TABLE OF CONTENTS

Communication 1
Art to Effective Communication 3
Barriers to Effective Communication 12
Family 14
Marriage 15
Impact of Modernization on the Family 16
Leisure
17
Culture
18
Population 19
Pollution 22
Other Hazards and Their Effects 25
Drugs 29
Drug Abuse 31
Government of Kenya 35
The Legislature 35
The Executive 38
The Judiciary 40
County Government 42
Location of a Business 45
Saving 46
Borrowing 46
Costing 48
Pricing 50
Public Relations 52
Contracts 53

1
 COMMUNICATION

Definition:
1. Communication is the passing of information from one place to another or one person
to another, using either artificial or natural means.
2. It is the act of conveying information through any natural or artificial means.

 Communication is the process by which information is passed between people by

means of previously agreed symbols, in order to produce desired results.
 There are two basic elements of communication. That is;
 What to communicate and how to communicate.
 Example; a letter is what to communicate as it contains the information to be passed.
 Postal service/letter mail is how to communicate. This is the means which the letter
will be moved from one person to another.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

1) Written Communication
 It is the passing of information that is put in writing. Examples, letters,
minutes, fax, emails etc.
2) Oral/verbal Communication
 It is the passing of information through the word of the mouth. Oral
communication is perhaps the most common form of communication.
 Examples face to face conversation, storytelling, interviews etc.
3) Visual Communication
 It is passing of information by use of signs. Usually, this type of
communication does not have a narrative or explanatory remark.
 Example; graphs, traffic lights, charts, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Written Communication

2
ADVANTAGES DISADVANGES
1. It can be kept for future reference 1. It is expensive in terms of money and
time
2. It is accurate 2. It does not have a ready answer
3. It bears secrecy 3. One has to be literate
4. It is a permanent record 4.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ORAL COMMUNICATIO

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. It is cheap 1. It does not bear secrecy
2. It has a ready answer 2. Cannot be kept for future reference
3. One knows the feeling of the one they 3. You have to think ‘on your feet’
are communicating
4. Speed 4.
5. You can make instant adjustment to 5.
respond to feedback

METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

 When one wants to communicate, he/she must first decide on how to communicate,
that is, choose the correct media of communication.

 Media of communication is the method of communication. Example;

 Medium in written communication include letters, emails SMS etc.

 Medium in verbal communication includes meetings, telephone,
interviews etc.
 Medium in visual communication include graphs, drawings, painting
etc.

3
  Communication usually involves two or more people, that is the sender (transmitter,
emitter or encoder) and the receiver.
 The sender is the person who sends information.
 The receiver is the person to whom the information is sent to.

ART TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

A BUSINESS LETTER

 A business letter is a letter written by a person to a company or a company to a

company or company to a person.
 Examples of business letters:
 Letter of inquiry, memorandum, circulars, forms, minutes, reports etc.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD BUSINESS LETTER

1. It should be brief and to the point. Irrelevant and unnecessary issues should be
avoided.
2. Its tone should be polite, pleasant and courteous.
3. Letter should be grammatical correct and properly punctuated. A poorly worded letter
may fail to convey the right information.
4. The language should also be very clear and precise. Vague and ambiguous letter do
not draw the desired response.
5. The typing, presentation and layout of the letter should be neat and pleasant.
6. Personal views should be avoided. A business letter should be written in a business
letter.

PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER

4
 1. Address: A business letter has two (2) addresses. That is, one of the senders and the
other of the receiver.
2. Date: Date, when writing the letter.
3. Salutation: This comes below the recipient address. If the recipient is unknown to
you, you write Dear Sir/Madam. However, if the recipient’s name is unknown to you,
you write Dear (name). for example: Dear Ms. Muso. The title of the recipient such as
Mr. Mrs. Dr. Rev. Prof. should be written before the name.
4. Reference (RE/REF): It means on the subject of or with regard to. It is a summary
statement of the purpose of the letter. Usually written in capital letters and is
underlined.
5. Introduction paragraph
6. The body of the letter: The body of the letter communicates the purpose of the
letter. The paragraphs are usually short and deals with one point or topic.
7. Conclusion
8. Valediction: The closing remark is Yours Faithfully or Yours Sincerely. Yours
faithfully is written when the recipient is unknown to the sender. Yours sincerely is
written when the recipient is known by the sender.
9. Name and Signature: The signature is written below the valediction. These must be
written by hand. Below is the printed name of the sender.

Kisauni Youth Polytechnic

P. O. Box 82484 80100
MOMBASA
October 17, 2013

The Supplies Manager

Chui Bookshop
P. O. Box 45 – 80100,
MOMBASA, KENYA.

Dear Sir/Madam.

RE: ORDER OF SCIENCE BOOKS

5
We would like to order the following titles from your bookshop.
a. Twenty copies of Physics for form one.
b. Forty copies of Biology for the form two.
c. Twenty copies of Chemistry for form three.

Please send us the books before September 30, 2013.

Thank you.

Yours faithfully

Khadija Abdalla
Manager

MEMORANDUMS(MEMO)

 This is an inter business letter written between officials and employees of the same
organization. A memo is written communication intend for internal use only.
 at the head of the memo the writer must indicate from whom it comes from and for
whom it is intended with a brief heading of the subject matter and date.

MEMORANDUM

FROM: DATE:

TO: REF:

SUBJECT:

6
PURPOSE OF A MEMORANDUM

1. To convey information/messages.
2. To acknowledge recipient of instructions.
3. Report on events and happenings.
4. Reports facts for future reference.

CIRCULAS

 A circular is a letter that is sent to a large number of addresses. Example a notice.

 A circular differs from the ordinary business letter, in that it carries the heading of the
organization and its address but usually does not include the name and the address of
the recipient.

MINUTES

 Minutes are records of a meeting, stating what was said and done at a meeting. The
purpose minute is to ensure that decisions taken are implemented and followed up.

A minute state:
 That the meeting did take place.
 Where and when it took place.
 Who was present?
 What was decided?

7
REPORT

Simple Report
Definition:
1. A report is any oral or written communication providing an account of work carried
out.
2. A report is a form of communication usually a written one by which a person presents
a collection of facts, states his conclusion and submits his recommendations.

TYPES OF REPORTS

1. Informal Reports: An informal report is written by an individual inside an

organization on special occasions.
2. Formal Reports: Formal reports are also known as meeting reports. They are written
by special appointed officers or committee.
3. Statutory Report: They are reports required by the law. Example Directors report to
the shareholders, auditors reports etc.
4. Routine Report: Routine reports are prepared periodically relating to a set of data
compiled at regular interval. Meaning, are filled when one has be given a certain job
to do and is required to show how he/she is getting on with it.

REPORT WRITING

 Good business reports are short and to the point. The reading habits of busy people
makes it necessary to plan what you are going to write and then say it in a few words
as possible.

1. The ABCs of Writing A Report

 Your report should be:

i. Accurate: Get facts right, mistakes waste time and money.

ii. Brief: Be brief and to the point. Make best use of every word.
8
iii. Clear: Make the reader understand what you mean. The wrong word will confuse the
reader. Keep the report as simple as possible.

2. Organizing the Report

 Before writing a report, you should know:
i. The main purpose of the report (to you).
ii. What is most important to the reader?
iii. What is least important to the reader?

3. Outline the Report

 Most reports have the following basic parts:
i. Introduction
ii. Summary
iii. Body
iv. Conclusion
v. Recommendation
vi. Appendix

INTRODUCTION

 The introduction contains the preface, objective and purpose of the report. It tells
the reader why the report is being written.

SUMMARY

 The summary (synopsis) sums up all the report in a few sentences for the reader.
 The summary tries to make the reader accept and understand the report.
 Some repots will place the summary at the end of the report. However, a brief
summary at the beginning gives an idea of what the report is about and the can
better understand the report.

BODY

9
  It is the main part of the report. It contains details, discussions, experiments and
procedures.
 The body provides the reader with the facts and detailed information that support your
conclusion. You must use facts to convince the reader that your conclusion is the right
one.

CONCLUSION

 Conclusion is results. They tell the reader what your decision is. The conclusion is
based only on the facts and information you have given in the body of the report.

RECOMMENDATION

 Recommendations are suggestions, comments or opinions. They tell the reader what
you think should be done. The recommendations are based on the conclusion.

APPENDIX

 Appendix contain table and illustrations. They include material that may help the
reader understand the report better, for example detailed statistics, maps, pictures etc.
 Formal reports usually contain the following format.

i. Terms of Reference: Terms of refence are what the writer was asked to do, the
scope of his investigation, who commissioned the report etc.
ii. Details of the investigation carried out.
iii. Conclusion drawn.
iv. Recommendations, giving reasons.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD REPORT

1. It should be given a suitable title.

10
 2. It should be addressed to definite reader or a body of readers.
3. Brief, clear and to the point.
4. Language should be simple and grammatically correct.
5. Contents should be laid out in a logical sequence, giving all required details.
6. All relevant tables, charts, graphs and diagrams should have proper title and
references.
7. Where possible source of statistical should be disclosed.
8. Recommendation made, if any, must be clearly marked and properly argued out.

FORMS

OFFICIAL FORMS

Definition:
1. A form is simply any document which has some pre – printed information or
questions on which space is provided to fill in. for example invoices’”, cash sales, job
application, leave form etc.
2. A form is a device which ensure that all the information required for a particular
purpose is provided and is presented in the way it can easily be used.

IMPORTANCE FORMS

1. It makes recording and presentation of data uniform.

2. It enables information to be easily recognized.
3. It forms the basic for reporting and directing services.

FILLING FORMS

 Filling in forms is a necessary skill in today’s world. Filling forms may be required
for instance: joining a new school, changing jobs, applying for employment,
admission I hospitals etc.

11
Example of a form

SURNAME OTHER NAMES

TITLE (Dr./Rev/Mrs./Miss)
NUMBER OF DEPENDANTS
NAMES

ADDRESS
EMAIL
TEL/MOBILE NO
ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS
INSTITUTION ATTENDED AND YEAR OF QUALIFICATION

I.D/PASSPORT NO
WORK EXPERIENCE

REFEREES AND ADDRESS

SIGNATURE DATE

12
QUALITIES OF A GOOD OFFICIAL FORM

1. Simplicity and clear instructions.

2. Good appearance, balanced layout of given instructions.
3. Proper heading, logical sequence in managing and seeking.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

1. Language Barrier: it is important for the recipient to understand the language being
used by the sender in order for communication to take place. Language could be a
barrier in case of use of foreign language, difference in dialects and difference in
regional accents.
2. Poor Listening: the effectiveness of communication will depend on the willingness
of the recipient to listen keenly. Listening requires careful attention and concentration.
3. Negative Attitude: attitude refers to the feeling of the communication parties
towards each other. It is important that they exist a mutual feeling of trust and respect
between the parties concerned in order to avoid bias.
4. Poor Timing: for communication to be effective, the message must be sent and
received at the appropriate time.
5. Wrong Medium: the means of communication used must be appropriate for the
information being conveyed. Otherwise a wrong choice of the medium will be a
barrier to effective communication.
6. Prejudgment: our understanding of message is often conditioned by our earlier
experiences and knowledge.
7. Emotional Response: emotional responses such as those resulting from anger or
excitement may lead to distortion of messages.

13
 8. Unclear Systems Within the Organization: if the channels of passing information
in an organization are not clear, then the message will not get to the right people for
whom the messages are intended.
9. Noise: noise refers to any disturbing sounds which may interfere with the
concentration or listening ability of the recipient of the message. The presence of
noise may make it impossible for any message to be received in the right way.
10. Unfamiliar Non – Verbal Signals: non - verbal signs may however be berries to
effective communication because they may be misinterpreted due to difference in
culture and age groups among others.

FAMILY LIFE

THE FAMILY
Definition:
1. A family is group of people living together, who are related to one another either by
blood or marriage.
2. It is a group of people who are linked by a bong or a force which unites its members
in a shared life and a common destiny.

CLASSIFICATION OF FAMILIES

1. Nuclear Family: a nuclear family is made up of the parents and children. It is a

family composed of a husband (father), wife (wife) and children only.
2. Extended family: an extended family is made up of the nucleus (father and mother)
and the relatives of the nucleus. It is composed of members from the same fore –
father and also includes the in – laws.

TYPES OF FAMILIES

1. Monogamous Family: this is where one man/woman marries one wife/husband

during the life of the spouse. This is the most common type of family in most cultures
and traditions.
2. Polygamous Family: this is a type of family where one man is married to more than
one woman simultaneously.
14
 3. Single Parent Family: single parent family is where by one parent is missing in a
permanent way.
 Separation of spouse may be caused by one of the following reasons.
i. Divorce in the legal way.
ii. One spouse abandoning the family.
iii. Death.

ROLE, RIGHT AND OBLIGATIONS OF FAMILY MEMBERS

 Each family member has a role to play and it corresponds to him/her by virtue of
his/her place in the family.

FATHER/HUSBAND

i. He is the head of the family. He has the right and duty to give the last word on family
matters after discussions with his wife.
ii. Provider of the family. He provides food, shelter and clothing for the family
(breadwinner).
iii. Installs discipline to the children.
iv. He gives security to the home.

MOTHER/WIFE

i. She is the head of the family in absence of the father.

ii. She cooks for the family.
iii. Takes care of the children and home.

CHILDREN

i. The children should respect their parents and other family members.
ii. Help in doing house hold work.
iii. Older children have the role of being models to their younger siblings.

15
MARRIAGE

 Marriage is a legal relationship which joins people of the opposite sex to stay/live
together as a husband and wife.

TYPES OF MARRIAGE

1. Religious Marriage.
2. Customary Marriage.
3. Civil Marriage.

REASONS FOR MARRIAGE

1. For procreation.
2. To have someone to help in case problems.
3. Naming of ancestors.
4. Have sex.
5. Helping in duties and responsibility.

IMPACT OF MODERNISATION ON THE FAMILY

Education

 Education is currently affecting the family through various ways. For examples
children are kept in boarding schools throughout the year expect during holidays.
Hence the responsibility of looking after the children is left to the teachers.

Culture

 Modern children tend to imitate the western culture. Example through dressing, using
of drugs etc. as a result they misbehave.

16
Religion

 Different religious sect or denomination have divided the family members and the
society at large.

Money

 Individual have left their homes and family members and gone to urban areas to seek
money for their daily use. Thereby, making them part with family members.

LEISURE AND CULTURE

LEISURE
Definition:
1. Tine at one’s own disposal.
2. Time that has not been allocated to any specific duty.
3. Time for relaxation.
 Leisure time is free time it should not be confused with idleness.

IMPORTANCE OF LEISURE

 It is relaxing.
 Restores strength.
 Compensate the effect caused by fatigue.
 Releases both physical and mental tension.

FORMS OF LEISURE

 There are different types of leisure activity. For example, painting, sewing, listening
to music, sports, reading etc.

17
ADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS FORM OF LEISURE

1. Leisure time is very important in that it release tension both physically and mentally.
2. Through leisure one develops socially – one spends time with people.
3. Educative – one is able to gain knowledge and information.
4. Leisure activities can be money generating. For example, sewing, painting, cooking
etc.
5. Leisure can sometimes be satisfying and rewarding – visiting the sick, voluntary
service that is helping young boys and girls in youth clubs.
6. Leisure can be a form of doing exercise – swimming, playing football, dancing etc.

DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS FORM OF LEISURE

 There are some forms of leisure which are not beneficial. They include:
1. Sitting around and doing nothing.
2. Loitering in the streets.
3. Playing money games.
4. Drug taking.
5. Immoral activities.
6. Sleeping too much.
 These form of leisure activities do not add value to your social mental wellbeing.

TYPE OF LEISURE

1. Passive Leisure: these are types of leisure activities whereby not much energy is
spent. For example, watching football.
2. Active leisure: these are types of leisure activities which involves somebody’s
participation. For example: playing football.

CULTURE

18
  A culture is a way of life of a group of people, their behaviours, beliefs, values and
symbols that they accept and that are passed along by communication and imitation
from one generation to the next.
 The culture of a people or society can include codes of manner, dress, language,
religion, rituals and norms of behaviour such as law and morality and systems to
belief as well as art.
 Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within the
society by altering how people socialize and promoting new culture models. These
social shifts may lead to changes in the way people think and other types of culture
changes.

ROLE OF MUSIC IN THE SOCIETY

 To entertain.
 For comfort.
 For advertisement
 Used as a prayer

TYPES OF SINGS

 Folk songs.
 Patriotic songs.
 Scared songs.

POPULATION

Definition:
 Human population refers to the number of people living in a given locality at given
time.

TERMS AND CONCEPTS

19
 1. Population Growth: population growth indicates the rate at which a given
population is decreasing or increasing. It is always measured in percentages.
 Population growth rate.

P2 – P3
P3 X 100 =Population growth rate

P1 = population at year start

P2 = Population at year end
P3 = population at mid – year

OR
Calculate using Crude Birth Rate minus Crude Death Rate.
Population growth rate = CBR – CDR
CBR = Crude Birth Rate
CDR = Crude Death Rate

2. Mortality rate
 Mortality rate refers to the number of deaths per a thousands (1000) of the population.
 It is a crude measure of the rate at which people are dying in a given geographical
area in a country.

Total Deaths X 1000 = Number of Deaths

Total population
 Infant Mortality Rate: it measures the death of infant that are one year and below.
 Children Mortality Rate: it measures the death of children between one year and
five (5) years old.

3. Fertility Rate
 It refers to the average number of births per women during her productive years.

FACTORS DETERMINING FERTILITY RATE

1. Age of marriage of girls in that community.

20
 2. The proportion of women married.
3. The length of birth intervals.
4. Effects sexually transmitted diseases.

4. LIFE EXPECTANCY
 Life expectancy is an indication of the number of years a expected to have.
 Mostly life expectancy depends on the general standard of living of a community.
 Examples: life expectancy in Kenya is 57 years while in Japan is 68 years.
5. Dependency Ratio
 Dependency ratio is used to show the degree of dependency. Usually; the young
and unemployed in the active population.

6. Population Distribution
 Population can be either is scattered, moderate or densely populated.

SOURCE OF POPULATION DATA

1. National census
2. Sample survey.
3. Government ministries and research institutions.

USE OF POPULATION DATA

1. Provide information to the government with regard to making policies.

2. Used for general development planning.

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO RAPID INCREASE IN POPULATION IN KENYA

1. High fertility rate.

2. Better health care.
3. Better education.
4. Improved living standard.
5. Rural to urban migration.
21
EFFECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH

1. Scarcity of Food: as the number of people increase, availability of food must

increase. The land to produce food usually remains the same thereby, causing land to
be used to produce extra food.
2. Straining of the social amenities: social amenities include schools, hospitals, water
and roads. As population increases these facilities also have to be increased. You find
the government revenue does not increase as fast the population as the social
amenities cost a lot of money causing a strain on them.
3. Unemployment: lack of new jobs for the increased population.
4. Congestion in Towns: as people move to the urban areas in search for work, they
seem to crowd the towns.
5. Desertification: as people increase, they need a place to stay and where to produce
food. So, these leads to cutting down of trees which lead to desertification.
6. Crime: crime as juvenile delinquency and prostitution uproot where it is over
populated.

POLLUTION AND OTHER HAZARDS

POLLUTION
Definition:
1. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes
instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the physical system or living organisms
they are in.
2. Pollution is the process of causing harm or destroying the environment.

TYPES OF POLLUTION

1. Air Pollution.
22
 2. Water Pollution.
3. Soil Pollution.
4. Noise Pollution.

AIR POLLUTION

 Air pollution is the h8uman introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals and
particulate matter that cause harm or discomfort to human or other organisms or
damage the environment.

Source of Air Pollution

 Auto mobile releasing carbon dioxide.

 Industries using fossil fuels.
 Factories emitting dust.

Effects

 Global warming.
 Respiratory disease
 Death

WATER POLLUTION

 Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as lakes, rivers, oceans
and ground water caused by human activities which can be harmful to organisms
and plants which live in this water bodies.

Source of Water Pollution

a. Discharges from a wastewater treatment plant.

b. Outfalls from a factory.
c. Leaking underground tanks.
23
 d. Dumping of radioactive nuclear waste.
e. Rubbish disposal.

Effects

a. Waterborne diseases.
b. Alteration of water physical chemistry. Example increasing acidity.
c. Deaths.

SOIL POLLUTION

 Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man – made chemicals or other

alteration in the natural soil environment.

Source of Soil Pollution

a. Rapture of underground storage tanks.

b. Application of pesticides.
c. Oil a fuel damping.
d. Direct discharge of industrial waste o the soil.

Effects

a. Causes soil to be in productive for agriculture use.

b. Health risks, both direct and secondary contamination of water supplies.
c. High cost. As mapping contaminated soil and clean up time consuming and
expensive.

NOISE POLLUTION

 Noise pollution is disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activities or
balance of human or animal life.

24
Source of Noise Pollution

a. Machines.
b. Transportation system.
c. Motor vehicles.
d. Air crafts.
e. Trains.

Effects

a. Disturbance.
b. Health risk – deafness or partial deafness.
c. Speech interference.
d. Sleep disruption.
e. Stress related illness.
f. Lost productivity

CONTROL MEASURES

1. Education: education programs carried out through radio, television etc. aimed at
teaching the general public on the proper collection and disposal of refuse.
2. Legislation: government imposing laws and regulation regarding to oil spillage,
disposal of nuclear radio – active material, release of smoke into the atmosphere and
noise made by airplanes should be adhered to.
3. Technology: use of new technology that is less pollutant, also waste materials can be
recycled for reuse.

OTHER HAZARDS AND THEIR EFFECTS

1. Desertification
 Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region
becomes increasingly arid, typically losing bodies of water, vegetation and
wildlife.
 In simple term: spread of desert effects.
25
CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION

1. Overgrazing.
2. Farming of average land taking away the richness in the soil.
3. Destruction of plants in dry regions which are used as fuel.
4. Poor irrigation method thus increasing salt in the soil content.

Effects

a. Soil becomes less useable.

b. Causes famine.
c. Food loss.

2. FLOODS
 A flood is overflow water that submerges land which is normally dry.

Causes of Floods

i. Heavy rainfall.
ii. Snowmelt.

Effects

a. Loss of life and property.

b. Destruction of crops.
c. Loss of livestock.
d. Waterborne diseases.

3. Drought
 Drought is the deficiency of water in the stream, groundwater, lakes and reserves.

26
Causes

a) Prolonged shortage of rain.

Effects

a. Lack of water which is essential in our everyday life.

b. Lack of food as water is needed to grow food.

4. De – forestation
 Deforestation means uncontrolled felling of trees for human activity.

Causes

i. demand for land cultivation.

ii. Need for fire wood.
iii. Need for land to build

Effects

a. Can cause drought.

b. Can lead to desertification.
c. Soil erosion.
d. Destruction of animal’s habitats.
e. Trees act as windbreakers.
f. Global warming.

5. Soil erosion
 Soil erosion is the eroding to top fertile soil which is used for plantation.

Causes

i. Rain.
27
 ii. Wind.
iii. Flooding.
iv. Overgrazing.
v. Soil exhaustion.
vi. Deforestation.

Effects

i. Nutrient – rich top soil is carried away.

ii. Scarce harvest and high food cost.

TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

i. Sheet erosion.
ii. Gulley erosion.
iii. Rill erosion.

6. Earthquake
 An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden
release of energy in the earth crust that creates seismic waves.

Causes

i. Underground movement of rocks on a fault plane.

ii. Volcanicity.

Effects

i. Fire.
ii. Loss of life.
iii. Tidal waves that cause tsunami.
iv. Flooding.
v. Destruction of poverty.

28
 7. Volcanicity
 Volcanicity is the process where magma flows into the earth’s crust or onto the
surface. (magma is molten rock)

Causes

i. Deep inside the earth, heat and pressure exerted by the crust rocks to melt forming
magma which is forced to rise on the earth surface.

Effects

i. Eruption leads to loss of life and property.

ii. Mountain formed by volcanic actives act as barriers of communication and
rainfall (rain shadow areas leeward side).

8. Lightning
 Lightning is a massive electrostatic discharge between electrically charged regions
within clouds or between clouds and earth’s surface.

Effects

i. Death.
ii. Shock wave of thunder which can damage ears.
iii. Causes fire houses or trees struct by lighting catch fire.

9. Epidemics.
 Epidemics refer to contagious diseases which spread very fast.

Effects

i. Disabilities.
ii. Deaths.

10. Overgrazing

29
  Overgrazing is keeping of livestock more than the land can sustain.

Effects

i. It can lead to other hazards, such as, desertification, drought, soil erosion etc.

11. Wind
 Moving air is called wind.
 Winds are commonly classified by their scale, speed, type of force causing them,
the region in which they occur and their effect. Long duration winds have various
names associated with their average strength such as breeze, storm, hurricane and
typhoon.

Causes

i. Wind is caused by difference in atmospheric pressure. Air moves from the higher
to the lower pressure areas resulting in wind in various speeds.

Effects

i. It has erosive power.

ii. Cause damage to property.
iii. Dispersal of speeds.

DRUG USE AND ABUSE

DRUGS
Definition:
 A drug is any substance, whether chemical, synthetic or natural which taken by a
person changes the functioning of his body.
 A drug may be injected into the body swallowed, inhale or applied externally as a
liquid, lotion, ointment or powder.

USES OF DRUGS

30
 1. To cure diseases.
2. To prevent diseases, to rehabilitate, restore and promote health.
3. They may be used as stimulants.
4. They may be used to alleviate pain and sedate.
5. Relieve discomfort and prolong life.
6. To entertain the user.

TYPES OF DRUGS

1. Curative Drugs
 These are drugs to cure diseases caused by diseases causing organisms. For
example:
i. Antibiotics. Example penicillin.
ii. Sulphur drugs.
iii. Antimalarial drugs.
iv. Anti – intestinal drugs.
v. Skin ointments.

2. Preventive Drugs
i. Vaccines: these are drugs to protect the body from various killer diseases.
Example of these disease include tuberculosis, poliomyelitis.
ii. Vitamins: there are usually chemicals prepared as drugs but we should get
vitamins from the food we eat. Examples of vitamins deficiency diseases are:
 Scurvy – lack of vitamin C
 Rickets- lack of vitamin D etc.
iii. Minerals: minerals are usually obtained from the food we eat. Sometimes
these lacks and chemicals prepared minerals are used as substitutes. Some of
the health problems caused by lack of minerals include:
 Weak bones – lack of iodine
 Anaemia – lack of iron etc.

3. Narcotics (sedatives and pain relievers)

31
  These drugs work on the user’s central nervous system. They induce sleep and
relieve pain. Example: Panadol, aspirin etc.

4. Stimulants
 They contain caffeine or amphetamine which stimulates the central nervous
system. Examples: tea, coffee etc.
 Stimulants are usually used in hospitals to patients who are sedated.

5. Palliative Drugs
 These are drugs used on patients suffering from chronic conditions. Examples:
diabetes, asthma, hypertension, cancer etc.
 These drugs are not used to cure diseases but are used to prolong life, ease
discomfort and reduce symptoms.

6. Entertainment Drugs
a. Alcohol: alcohol is classified as a depressant. It inhibits the normal functioning of
the central nervous system and intoxicate the user.
b. Tobacco, Bhang and Miraa: these are usually made from plants. They are
smoked, chewed or sniffed.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF DRUGS

1. Tolerance: when the body develops tolerance to the drug, the normal dosage no
longer works and the dosage had to be increased for the effect to be increased.
2. Dependence: a patient becomes so dependent on the drug that he cannot do without
it. Without the drug it causes dis comfort. Here the patient has become a drug addict.
The discomfort caused by lack of drugs is called ‘withdrawal syndrome’.
3. Psychological Dependence: a drug user receives satisfaction from the initial usage
of a drug will continuous to do so for a feeling of wellbeing. Removal of the drugs or
substance may cause psychological withdrawal symptoms although physical
withdrawal is absent.

DRUG ABUSE

32
  A drug is abused when it is used for any purpose other than for which it is intended.
 Both legal and illegal drugs are abused if:
a. Used fir the wrong health problem.
b. An overdose of the right drug used.
c. Inadequate dose of the right drug used.
d. Entertainment substance such as alcohol, tobacco etc. are excessively used.
e. Habit forming drugs are used for too long.
f. Addiction causing drugs are used repeatedly.

DRUGS COMMONLY ABUSED

1. OPIUM: this is depressant that works on the user’s central nervous system. When
used over a prolonged period it causes addiction. Withdraw symptoms include
diarrhoea, nausea, chills, fever, muscle cramps, severe weight loss, running nose and
water eyes.
2. BARBITURATES: These are depressants of the central nervous system. Prolonged
usage may lead to tolerance to the drug. Sudden withdrawal from the drug may lead to
death.
3. TRANQUILIZERS: this fall under sedative category this functions by reducing
muscle co – ordination and mental alertness.
4. AMPHETAMINES: these categories of drugs stimulate the central nervous system.
Beverages containing small doses of caffeine include tea, coffee and coca – cola.
5. COCAINE: cocaine is normally used by surgeons as a local anaesthetic. Continued
usage may lead to tolerance and addiction. Cocaine can lead to toxic effects such as
confusion, vomiting and circulatory collapse.
6. BHANG(MARIJUANA): it is an illegal drug in Kenya. It gives the user a pleasant
relaxed and mild euphoria feeling as well as changed perception of space time and
reality.
7. ALCOHOL (BEER, WINES AND SPIRITS): alcohol addiction is described as
alcoholism. An alcoholic cannot do without alcohol and these adversely affect his
physical, social, emotional and economic wellbeing. After a night of drinking a user
suffers from depression usually known as a hangover. Prolonged usage of.alcohol
damages the liver and the mucous lining of the stomach giving rise to stomach ulcers.
It also damages brain cells.
33
 8. Tobacco: tobacco contains nicotine which causes addiction to the user. Smoke from
cigarettes damage the lungs of the smoker and the people who constantly share the
smoke from him. Tobacco used in the mouth destroys teeth and the gums.

CAUSES OF DRUG ABUSE

1. Peer Group Pressure: when everybody else around you is drinking, smoking or
using drugs you and to follow them in order to conform.
2. Home – Life: domestic problems may drive people to drugs and alcohol abuse.
When one is seeking company or even comfort or when children miss parental love
and guidance or moral support, they tend to follow them.
3. School: some students get more pocket money from their parents or other sources.
Since they do not know how to use money sensibly, they may begin to using the
money on drugs and alcohol.
4. Lack of Employment: school dropout and school leavers may turn to drugs when
they miss jobs due to frustrations.
5. Pressure of Work: some people turn to drugs and alcohol because of pressure of
work and demanding responsibilities.

HOW TO CORRECT DRUG ABUSE

1. Educate people on the proper use of drugs. In these way people are able to understand
and appreciate the danger of drug abuse.
2. Laws governing the distribution and proper use of drugs should be adhered to. To
ensure that drugs do not get into the wrong hands.
3. Patients using drugs should carefully follow the instructions provided to them, in
order to avoid the following:
i. Overdose.
ii. Inadequate dosage.
iii. Using drugs for a shorter period or longer period than time prescribed.
iv. To avoid suffering from side effect.

4. Keep drugs out of reach of young children as it may lead to complication or even
death.
34
 5. Proper storage of drugs is important. Also knowing when the date the drug will
expire, in order to make sure that it is useful to the patient using it.

GOVERNMENT OF KENYA

 In Kenya there are three branches or arms of government and each branch has
separate powers. They include:

a. The Legislature.
b. The Executive.
c. The Judiciary.

THE LEGISLATURE

 It is also known as the Parliament or National Assembly.

 The national assembly consist of:
 290 members elected from each constituency by voters in the constituency.
 47 women elected from each county by voters in the county.
 12 members nominated by parliamentary political parties according to their
proportion of members of the national assembly to represent special interest.
 Parliament is made of:
 The National Assembly
 The Senate.

THE SENATE

Role of the Senate

1. Represent the countries and to protect the interest of the counties and their
government.
2. Make laws concerning counties.
3. Determine the allocation of national revenue among counties.

35
 4. Exercise oversight over national revenue allocated to county government.
5. Exercise oversight over state officers by determining whether or not to remove the
president or deputy president from office.

Membership of the Senate

 47 members elected from each county by voters in the county.

 16 women nominated by political parties according to their proportion of the 47
elected members of the senate.
 A man and woman representing the youth.
 A man and representing persons with disability.
 The speaker who shall be an ex – official members.

Qualification for election as a member of parliament (MPs AND Senators)

 Ba person must be:

1. A registered voter.
2. Possess post – secondary school qualification.
3. Satisfying educational, moral and ethical requirement set by the constitution and
relevant act of parliament.
4. Be nominated by a political party or be an independent candidate.

Qualification for election as a member of parliament for independent candidates

 An independent candidate for election of the National Assembly must be supported by

at least 1000 registered voters in the constituency.
 An independent candidate for the election of the senate must be supported by at least
2000 registered voters on the county.

Role of the National Assembly

 The National Assembly role is to:

1. Represent citizens and the interests of constituencies.

36
 2. Deliberate on and resolve issues of concern to the people.
3. Make laws.
4. Determine the allocation of national revenue between the central and county
government.
5. Determine the allocation of funds for expenditure by the national government and
other state organs.
6. Exercise oversight of the national revenue and expenditure.
7. Review the conduct of the president, deputy president and other state officers and
to initiate the process of removing them from the office.
8. Exercise oversight of state organs.
9. Approve declaration of war and extension of state of emergency.

Disqualification for Election as a Member of Parliament

 A person is not qualified for nominations as Member of Parliament candidate if

he/she:
1. Is a state or public officer.
2. He worked with the independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission in the last
five years before the date of election.
3. Has not been a citizen of Kenya for the last ten (10) years before the date of
election.
4. Is a member of the county assembly.
5. Is of unsound mind.
6. Has been sentenced to at least six months as to the date of registration as a
candidate or at the date of election.
7. Has been declared bankrupt.
8. If found to have misused or abused a state or public office.

ELECTIONS

 There are two types of election. This are:

i. General Election.
ii. By – Election.

37
GENERAL ELECTION

 General elections are held:

1. After five years.
2. When the president dissolves parliament.
3. If the government becomes unpopular to the national assemblies and pass a
motion of no confidence.

By – Election

 A by – election is held when:

1. Death of the current Member of Parliament.
2. The member ceases to be a Kenyan citizen.
3. When the member receives a jail sentence exceeding 12 months or death penalty
from a court of law.
4. When the member resigns from the party or parliament.
5. When the member is proven to have committed an election offence.
6. If the member fails to attended eight (8) consecutive parliamentary sessions
without a valid reason.
7. If a member is declared bankrupt by a court of law.

VOTERS

 To be a voter in Kenya one must be:

1. A Kenyan citizen.
2. Eighteen (18) years and above.
3. One must not have been sentenced to death or serving a prison sentence of more
than 12 months.
4. Must be sane.
5. Must not have been disqualified from voting from parliament.

INDEPENDENT ELECTORAL AND BOUNDARIES COMMISSION (IEBC)

38
  The IEBC is responsible for conducting or supervising referenda and elections to any
elective body or office established by the constitution and any other election
prescribed by the Act of Parliament.

Mandate of the IEBC

1. The continuous registration of voters and revision of the voter’s roll.

2. The delimitation of constituencies and wards.
3. The regulation of political party process.
4. The settlement of electoral disputes.
5. The registration of candidates for election.
6. The regulation of money spent by a candidate or party in respect of any election. The
development of a code of conduct for candidates and parties.
7. The monitoring of compliance with legislation on nomination of candidate by parties.

THE EXECUTIVE

 The branch deals with the central government. It is made up of:

 The President
 The Deputy President
 The Cabinet
 The Civil Service

THE PRESIDENT

Power of the President

1. To maintain peace and security in the country.

2. Commander – in -chief of the armed force.
3. Power to dissolve parliament and call for a general election.
4. Power to close parliament for a while.
5. Power to fire ministers, assistant ministers and top civil service officers.
6. He can allow ministers to leave the country on official or non – official matters.

39
 7. He can pardon a person’s offence also reduce the sentence.

FUNCTION OF THE PRESIDENT

The President:

1. Is the Head of State and government.

2. Is the chairperson of the National Security Council.
3. Is the symbol of national unity.
4. Nominates, appoints and may dismiss senior state and public officers including
cabinet secretaries, the attorney general, the secretary to the cabinate, principal
secretaries, high commissioners and ambassadors.
5. Is the chair of the cabinet meetings.
6. Declares a state of emergency.

THE CABINET

 The cabinet consist of the:

 The President
 The Vice President
 The Ministers
 The Attorney General

Function of the Cabinet

1. Assist and advice the president in the day to day running of the government.
2. Discuss matters of national and international importance.
3. Charts out and law down guidelines on Kenya’s domestic and foreign policies.
4. Members act a chief spokesman on matters affecting ministries.

40
THE JUDICIARY

 The Judiciary is the other branch of government which co – ordinates the

administration of justice through a system of courts in accordance with the law.
 The judiciary deals with all court cases – criminal and civil. It also interprets the
constitution.
 All courts are under the chief justice who is appointed by the president.

The system of Courts

 The system of courts is arranged in a descending order, from higher to lower courts.
Every courts have its power clearly stated out, designating the type of cases each can
handle and the maximum punishment, sentence or fines it is allowed to mete out.
 The following are the courts of Kenya:

1. District Magistrate Court.

2. Resident Magistrate Court.
3. The Chief Magistrate Courts.
4. The High Court.
5. The Court of Appeal.
6. Special Courts and Tribunals.
7. Supreme Court.
8. The Kadhi’s Court.

The District Magistrate Court (D.M)

 These are the lowest courts in the Kenya’s court structure. The cases they hear are
restricted to the borders within the districts n which they are situated.
 They have original jurisdiction in civil, criminal and customary cases. The D.M.
courts are divided into three. Namely:
i. First Class District Magistrate
ii. Second Class District Magistrate
iii. Third Class District Magistrate

41
The Resident Magistrate’s Court (R.M)

 These are the second lowest courts in Kenya’s court system. Their jurisdiction
extends to cover the whole province. They can hear cases of original jurisdiction in
both civil and criminal nature from within the province.
 The district magistrate courts can be appealed to the resident magistrate courts.

The Chief Magistrate Court (C.M)

 It is the highest magistrate court in Kenya. Its administrative head is the chief
magistrate who has the power over all the lower or subordinate courts.

The High Courts

 The high court is above all the courts that have been discussed. It has unrestricted
jurisdiction both in civil and criminal cases.
 Its administrative head is the registrar of the high court but in terms of work.
 The high court can also act as an appellate court and can hear petitions arising out of
parliament election. It is also the constitutional court. In the respect it interprets the
constitution and the relevant law to determine whether the issue is dispute is
constitutional or not.

The Court of Appeal

 The court of appeal is endowed with appellate jurisdiction only. It can hear or listen to
all appeals from any court in the country.

Special courts and Tribunals (S.C.T)

 These courts and tribunals are under certain ministries which have formed them.
These courts restrict themselves to cases related to only specific fields. For example:
the industrial court, the rent and business tribunal etc.

42
  The role of the industrial court, for example, is to arbitrate in disputes involving
employers and employees who are registered as members of workers union and trade
union.

Kadhi’s court
 Its sis the same rank with the district magistrate courts. The kadhi’s court is headed by
the chief kadhi.
 It was established specially to arbitrate in case of marriages, divorce, inheritance and
other personal law in which all the parties to the dispute are Muslims.

COUNTY GOVERNMENT

 This is a government formed in each county and based in the respective county to
administer and manage the affairs of the county.

Membership of The County Government

 A county government consist of:

i. County Assembly
ii. County Executive

County Assembly

 A county assembly consist of:

1. A ward representative.
2. Special seats members to ensure there is no more than two – third 2/3
representative of one gender drawn from the party list submitted by political
parties represented county assembly.
3. Members of marginalized groups including persons with disabilities and the youth
to be determined by parliament drawn from a party list submitted by political
parties represented in the county assembly.
4. The speaker who is the ex – officio member.

43
Membership of The County Executive Committee

 The county executive has the authority to exercise executive authority in the county
government.
 It consists of:
1. The county governor and the deputy county governor.
2. Members appointed by the county governor with approval of the county assembly
who are not members of the assembly.

Functions of The County Executive Committee

 A county executive committee shall:

1. Implement county legislation.
2. Implement national legislation within the county.
3. Manage and coordinate the functions of the county administration and its
departments.
4. Prepare proposed legislation for consideration by the assembly.
5. Prove county assembly with regular reports on matters relating to the county.

Disqualification from Being Elected A Member Of A County Assembly

 A person is disqualified from being elected a member of a county assembly if the

person:
1. Is a state officer or other public officer.
2. Has at any time within five years immediately before the date of election held
office as a member of the independent electro and boundaries commission.
3. Has not been a citizen of Kenya for at least ten years immediately before the date
of elections.
4. Is of unsound mind.
5. Is bankrupt.
6. Is serving a sentence of imprisonment for at least six months or.
7. Has been found in accordance with any court to have misused or abused a state
office or public office.
44
County Governor and Deputy Governor

 The county governor is directly elected by the voters registered in every county.

Role of The Governor

1. Head of the county executive.

2. In charge of all service.
3. Appoints the county executive committees with the approval of the county assembly.
4. Appoints town committee and municipal boards and municipalities within the county
area.

Election of A Governor and The Deputy Governor

1. A governor shall be elected directly by registered voters in the county.

2. To qualify to be elected as governor, a person must be eligible to be elected as a
member of the county assembly.
3. The candidate with the simple majority votes cast shall be declared the governor.
4. Each candidate is required to nominate before the election a person who will become
the deputy governor if he/she wins.

Qualifications for Election of A County Governor

 A person must:
1. Be eligible for election as a member of the county assembly.
2. Be a holder of a degree from a recognized university.

Circumstances Under Which A Governor Will Be Removed from Office

45
  A county governor may be removed from office an any of the following grounds:
1. Gross violation of the constitution or any other law.
2. Committing a crime under the national and international law.
3. Abuse of office or gross misconduct.
4. Physical or mental incapacity to perform the function of office of county
governor.

LOCATION OF A BUSINESS

Factors Influencing Location of a Business

1. Availability of raw materials: This is perhaps one of the most important factors
from a factory’s point of view. Having raw materials close at hand means the supply
is assured there are lower transport costs and the materials are received in a fresh
state.
2. Availability of power and water: most businesses need a large amount of electricity
and water for their operations.
3. Availability of labour: industries are situated where cheap labour is available.
Usually factories are located in major towns because of availability of all types of
labour.
4. Availability of transport routes: good transport links are essential. Good railway or
road links to seaport and airports are important for industries to get their products to
the customers as well as getting raw materials for production.
5. Nearness to the market: a business should be as close to its potential customers as
possible.
6. Government policies: in Kenya, government offers various incentives including
lower taxes to companies located in rural areas. They benefit a factory against other
constraints that might work – out to be more attractive.
7. Availability of ancillary services: ancillary service includes health service for
workers, banks, post offices, bus routes, phones, petrol stations etc. if the service are
close – by it means the operations of business much easier.
8. Social consideration: noisy businesses should preferably not be located near
residential areas. Factories emitting dangerous chemicals should be far away from
46
 towns and forests. Social consideration should also be kept in mind when choosing a
site for a factory or other businesses.

SAVIBG, BORROWING AND INVESTING METHODES

SAVING

 Saving means a portion of income not spent on consumption of goods but

accumulated or invested directly or putting money aside for future use. It also refers
to economizing or cutting costs.

Methods of savings

1. Savings Accounts: A normal saving accounts is appropriate for short term savings
(small savers). Characteristics of savings:
 The balance on the account above a certain minimum earns interest.
 Funds are not withdrawn by use of cheques.
 Overdrafts are not usually allowed.
 One is required to maintain a certain amount in the account.
 Withdrawals exceeding a certain maximum amount might required a notice to be
given by the customer of the intended withdrawal.
 Withdrawals can only be made by the account holder themselves.

2. Making a budget and avoid impulse buying: having a plan, a good one, on
whatever one needs is vital. Many things that one buys do not seem to be necessary,
so with a plan one is able to purchase what is needed.
3. Price check: this involves buying goods at a cheaper price. That is, before buying
something expensive, do research on the various price offered by different sellers.
4. Changing your spending habits.
5. Clear all your debts.
6. Use your talent to earn extra money.

Borrowing

47
  Borrowing means to receive (something) from somebody temporarily, expecting to
return it.

Sources of borrowing money

1. Commercial Banks
2. Non – banking institution. Example: SACCOS, housing finance companies,
development finance institutions.
3. Friends and family.

Investing methods

 Investing is putting money into an asset with the expectation of capital appreciation,
dividends or interest.
 The purpose of investing is to generate income. One must choose carefully so as to
conduct the best profitable investment.

Costing

 Costing is the act of organizing a business according to its own requirement.

Importance

1. Set the price or give estimates and determine whether one is making profits.
2. Find out which items are most costly in the running of your business and if it is
possible to reduce the costs.
3. See what is the effects on your costs of improvement you are planning and if your
business can be efficient.

48
 4. Compare products and their related cost and determine which ones to produce and
which ones not to, if they cannot bring any profit.

Types of costs

1. Direct costs: these are the items that become part of the products or service you
produce. These include: materials and labour.
a. Material costs: these include all the components found in the final product.
Example: the wood, screw, glue and other articles used in the manufacture of a
chair are direct materials.
b. Labour cost: this include wages and benefits such as transport, national social
security fund, national insurance fund, pension, housing paid to the workers for
the time they spend making the product.

2. Indirect costs: these are the costs of all the items needed to run a business. They
include:
a. Use of working space, machines and equipment and heir maintenance, repair and
replacement, transportation costs etc.
b. Electricity, water etc.
c. Salaries paid to workers who are not directly involved in making the product,
including the owner’s own salary (if not included in the labour cost)
d. Office costs – stationary, postage and telephone.
e. Selling costs – interest on your loan.
f. Costs of licenses, fees for other services, membership in trade associations.

How to calculate the costs

 Computing direst costs is fairy straight forward. You need to keep a list of all the
material you have used and multiply with the unit prices.
 Examples: making a chair.

Direct costs

49
 A. Materials Ksh. Ksh.
5 meters of timber @10 = 50
2 meters of fabric @60 = 120
10 screws @5 = 50
0.5 litters furnish @70 = 70

B. Labour
6 hours of an artisan @100pd = 75
0.5 hours of manager @160pd = 10

Total direct cost 375

Pd = per day
Working hours per day = 8hours

Indirect costs

 Computing indirect costs is usually the hardest part of costing, yet very important.
Many small business owners do not realize they are running at loss until it is too late.
 For example: the carpenter above could have decided that – well it cost me Ksh 375
to make a chair. In which case he/she decide to sell for Ksh450 thinking he/she made
a profit of Ksh75.
 Let us look at his/her indirect cost:
 Paying for the workshop space.
 Tools which are wearing out (need to be replaced).
 Electricity.
 License to operate, transport etc.
 These indirect costs could be as much as Ksh100 for the above chair.
 Assuming the indirect costs is Ksh100. The actual cost of the chair is:

375+100=475
 By selling the chair for Ksh450, the carpenter made a loss of Ksh 25 in real terms.

50
Pricing

 The major goal of a business is to make profits. Many small businesses fail because
they do not know how to price their products or service effectively.
 Pricing is a critical element in achieving a profit and is a factor that all businesses can
control in one way or another.
 It requires understanding of your products market, distribution cost and competition.
A simple formula for what a price is:

Price of inputs + other costs + profit percentage = selling price

Pricing principles

 Since pricing is an important element in running a business, let us look at three

pricing principles you need to be aware of:
i. All costs must be covered.
ii. Price affect your image and that of your business.
iii. Price affect sales volume.

All costs must be covered

 No businessman wants to stay in business unless money received covers costs and
profits.
 Your price, therefore, must reflect all the cost of goods or services and some profit.

Price affects image

 Price charged usually results in a certain price image for the enterprise. Some firms
try to give the image quality products or services at low or discount prices.
 This practice is successful in some instances and unsuccessful in others.

Price affects sales volume

51
  In many cases as price increases, the number of sales of the product or service sold
decreases.
 On the other hand, as prices decreases the number or amount sold increases. As a
result, you are faced with the following three options:
i. Should you charge high price? The number of sales would be greater on each
item.
ii. Should you charge lower prices and try to obtain more sales.
iii. Should you set prices somewhere between low and high figures.

Public relations

 Is the process of passing information with a view of creating, promoting and

maintaining good will and a favourable image of the organization to the public. Public
relation is also concerned with the affiliation of the management with its various
sections (departments) and with the outside world.
 Public relations involve activities such as:
i. Inform the public about the firm’s achievements and concerns.
ii. Contributing to community welfare in areas such as helping the physically
challenged, giving bursaries and supporting sporting activities.

Advantages of public relations

1. May correct the dented (bad) image of the firm.

2. Inform the public about the activities of the firm.
3. Assists in upholding the good image of the firm.
4. Improves the relationship between the firm and its customers.

Disadvantages of public relations

1. It is costly in terms of the time and finance involved.

2. It is difficult to evaluate the impact of the messages since customers are not obliged to
respond to it.

52
 3. The customer may make premature buying arising from the picture of the firm created
by the public relations officer.
4. Effects may take long before there are actually realized.

Duties of public relation officer

1. To protect the companies good name.

2. Explaining the organization’s policies and actions.
3. To enhance the company’s image by acting as a link between his organization and
other activities unconnected with the business. Example: sports.
4. Illustrating various aspects of the firm’s business and its concern with the
environment.

Contracts

 Is a mutual agreement made between two or more persons they are valid and
enforceable by law.
 A contract does not have to be written to be legal. Oral contracts can be enforced if
the terms can be established in the court of law. However, oral contracts present
problems. It is very difficult to establish what has been upon with an oral contract.
Each person is replying on personal memory and bias.

Conditions that call for a written contract

 When money is involved, it is typical to put contract into writing. In addition, the
following conditions call for a written contract.
i. Any contract for sale of land or on interest of land.
ii. Any contract that will not be performed within one year.
iii. A promise by one person to pay debt of another.
iv. Any contract that involves the purchase of real property.

Essential features of a contract

 The five essential components of a contract are:

53
 i. Agreement.
ii. Consideration.
iii. Contractual capacity.
iv. Legality.
v. Consent.

Agreement

 The first and important element of the contract is agreement. For an agreement to
exist there must be a reasonably definite understanding between the parties.
 Agreement occurs under the following conditions:

i. An offer is made. An offer is a proposal that expirees a desire to enter into

legally binding agreement.
ii. The offer is followed by acceptance occurs when the party to whom an offer
has been made agrees to the proposal.
iii. The offer and the acceptance create a reasonable definite understanding
between the parties who are involved in the contract.

 Some of the most important ingredients for agreement are intend to contract,
reasonable definiteness and communication

Consideration

 A second requirement for a legal contract is consideration by the offeree.

Consideration is the payment exchanged for the promises contained in a contract. It
can be best being viewed as something of value such as the payment or cost of the
promises of performance agreed to in a contract.

Contractual capacity

54
  Another requirement of a legal contract is that of contractual capacity.
All parties to the contract must be able to make legally binding agreements.
Individuals who have capacity to contract are known as competent parties.

Legality

 For a contract to be valid, it must be legal. An illegal contract is null and void. It can
be enforced by the court of law.

Consent

 Consent occurs when neither party is threatened or unduly influenced into a contract.

55