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DIVERSITY OF REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES

 Animals use various reproductive strategies to increase their reproductive success in different
environments

EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

EXTERNAL
DESCRIPTION  Large amount of sperm and egg cells
are released
 Sperm cells can be released close to the
eggs
 The sperm fertilises the egg outside the
body of the female, usually in water.
ADVANTAGES - Water prevents the eggs from drying out
and allows the sperm to swim towards the
egg
DISADVANTAGES  Eggs are exposed to predators
 Eggs are also exposed to negative
environmental conditions
 more energy is needed to produce
large number of gametes
EXAMPLES Fish, amphibians,
INTERNAL
 The male deposits its sperm inside the
 reproductive organs of the female
 Fertilisation occurs inside the female’s
reproductive organs.
 Allows terrestrial animals to reproduce
in a dry environment without the need
for water.
 Internal fertilisation is more certain
than external fertilisation.
 developing embryo is protected
 less energy used to produce gametes
-fewer offspring produced
Mammals, reptiles, birds and insects

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OVIPARY, OVOVIVIPARY & VIVIPARY

 Reproductive strategies that indicate where the embryo develops and receives nutrients

OVIPARY OVOVIVIPARY VIVIPARY

DESCRIPTION  Embryo develops in an
egg outside the females
body
 Fertilization can be
external or internal
 Embryo develops in an
egg in the females body
 Eggs hatch inside the
female’s body
 fertilization is internal
 Embryo develops
without a shell in the
female’s body
 Fertilization is internal

ADVANTAGES Egg provides:  Embryos obtain their  Physical connection to

- nutrition for the
developing embryo
- protects the embryo.
A shelled egg frees these
animals from the need to
reproduce in water.
EXAMPLES Fish, amphibians, reptiles &
birds
nutrients from the egg
yolk.
 The eggs are protected
from predators until
hatching occurs.
Snakes,sharks
mother to receive
nutrients
 Nutrients are received
for a longer period from
the mother’s.
 Embryo is protected in
the body of the mother.
Mammals

AMNIOTIC EGG
 Oviparous vertebrates have an amniotic egg and the embryo develops inside the egg
 Embryo protected by the shell of the egg; egg consists of many extraembryonic membranes that
serve different functions.

 Shell – protects the egg

 Albumen – serves as reserve food
 Yolk – provides nutrients to the embryo

THE EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES

 Chorion – outermost membrane that allows gaseous

exchange
 Amnion – surrounds embryo and protects it from shock,
injuries, temperature changes and dehydration
 Allantois – stores waste products/gaseous exchamge
 Yolk sac – provides nutrients

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PRECOCIAL AND ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT

 Describes the extent of development of the embryo when it is hatched or born

 Relates to food supply and protection

PRECOCIAL
DESCRIPTION  species in which the young are
relatively mature and mobile from the
moment of birth or hatching
 They are able to walk, run or swim
 Eyes open directly after
birth/hatchling
 Can regulate own body temperature
 Hatchlings are more independent
EXAMPLES Chickens, ducks, sheep, cattle
ALTRICIAL
 Development in organisms which are
incapable of moving around on their
own soon after hatching or being
born
 The young needs to be fed and taken
care of for a long duration.
 Often hairless or with no feathers
 Can’t regulate own body temperature
 Can’t feed themselves
 Depend on parents for protection
Humans, doves, cats, dogs, primates

PARENTAL CARE
 Parental care offered through building of nests, protecting the eggs, protecting the young,
teaching the young.
 Increases chances of survival of the young.

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HUMAN REPRODUCTION

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system

mainly consists of:
 Testes

 Tubules for transport of

the sperm

 Accessory glands

 Penis

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THE TESTES

- The testes occur in the scrotum and hang away from

the body in order for them to have a lower
temperature than the body temperature to ensure
optimal temperature for sperm production
- The scrotum protects the testes
- Seminiferous tubules are lined with germinal
epithelial cells that give rise to sperm cells
- The seminiferous tubules also contain Sertoli cells and
Cells of leydig
- Sertoli cells provide food for the developing sperm
cells
- Cells of leydig produce the hormone testosterone
Function of the testes
 Produce sperm cells
 Produce testosterone

TUBULES FOR TRANSPORT OF THE SPERM & ACCESSORY GLANDS

THE TUBULES FOR TRANSPORT

- Seminiferous tubules join to form the epididymis

- Epididymis stores sperm cells till they mature
- Vas deferens transports sperm cells from the
testes/seminiferous tubules to the urethra
- Urethra transports both urine and sperm to the
exterior of the body
- The release of sperm is called Ejaculation
ACCESSORY GLANDS

- Seminal vesicle secretes a fluid filled with

nutrients to provide energy for the sperm cells
- Prostate gland secretes a fluid that helps with
mobility of the sperm and also neutralizes the
acidity of the vagina
- Cowper’s gland secretes a fluid that clears the
urethra of urine and also lubricates the head of
the penis
- Semen is a combination of the fluids of the
accessory glands and sperm cells
THE PENIS

- The penis is an organ that transfers sperm from

the male into the vagina of the female

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system mainly consists of the following parts:

 Ovaries
 Organs responsible for the transportation and care of the ovum and zygote
 External genitalia

 Fallopian tubes – transports the ovum from the ovary to the uterus and is also the site
where fertilization occurs. Also transports the zygote to the uterus
 Uterus – responsible for the care of the embryo from implantation to birth
 Endometrium – a membrane lining the uterus that is the site of implantation
 Cervix – allows flow of menstrual blood from the uterus to the vagina
 Vagina – where sperm is deposited and also acts as a birth canal

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THE OVARIES

Function of the ovaries

 Produces ova
 Produces the female hormones
Oestrogen & Progesterone

PUBERTY AND THE HORMONES INVOLVED

1. Testosterone

Description Functions during puberty

Produced by seminiferous tubules in the testes
stimulates:
 The deepening of the voice
 The development of muscles
 The growth of facial, pubic and body hair
 Development of the penis and testes
 The production of sperm in the testes

2. Oestrogen

Description Functions during puberty

Produced by the Graafian follicles in the ovaries
 Causes the lining of the
uterus/endometrium to become thicker in
preparation for a possible implantation of
the embryo and development of the
foetus
stimulates:
 The widening of the pelvis/hips
 The growth and development of the breasts
 The growth of the female sex organs
 The start of the menstrual cycle, ovulation and
menstruation

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GAMETOGENESIS
 Gametogenesis is the formation of gametes by meiosis
 Male gametes formed by spermatogenesis
 Female gametes formed by oogenesis
 The production of gametes is controlled by sex hormones

SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
 in the seminiferous tubules/testis
 Diploid cells • diploid cells in the ovary undergo mitosis
 undergo meiosis • to form numerous follicles.
 to form 4 haploid spermatids • One cell inside a follicle enlarges and
 which mature undergoes meiosis.
 to form 4 mature spermatozoa • Of the four cells that are produced, only one
 occurs under the influence of Testosterone survives to form a mature, haploid ovum.
 Under the influence of FSH

GAMETES
SPERM CELL OVUM

 Acrosome – contains enzymes to digest wall of  Layer of jelly – protects the fertilized egg cell
egg cell for fertilization  Nucleus – contains the 23 maternal
 Nucleus – contains 23 paternal chromosomes chromosomes
 Mitochondria – provide energy for movement
of sperm cells
 Tail – used for swimming

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THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 The menstrual cycle is a series of events that occur in the female body to prepare it for
possible pregnancy. Involves ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle it takes an average of 28
days.

(1) The pituitary (5) High levels of (6) LH cause ovulation to (8) Corpus
gland secretes FSH Oestrogen stimulates occur and stimulates the luteum
the hypophysis to formation of the corpus secretes the
secrete LH luteum progesterone
(2) FSH stimulates
the development
of follicles in the
ovary

(3) The
developing
Graafian follicle
secretes
oestrogen

(4) Oestrogen
stimulates the
thickening of the
lining of the uterus
endometrium
(7) During ovulation (10) High levels of progesterone (9) Progesterone
the Graafian follicle inhibits the production of FSH so that stimulate the
bursts and its no new follicles develop and also thickening of the
remains forms the prevents ovulation endometrium
corpus luteum

If fertilization occur, If fertilization does not occur,

 the corpus luteum develops  the corpus luteum degenerates

 Progesterone levels remain high  stops producing progesterone (decreases)
 FSH is inhibited  FSH is no longer inhibited and increases
 No follicles develop  New follicles develop
 Endometrium is maintained in  Endometrium is no longer maintained and
preparation for implantation degenerates (Menstruation)
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FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTATION

 Fertilization – fusion of a haploid sperm and haploid ovum to produce a diploid zygote
 Copulation – transfer of reproductive cells from one individual to another
 Implantation - the attachment of the blastocyst to the wall of the uterus

FERTILISATION IMPLANTATION

 Semen is deposited from the male into the  The zygote

vagina of a female
 In the Fallopian tubes
 one sperm cell makes contact with the ovum's
membrane
 The nucleus of the sperm enters the ovum
 Then the ovum membrane becomes
impenetrable to other sperms
 The nucleus of the sperm fuses
 with the nucleus of the ovum
 to form a diploid zygote
 undergoes mitosis
 until a ball of cells is formed called a morula
 The morula continues to divide and forms a
mass of cells with a hollow cavity called a
blastocyst
 the outer membrane of the blastocyst forms
chorionic villi which attaches to the
endometrium
 the chorionic villi and the maternal
endometrium form the placenta

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GESTATION
The placenta

 The endometrium forms large blood filled spaces called sinuses and the chorionic villi grow into
these spaces
 Therefore the chorionic villi are surrounded by maternal blood
 The maternal blood and the foetal blood are in close contact but never mix
 Transfer of substances (diffusion) occurs via the thin membrane separating the maternal blood
and foetal blood

Functions of placenta

 Nutrition –dissolved nutrients (such as glucose, mineral salts, water and vitamins) are
transported from the placenta via the umbilical cord to the foetus
 Excretion – metabolic waste products such as urea are transported from the foetus via umbilical
cord to the placenta
 Gaseous exchange – oxygen is transported from the placenta to the foetus, and carbon dioxide
from the foetus to the placenta
 Acts as a microfilter – the placenta prevents the entry of pathogenic microorganisms into the
blood of the foetus. But HI virus may cross the barrier and infect the foetus
 Endocrine function – after 12th week the placenta takes over the function of the corpus luteum.
The placenta then secretes large quantities of Progesterone and Oestrogen to maintain
pregnancy

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Umbilical cord

 The foetus is connected to the placenta by an umbilical cord

 The umbilical cord consist of two arteries and one vein
 The two umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood and waste products from the foetus to
the placenta
 The umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood (rich in oxygen and nutrients) from the placenta to
the foetus

Structural suitability of the placenta

 Has villi to enlarge the surface area

 Enriched with blood vessels for transport of gases/nutrients/ waste products
 Selective permeable membranes to promote diffusion of gases/ substances
 Contains blood sinuses to bring blood of mother in close association with that of foetus

Structural suitability of the chorionic villi

 The villi increase the surface area across which exchange of substances can take place between
foetal blood and maternal blood

Transport of substances

From mother to foetus From foetus to mother

 Oxygen  Carbon dioxide
 Nutrients/glucose  Nitrogenous waste/urea/ammonia
 Antibodies  Metabolic waste
 Water

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THE GESTATION PERIOD

 The cells of the embryo continues to divide to form
the different organs and limbs
 and is now called a foetus
 The foetus is enclosed in a sac called the amnion filled
with amniotic fluid
 which protects the foetus against temperature
fluctuations
 protects the foetus against dehydration
 and acts as a shock absorber
 The chorionic villi and the endometrium form the
placenta
 where the blood of both the foetus and the mother
 run close to each other allowing for nutrients to
diffuse into the blood of the foetus
 The umbilical vein carries the absorbed nutrients from
the mother to the foetus

THE AMNION
The amnion encloses the amniotic cavity which is filled with
amniotic fluid
FUNCTIONS OF AMNIOTIC FLUID:
 acts as a shock absorber
 Protects the foetus from drying out
 allows for movement of the foetus
 prevent great variation in temperature

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PROTECTION OF THE FOETUS DURING GESTATION

 The foetus develops inside the uterus

 And is protected by the mother’s body
 Antibodies from the mothers blood
 Placenta acts as a microfilter preventing toxins from the mother entering the foetal blood
 The foetus is enclosed by the amnion
 Which contains amniotic fluid provides protection against dehydration and acts as a shock
absorber and temperature changes

NATURAL BIRTH

 A normal pregnancy lasts for 40 weeks

 When a baby is ready to be born turns head down and
puts pressure on the cervix
 This pressure on the cervix stimulates the hypophysis to
secrete Oxytocin
 Oxytocin stimulates the muscles of the uterus to contract
 Due to afterbirth which decreases progesterone levels
drop and the hypophysis secretes Prolactin
 Prolactin stimulates the mammary glands to secrete milk
 Therefore Prolactin is inhibited by the high levels of
progesterone during pregnancy hence milk is not
secreted while pregnant

Functions of the vagina

 Serves as a birth canal

 Allows for passage of blood/ endometrial lining/amniotic fluid/placenta
 Facilitates sexual intercourse /receives semen
 Secretes acid which prevents infections

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Functions of the uterus

 Encloses and protects the developing embryo/foetus

 Forms part of the placenta
 Which provides for the nutrition/ gaseous exchange/ excretion of the embryo
 Allows for implantation/attachment of the embryo
 Contracts during labour for child birth

Difference between fraternal and identical twins

Non-identical/fraternal/dizygotic twins Identical/monozygotic twins

Produced when two egg cells are fertilised by two Formed when one sperm fuses with one egg cell
sperms to form a zygote which then splits up into two
Different gender Same gender
Different DNA Same DNA

Reasons for infertility

 Man has low sperm count

 Blocked Fallopian tubes
 Sexually transmitted diseases
 Irregular menstrual cycles
 Imbalance of the hormones concerned with ovulation

Progesterone

Produced by the corpus luteum and placenta

 Progesterone causes further thickening of the endometrium so that it is ready for implantation
of the embryo should fertilisation occur
 High levels of progesterone inhibits the secretion of FSH by the pituitary gland which in turn
prevents the further development of any new ovum in the ovary

Relationship between FSH and progesterone

 High levels of progesterone in a pregnant woman inhibits the secretion of FSH / Follicle stimulating
hormone by the pituitary gland this prevents the further development of any new ovum and no
further ovulation occurs

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BIRTH CONTROL (CONTRACEPTIVES)

Withdrawal The penis is taken out of the vagina before ejaculation but is not a safe method
because sperm can be released before ejaculation

Rhythm Sexual intercourse is avoided three to four days before and after ovulation
condom Acts as a barrier, stops sperm getting into the vagina
Female condom Acts as a barrier, stops sperm getting into the uterus/fallopian tubes
(femidom)

Diaphragm Acts a barrier as it covers the cervical opening and prevents sperm from entering
the uterus. Used with spermicides

Cervical cap Fits over the cervix and prevents the entry of sperm
Intra-uterine It prevents fertilized ova/embryos from becoming attached to the uterine wall
device (IUD)/loop

Spermicides Contain a chemical substance that kills sperm and it also acts as a barrier, which
prevents sperm from entering through the cervix

Contraceptive Contain progesterone or a combination of Oestrogen and progesterone which

injection stops ovulation. Works for 2 to 3 months

Contraceptive pill Contains artificially produced hormones which prevents the production of
ova/ovulation

Male sterilization The vas deferens are cut and tied. Semen is without sperm is produced
(vasectomy)

Female The fallopian tubes are cut and tied during a small surgical operation preventing
sterilization (tubal the fusion of sperm and ovum
ligation)

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