Lecture

Quantum Optics9:Wave-Particle

Duality
Collector

electrons
+
S1
Metal Surface V
vacuum

3.5

S2 2.5

Vstop (v)
2

f0
1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15

f (x1014 Hz)
 Content

● Photoelectric Effect ® light as particles

(“Quantization of EM waves”)
● Photon momentum/Compton scattering
● Wave-particle Duality
 Photoelectric Effect (1)
● Electrons in a metal are “bound” by
Binding
the energy F, the “work function”. potential

If you shine light on a clean metal

surface, electrons can emerge à
the light gives the electrons
enough energy (> F) to escape.
● perform the experiment in vacuum
● measure the flow of emitted electrons
with an ammeter
● How will the current depend on I and f? We might expect:
● Increasing intensity I should increase the current. (By increasing
the electric field E, the force on electrons, F = eE, is increased,
causing more electrons to be kicked out of the metal.)
● Increasing frequency f shouldn’t matter much. Perhaps a decrease
in current due to rapid oscillations.
● With a weak light, there should be a time delay before current
starts to flow (to build up enough energy)
 Photoelectric Effect (2)
Incident Light ● Experiment 1: Measure the
(variable frequency f) maximum energy of ejected
electrons
Collector
● Bias the “collector” with a negative
A charge to repel ejected electrons
● Increase negative bias voltage
until flow of ejected electrons
electrons decreases to zero.
+
Metal Surface V (Current = 0 at V = Vstop)
vacuum ● Measurement of Vstop tells the max
kinetic energy, KEmax = eVstop.
Watch video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjDWzlCHQc4
The Result:
The “stopping voltage” is independent of light intensity!
Therefore, increasing the intensity I does not increase KE !
 Photoelectric Effect (3)
● Experiment 2: Measure the Incident Light
(variable frequency f)
maximum energy vs. f

3 Collector
Vstop (v)

2
A

1 f0
electrons
0 +
0 5 10 15
Metal Surface V
f (x1014 Hz) vacuum

The Results:
● Stopping voltage Vstop (and the maximum kinetic energy of electrons)
decreases with decreasing f (linear dependence).
● Below a certain frequency fo, no electrons are emitted, even for intense
light! Makes no sense classically: Increasing E should have an effect.
 Photoelectric Effect (4)
3

slope
Vstop (v)
h/e Collector
2

A
1 f0 1
0
0 5 10 15
electrons
+
f (x1014 Hz)
Metal Surface V
Summary of Results: vacuum
● Energy of electrons emitted depends on frequency, not intensity

● Electrons have a probability to be emitted immediately

● Electrons are not ejected for frequencies below f0

h is Planck’s constant (measured here)

KEmax = e ×Vstop = hf - F
F is the “work function”
Conclusion: Light comes in “packets” of energy Photons !
with Ephoton = hf h = 6.626 x 10-34 J • s
Increasing I simply increases # photons, not the photon energy.
 Convenient Units for Ephoton
Recall: For EM waves, frequency and wavelength are related by
f = c/l. c = 2.9979 x 108 m/s

New result: Light comes in “packets” of energy Photons

h = 6.626 x 10-34 J • s
Ephoton = hf = hc/l
hc = 1.986 x 10-25 J • m

● For light waves it is useful to define wavelength in nanometers (nm)

● For electrons it is useful to define energy in electron volts (eV).
● 1 eV = energy an electron gains moving through a potential energy of
one volt = (1.6022 x 10-19 Coulomb)(1 volt) = 1.6022 x 10-19 Joules.
● Therefore, h = 4.14 x 10-15 eV-s, and hc = 1240 eV-nm.

1240 eV × nm Ephoton in electron volts

E photon =
l l in nanometers

Example: A red photon with wavelength of 620 nm has an energy of 2 eV.

 Photoelectric Effect: Example
When light of wavelength l = 400 nm shines on a piece of lithium, the
stopping voltage of the electrons is Vstop = 0.21 V. What is the work
function of lithium?

What is the maximum wavelength that can cause the photoelectric

effect in lithium? Hint: What is Vstop at the maximum wavelength
(minimum frequency)?
 Photoelectric Effect: Example
When light of wavelength l = 400 nm shines on a piece of lithium, the
stopping voltage of the electrons is Vstop = 0.21 V. What is the work
function of lithium?
Solution: E photon =
hc 1240 eV × nm
=
l l
F = hf - eVstop 1240
= eV = 3.1 eV
400
= 3.1eV - 0.21eV
For Vstop = 0.21 V,
= 2.89 eV eVstop = 0.21 eV

What is the maximum wavelength that can cause the photoelectric

effect in lithium? Hint: What is Vstop at the maximum wavelength
(minimum frequency)?

Answer: lmax = 429 nm

 Lecture 5, exercise 1
● Calculating the work function F.
3.5

KEmax = e ×Vstop = hf - F 3

2.5

Vstop (v)
2

If f0 = 5.5 x 1014 Hz, what is F? 1.5

f0
(h = 4.14 x 10-15 eV•s) 1

0.5

0
a) -1.3 V b) -5.5 eV c) +2.3 eV 0 5 10 15

f (x1014 Hz)
 Solution
● Calculating the work function F? 3.5

KEmax = e ×Vstop = hf - F 2.5

Vstop (v)
2

1.5

If f0 = 5.5 x 1014Hz, what is F? 1 f0

(h = 4.14 x 10-15 eV•s) 0.5

0
0 5 10 15

a) -1.3 V b) -5.5 eV c) +2.3 eV

f (x1014 Hz)

When Vstop = 0, hf0 = F = 4.1 x 10-15 eV•s x 5.5 x 1014 Hz = 2.3 eV

Physical interpretation of the work function:

● F is the minimum energy needed to
strip an electron from the metal. F

● F is defined as positive and is usually

given in eV units.
● Not all electrons will leave with the
maximum kinetic energy (due to losses)
 exercise 2: Counting photons
How do we reconcile this notion that light comes in ‘packets’ with
our view of an electromagnetic wave, e.g., from a laser??

Partially transmitting
Power input mirror

1. How many photons per second are emitted from a 1-mW laser (l=635nm)?
a. 3 x 1010 s-1
b. 3 x 1015 s-1
c. 3 x 1020 s-1

2. Are more or fewer photons emitted by a cell phone (f = 830 MHz) at

the same power? (Cell phones actually emit 0.6 – 3W.)
 exercise 2: Counting photons
How do we reconcile this notion that light comes in ‘packets’ with
our view of an electromagnetic wave, e.g., from a laser??

Partially transmitting
Power input mirror

1. How many photons per second are emitted from a 1-mW laser (l=635nm)?
a. 3 x 1010 s-1 hc 1240 eV-nm
E photon = = » 2 eV
b. 3 x 1015 s-1 l 635 nm
Power output: P = (# photons/sec) x Ephoton
c. 3 x 1020 s-1
P 10-3 J 1eV 1photon 15 -1
(# photons/sec) = = ´ ´ = 3.1 ´ 10 s
E photon s 1.6 ´10 J
-19
2eV
2. Are more or fewer photons emitted by a cell phone (f = 830 MHz) at
the same power? (Cell phones actually emit 0.6 – 3W.)
Rate ~ l Ratecell l 0.36 m
\ = cell = = 5.7 ´ 10 5
lcell = c/f = 0.36 m Ratelaser llaser 635 ´10-9 m
 Formation of Optical Images
● For large light intensities, image
formation by an optical system can be
described by classical optics.

●However, for very low light intensities, one can see the
statistical and random nature of image formation.
● Use an extremely sensitive CCD camera that can detect single photons.
A. Rose, J. Opt. Sci. Am. 43, 715 (1953)

Exposure time
 Momentum of a Photon (1)
● Between 1919 and 1923, A.H. Compton showed that x-ray
photons collide elastically with electrons in the same way that
two particles would elastically collide! “Compton Scattering”

● Particles of light (i.e., photons) carry momentum !

 Momentum of a Photon (2)
The Photon Wind

Photons carry momentum!

E is the photon energy
p = Ephoton/c
c is the speed of light

or, using our earlier result that Ephoton = hf = hc/l Sun

l is the wavelength of light
p = h/l
h is Planck’s constant
Why not Ephoton = p2/2m ? Because photons have no mass.
Ephoton = pc comes from Einstein’s special relativity, which more
generally says E2 = m2c4 + p2c2. For the photon, m = 0.
 Wave-Particle “Duality”
● We cannot classify EM radiation into distinct categories
of “waves” or “particles”.
● Light exhibits wave-like properties (interference) in
certain situations, and particle-like properties
(trajectories) in others.
● We will see next lecture that in fact matter particles
(like electrons, protons, etc.) also can display both
particle-like and wave-like properties!

Important question we need to address:

● When should we expect to observe wave-like properties,
and when should we expect particle-like properties?

To help answer these questions, let’s consider 2 examples:

 What happens when many photons
encounter a slit pattern?
● Recall our result for
2-slit interference:
S1

● Classical view:
S2

EM wave
(wavelength l)

S1

● Quantum view:
S2

Photons
(wavelength l = h/p)
 Two Slit Interference:
● Question: what if we reduce the
source intensity so that only one
particle (photon) goes through
the pattern at a time?

S1

S2

Photons
(wavelength l = h/p)
 Two Slit Interference:
● Question: what if we reduce the
source intensity so that only one
particle (photon) goes through
the pattern at a time?

Exposure time
S1

S2

Photons
(wavelength l = h/p)

● Answer: Just like in the “optical

image formation”, given enough time,
the classical interference pattern
will gradually build up from a huge #
of seemingly random “events”!
 Two Slit Interference: Conclusions
1) Particles like photons (or electrons!) can produce interference patterns
even one at a time ! In fact, they only produce them one at a time.
In the limit of large numbers of particles, we recover the usual classical
picture – this is an example of the “correspondence principle”.

2) With one slit closed, image formed is simply a single-slit pattern --

we “know” (i.e., we have constrained) which way the particle “went”.

3) With both slits open, a particle must interfere “with itself” to

produce the observed two-slit interference pattern

● This amazing interference effect reflects, in a fundamental

way, our inability to know which slit the particle “went
through”. We can only state the probability that a particle
went through a particular slit.
 Supplementary Problem: Microwave photons

● What’s the energy?

A microwave oven generates electromagnetic radiation at a frequency
of 2.4 GHz. What is the energy of each microwave photon?

Answer: 1.6 x 10-24 J

If this is a 625 Watt oven, at what rate does it produce photons?

Answer: 3.9 x 1026 photons/s

 Supplementary Problem: Microwave photons

● What’s the energy?

A microwave oven generates electromagnetic radiation at a frequency
of 2.4 GHz. What is the energy of each microwave photon?

Ephoton = hf = (6.626 x 10-34 J • s)(2.4 x 109 s-1)

= 1.6 x 10-24 J

If this is a 625 Watt oven, at what rate does it produce photons?

Microwave Energy / sec ond Power

Rate( photons / sec) = =
Energy / photon E photon

Rate = (625 J/s)/(1.6 x 10-24 J/photon) = 3.9 x 1026 photons/s

 Homework # 3
1) The cutoff wavelength for photoelectric effect of W is of 275 nm.
Determine:
● Maximum speed of photoelectron emitted from W if the wavelength
of the radiated light is of 180 nm?
● Work function of W?

2) The energy needed to remove an electron from metallic sodium is

2.28 eV. Does sodium shows a photoelectric effect for red light
with the wavelength 678 nm? What is the cutoff wavelength for
photoelectric in sodium and to what color does this wavelength
correspond?
3) Give an example of photoelectric effect experienced in the daily
life. Explain the phenomenon in detail.

Question:
1) Is energy quantized in classical physics ?
2) How does the photon differ from a material particle ?