOhm-cm. As the specific resistance
571 value for all combinations falls within this range, it can be assumed that the chloride ion
572 penetrability is in the moderate category.

25
P0
Specific Resistance (kOhm-cm)

P10
20.6 20.2 P20
19.8
20 19.2
18.6
17.7

of
16.9 17.3
16.2 16.2
15.4 15.4

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15

10
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0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
573 Water-Cement Ratio
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574 Fig. 17. Specific Resistance of concrete for different mixtures.

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575 4.11 Failure Pattern of Concrete

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576 The failure pattern of various concrete mixtures under different loading conditions is shown in Fig.
577 18. In the compressive strength test, the PP concrete cylinders exhibit comparatively ductile failure
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578 than the brittle failure of the reference concrete. Fig. 18 (a) shows the brittle failure of reference
579 concrete, whereas Fig. 18 (b) represents a typical failure pattern of PP concrete. The failure of PP
580 concrete is not as extensive as that of conventional concrete. Babu et al. [22] and Lima et al. [18]
581 also reported that plastic concrete's failure pattern was more gradual compared to the control one
582 exhibiting a ductile failure mode. The concrete cylinders are broken manually to examine the
583 failure lines and the distribution of PP aggregates. The failure lines propagate through the PP
584 aggregates, and that’s why the PP aggregates are split into two pieces which are clearly shown in
585 Fig. 18 (c). PP aggregates are comparatively soft and relatively compressible compared to natural
586 stone aggregates. Thus, when the cracks reach the tip of the PP aggregates, they can initially
587 restrain due to higher strain, and then the cracks are passed through them. The cracks formed under
588 the tensile test of PP concrete are almost invisible, and the specimens do not show complete
589 disintegration after failure. Only one or two hair crack is observed through the mid-section of the
590 samples. On the other hand, conventional concrete produces a distinct fracture plane, as shown in
591 Fig 18 (d).

23
592 After exposing the concrete cylinders at elevated temperatures, they are compared with the
593 cylinders of ambient conditions. The physical appearance of exposed PP concrete specimens
594 significantly differs from unexposed samples shown in Fig 18 (e−g). When the PP concrete
595 specimens are exposed at a temperature (100°C) lower than the melting point of PP aggregates
596 (160°C), no significant variations on the surface morphology of the specimens are observed (Fig
597 18 (f)). But when the samples are exposed to a higher temperature (200°C) than the melting point
598 of PP aggregate, a significant variation is different on the surface morphology (Fig 18 (g)). Albano
599 et al. [26] also found color change on the concrete surface from gray to brown when exposed to
600 elevated temperatures like 400°C and 600°C.

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(a) WC35P0 (b) WC40P20

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(c) WC35P20 (d) WC40P0

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 (e) WC35P0_Room Temp (f) WC40P20_100°C (g) WC40P20_200°C
601 Fig. 18. Failure pattern of concrete under compressive strength at room temperature (a & b), STS

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602 (c & d), and concrete specimens after exposing different elevated temperatures (e−g).

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603 4.12 Comparison with Standard Code of Practices

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604 The acceptability of current design codes of regular concrete has been investigated for PP concrete.
605 Fig. 19 represents the comparisons of the experimental results such as STS, MoE, flexural strength,
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606 bond strength with ACI 318-14 [75], fib2010 [76], and Eurocode 2 [77]. The comparison has been
607 made based on the compressive strength of concrete at 28 days. From Fig. 19 (a), it is seen that
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608 ACI and fib expression underestimate the STS of 0% and 10% PP concrete but overestimate 20%
609 PP concrete, whereas Eurocode 2 underestimates all PP concrete. However, the magnitude of the
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610 variation is within the acceptable range of 20%. In terms of MoE, all the concrete specimens are
611 overestimated by the design codes (Fig. 19 (b)). The magnitude of the overestimation tends to
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612 increase with increasing the percentage of PP aggregate. Up to 63.2% variation has been observed
613 for MoE. Though the flexural strength is underestimated by ACI expression, fib and Eurocode 2
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614 underestimate 0% and 10% PP concrete and overestimate 20% PP concrete (Fig. 19 (c)). Up to
615 42.5% variation has been observed for flexural strength.

5 5 5
Experimental Value (MPa)
Experimental Value (MPa)
Experimental Value (MPa)

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
ACI Prediction (MPa) fib Prediction (MPa) Eurocode Prediction (MPa)
(a)

25
 40 40 40

Experimental Value (GPa)

Experimental Value (GPa)

Experimental Value (GPa)

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
ACI Prediction (GPa) fib Prediction (GPa) Eurocode Prediction (GPa)
(b)
8 8 8

Experimental Value (MPa)

Experimental Value (MPa)

Experimental Value (MPa)

6 6 6

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2 2 2

0 0
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0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
ACI Prediction (MPa) fib Prediction (MPa) fib Prediction (MPa)
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(c)
616 Fig. 19. Comparisons of the experimental results with different codes: (a) STS, (b) MoE, and (c)
617 flexural strength.
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618 5. Conclusions
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619 Based on the experimental program, the following conclusions can be drawn:
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620 • The slump value increased by increasing the PP aggregate percentage into the concrete
621 mixture. The degree of workability of PP concrete fell in the high or very high category
622 depending on the percentage of PP aggregate and the water-cement ratio. Besides, the PP
623 concrete showed better workability for a longer time. Up to 89% slump value was increased
624 among all the combinations.
625 • After the inclusion of PP content into the concrete mixture, the density of the concrete
626 decreased, decreasing with increasing the PP percentage. The water-cement ratio did not
627 affect the density significantly. Averagely 5% and 10% density reduction can be achieved
628 using 10% and 20% PP content, respectively.
629 • The compressive strength decreased after incorporating PP aggregate into the concrete
630 mixture; it did not vary significantly for 10% and 20% PP aggregate. However, the water-
631 cement ratio did not reduce PP concrete's compressive strength considerably. Up to 20%
632 and 21.8% reduction in compressive strength was observed for 10% and 20% PP concrete
633 at 28 days for different water-cement ratios. Besides, the compressive strength decreased
634 after exposure to 100°C and 200°C temperatures. The compressive strength was reduced

26
635 by 10.8% and 34% at 100°C and 200°C for various combinations. However, more than 20
636 MPa compressive strength can be achieved with PP aggregate even after exposure to 200°C
637 for an hour.
638 • After incorporating the PP aggregate into the concrete mixture, the MoE, STS, and flexural
639 strength decreased, and the reduction percentages were increased with increasing the
640 percentage of PP aggregate. Up to 21.6% and 25.6%, MoE was decreased for 10% and
641 20% PP concrete depending on the different water-cement ratios. In terms of STS and
642 flexural strength these reduction percentages were increased up to 14.6% & 24.4%; and
643 21.8% & 40.5% for 10% and 20% PP concrete, respectively.
644 • 10% PP concrete exhibits better bond strength along with a higher slip bearing capacity
645 compared to 0% and 20% PP concrete. The bond strength was increased by 15%, 18%,
646 46%, and 13% for the water-cement ratio of 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, and 0.50, respectively

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647 compared to 0% PP concrete. On the contrary, for 20% PP concrete it was reduced by 45%,
648 31.7%, 24%, and 13.6% compared to 10% PP concrete.

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649 • Due to the lower MoE of PP concrete, the shrinkage percentage increased after

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650 incorporating PP aggregate into the concrete mixture, and it increased with increasing the
651 percentage of PP aggregate. However, the variations of shrinkage values were acceptable
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652 for several uses of structural concrete.
653 • Though the inclusion of PP content decreased the specific resistance value, it fell within
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654 the range of 12-21 kOhm-cm. Thus the chloride ion penetrability of all PP concrete was in
655 the moderate category.
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656 • The PP concrete cylinders exhibited comparatively ductile failure than the brittle failure of
657 the reference concrete. The cracks formed under the tensile test of PP concrete were almost
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658 invisible, and the specimens did not show complete disintegration after failure.
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659 The use of PP concrete as an alternative to conventional concrete is a new concept in green
660 construction industries from sustainability. However, extensive investigation has been needed
661 before establishing it as regular concrete. Future studies will investigate various short and long-
662 term durability properties of PP concrete. Besides, comprehensive research will be carried out on
663 bond properties of PP concrete with varying rebar diameter, embedment length, concrete cover,
664 concrete compressive strength, etc. The microstructure analysis will also be done in the future. In
665 addition, mechanical properties of various structural elements like beams, columns, slabs, etc.,
666 made with different percentages of PP aggregate should be investigated after that.

667 CRediT authorship contribution statement

668 Md. Jahidul Islam: Conceptualization, Methodology, Review & Editing, Formal analysis,
669 Funding acquisition, Supervision. Md. Shahjalal: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis,
670 Writing an original draft. Niaz Md Ashraful Haque: Investigation, Data curation, Drafting.
671 Declaration of competing interest

672 No conflict of interest to declare.

27
673 Funding

674 This research is funded by the Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST), Dhaka,
675 Bangladesh.
676 Acknowledgment

677 A special thanks to Concrete Lab and Strength of Materials Lab of Civil Engineering Department,
678 Military Institute of Science & Technology (MIST), Dhaka, Bangladesh. for their unconditional
679 support during this research.

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32
Highlights:

• Polypropylene (PP) waste plastic is used as coarse aggregate in concrete.

• Mechanical properties reduce with increased PPA content.
• Concrete with 10% PPA shows a higher toughness than the control concrete.
• Reduction in strength is similar between control & 10% PPA concrete at high temperatures.
• 10% PPA concrete shows higher bong strength and slip bearing capacity than the control.

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Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐ The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:

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